Forging Process

Forging Process

Objectives:

What is Forging?
How are they classified?
What are the types of forging?
What are the types of defects?
What equipment is used?
Forging Process - Concept

The term forging is used to designate the

family of technological processes of
plastic deformation in the mass to which the
change of shape is carried out through
compressive forces exerted by the
tools (molds).
Main Forging Processes
Forging Process - Classification

Forging can be classified:

1. By working temperature;

2. By the type of matrix used.

 Forging Process - Classification by
temperature
The forging processes are differentiated into
melting temperature function (Tf):

Cold Forging ≤ 0.3T

Warm Forging 0.3T -0.5T

Hot Forging 0.5T 0.75T

-
 Forging Process - Classification by
matrices

Open Matrix Recalculation

Stretching

With burr formation

Closed Matrix
Without burr formation
Open Die Forging Process
Recalque - Height of the slug
According to experience, the setback is only
possible in parts whose height does not exceed 3.5 times the
its diameter. For thinner pieces, there is the
buckling danger.
 Open Die Forging Process
Frictionless recoil
If the forging were carried out in the absence of friction
between the metal and the matrices (ideal condition), the flow
the radial of the metal would be uniform along its
height.
Upper Matrix

Dowel

Lower Matrix
 Forging-Stamping Process with
friction

The forces of friction act contrary to the

plastic flow on the surfaces of
matrices, creating the barrel distortion effect
(bulging).

When the process is carried out with the metal

heated and the cold matrices, this effect can
be even more pronounced.
 Open Die Forging Process
Rebound – Friction and Barrel Rolling

Upper Matrix
Friction Force

Block

Matrix
Inferior
Forging Process
Imprint with friction

Body of
Test: Start

Body of
Test: Final
 Open Die Forging Process - Upsetting -
Cold and Hot Comparison
Comparison between cold and hot recalibration:
1- Cold recalibration force > hot
2- Barrel deformation in cold re-calibration < hot
Força (KLbs) vs. Curso (in) para várias temperaturas
45

40
Cold
35

30

25

20 T=20 C
T=600 C
15

10
Hot 5

0
0 0,1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Course (in)
Open Die Forging Process
Reinforcement–Maximum Force Moment
Forging-Calibration Process with
friction–Dead Zone
Forging Process - Mechanical Properties

Cast Material

There is no fibrillation formation

Machined Material

Cutting tool

Forged Material

There is an orientation in the fibering

Forging Process - Mechanical Properties
 Forging Process–Mechanical Properties

Machined Material

Forged Material
Forging Process - Mechanical Properties

Forged Material Forged Material Material

it is cold the Hot Usinado

Maximum Resistance High Resistance Low Resistance

 Forging-Stamping Process
Increase in Temperature During Deformation

95% of the energy stored by the material is

converted in your heating. 5% generation
the displacements.

∆ =

çã ,
ã é ,
çã á ,

( í )
 Forging-Deep Drawing Process
Increase in Temperature During Deformation
Hwa = 1 çã ,
= 800 MPa ã é ,
f = 1.0 çã á ,
ρ = 7.87 x 10 3 3

C = 0.46 x 10 3 °

Very 1.0x 800 x 106 x1,0

∆ == 3 3
= 221℃
Rho C 7.87x 10 x 0.46 x 10
 Forging-Reforming Process
Increase in Temperature During Deformation

Flow lines and microstructure in the head of

a cold forged screw (steel 8640). The
white lines indicate the formation of
martensite.
 Forging-Extrusion Process
Increase in Temperature During Deformation
Simulation - Simufact
 Forging-Pressing Process
Material flow curve

Cold Process = .

Process to Morno = .

Hot Process = .
 Forging Process - Force of
Cold and frictionless recalculation
In this case, the true deformation
experienced by the metal during the process
can be determined by:
h0
ln
h
The force necessary to perform the forging in
open matrix:
F A

where F is the force (N); A is the cross-sectional area

from the piece (mm2); e it is the flow tension (MPa).
 Forging Process - Force of
Hot frictionless recalculation
In this case, the strain rate experienced
the metal during the process can be
determined by:
1 dH .
= =− =
The force required to perform the forging in
open matrix:
F .A

where F is the force (N); A is the cross-sectional area

of the piece (mm2); e it is the flow tension (MPa).
 Forging Process - Force of
Frictionless and hot recalibration
For an average strain rate
experienced by the metal during the process
can be determined by:
ℎ
== = =
− ℎ V 2 2H − ℎ 2 H − ℎ

The force required to carry out the forging in

open matrix:
F .A

where F is the force (N); A is the cross-sectional area

of the piece (mm2); e it is the flow tension (MPa).
 Forging-Pressing Process with
friction

All these factors make the strength in forging

real greater than the ideal forging.

To determine the forging force, with a

good approach, we introduced a coefficient of
shapeKf. F Kf. .A
0.4 D
Where Kf 1 μ is the coefficient of friction; D is
h
the diameter or another dimension of the part that
represent the contact length with the
matrix surface (mm); h is the instantaneous height
of the piece (mm).
 Forging-Pressing Process
Coefficient of friction

Cold Forging m = 0,1

≤ 0.3T

Warm Forging m = 0,2

0.3T -0.5T

Hot Forging m = 0.4-0.5

0.5T -0.75T
Forging Process–Calculation of Force
from Cold Recalculation and with Friction
A cylindrical piece is subjected to an operation of
hot stamping. The piece has equal initial dimensions.
75 mm and 50 mm in height and diameter,
respectively. It is reduced in this operation to the
height of 36 mm. Determine the rebound force at
cold. Coefficient of friction equal to 0.1. Temperature 20°
C.
Cold equations:
σ = 350. 0,17
F Kf. .A
ℎ 0.4 D
= Kf 1
ℎ h
 Forging Process - Force Calculation
From Cold Recalibration and with Friction
1) Determine the true strain
ℎ 75
= = = 0.733
ℎ 36
2) Determine the tension (Flow curve)
σ = 350. 0,17= 350.0,7330,17332 MPa
3) Determine the diameter of the bar at a height of 36 mm
Initial volume = 2 .ℎ = 502.75=147.262 mm3
4 4
Constancy of Volume (Initial Volume = Final Volume)

4. Volume
= → 72.20 mm
.ℎ
 Forging Process - Force Calculation
from cold and friction recalibration
4) Determine the cross-sectional area at a height of 36 mm
72.20 mm Á = 4.094 mm2

5) Determine the form factor Kf

0,4. .
=1+ 1,080
ℎ

6) Determine the cold rebounding force

F Kf. .A

F = 1,080.332. 4.094 =1,468,000 N

F = 149 Ton
Forging Process – Force Calculation
Hot recalibration with friction
A cylindrical part is subjected to an operation of
hot stamping. The part has initial dimensions equal
35 mm and 25 mm in height and diameter,
respectively. It is reduced in this operation to the
height of 8.75 mm. Determine the rebound force
the hot. Friction coefficient equal to 0.45. Speed
10 mm/s.

Hot equations:
0,082
F Kf. .A
σ = 244.
0.4 D
Kf 1
= h
ℎ .
 Forging Process - Force Calculation
Hot recalibration and with friction
1) Determine the strain rate
v 10
== = 1,143
ℎ 8.75

2) Determine the tension (Flow curve)

σ = 244. 0,082= 244. 1,1430,082249.60 MPa
3) Determine the diameter of the blank at a height of 8.75 mm
Initial volume = 2 .ℎ = 252.35 = 17.180 mm3
4 4
Constancy of Volume (Initial Volume = Final Volume)

4. Volume
= → 49.9 mm
.ℎ
 Forging Process - Force Calculation
Hot and frictional recalibration
4) Determine the cross-sectional area at a height of 8.75 mm
49.9 mm Á 1.963 mm2

5) Determine the form factor Kf

0,4. .
=1+ = 2,026
ℎ

6) Determine the hot upsetting force

F Kf. .A

= 2,026. 249.60 1.963 = 992.668 N

Forging Process - Formak Factorf

1) Circular Section - Cylindrical Rod

DfFinal diameter
0,4. .
=1+
ℎ hfFinal height

2) Square Section – Prismatic Bar

bfFinal edge
0,5. .
=1+
ℎ hf Final height
Forging Process
Stretching
Forging-Extending Process

In contrast to repression, in stretching only

a part of the surface of the piece is covered.
The stretching consists, in effect, in a
sequence of setbacks of adjacent portions of the
haste, perpendicular to the direction of elongation,
that is, reduce the cross-section and increase its
length.
The simplest operation of a stretch is the
roughing of a billet using flat matrices, for
reduce the cross-sectional area, usually without
big changes in your shape.
Forging-Stretching Process
Forging-Stretching Process
Forging-Stretching Process
Forging-Stretching Process

Stretching How does stretching affect the crystalline structure?

Plastic Deformation
(Stretching of the grains)
Coarse grains
(initial) Recrystallization
(Equiaxed grains)

Growth
of grains
 Forging-Stretching Process
Widening in open (free) forging
= . .
Contact area
average flow voltage during the process
A = b.w is the instantaneous contact area
w–Instantaneous width as a function of
enlargement
ℎ
Lower matrix C=0.8 + 0.2()1

The instantaneous area depends, as seen, on the instantaneous width, which in turn depends on the
widening (N), defined as
ln( ) 1
=
ℎ
ln( ℎ1)
The widening (S) can be calculated a priori from empirical expressions in
function of the matrix:

=
1+
 Forging-Stretching Process
Widening in open (free) forging
= . .
Contact area
average flow voltage during the process
A = b.w is the instantaneous contact area
w–Instantaneous width as a function of
widening
ℎ
Lower matrix C=0.8 + 0.2( )1

The elongation during the shaping can be estimated by calculating a coefficient of

stretching (1-S) defined by:
ln(1 )
1-S= =
çã ℎ
ln( ℎ1)

If the widening (S) = 1 → all the deformation turns into widening.

If the widening (S) = 0→ all the deformation transforms into elongation.
 Forging-Stretching Process
Widening in open (free) forging
= . .
Contact area
average flow voltage during the process
A = b.w is the instantaneous contact area
w–Instantaneous width as a function of
enlargement
ℎ
Lower matrix C=0.8 + 0.2( )1

General law of enlargement:

1 1
=
0 ℎ1
ℎ0

If the enlargement (S) = 1 → all the deformation becomes enlargement.

If the widening (S) = 0 → all the deformation turns into elongation.
Forging-Stretching Process
A block with width wO= 800mm and thickness ho=
700 mm is hot forged when its thickness was
h1= 640 mm and then for h2= 580 mm. Calculate the
forging loads at the end of each of these two
passes, knowing that the hot resistance of the metal is
of 500 MPa and that the width of the die (b) is equal to 85
mm.
Equations:
ℎ
C=0.8 + 0.2( 1) 1 1
= . . =
0 ℎ1
ℎ0
= A = b.w1
1+
 Forging-Draw Process
Load at the end of the 1st Pass
1) Calculation of the widening
85
800
= 1+ = 85 0.0960 = 9.60%
1+ 800

2) Calculation of final width

1 1 0,0960
1= 0. ℎ1 = 800. 64 0 → 1= 807 mm
ℎ0 70 0

3) Calculation of forging force

A = 85.807= 68.595 mm2
ℎ
C=0.8 + 0.2( 1)=0.8 +0.2(640/85)= 2.305
= . . 500.0,68595.2,305 = 7,9 x 103kN
 Forging-Stretching Process
Load at the end of the 2nd Pass
Calculation of widening
85
807
= 1+ = 85 0.09529 = 9.53%
1+ 807

2) Calculation of final width

1 1 0,0953
1= 0. ℎ1 = 807. 58 0 → 1= 815 mm
ℎ0 64 0

3) Calculation of forging force

A = 85.815= 69.255 mm2
ℎ
C=0.8 + 0.2( 1)=0.8 +0.2(580/85)= 2.165
= . . =500.0,69255.2,165 =7,5 x 103kN
 Forging-Stretching Process
Tool size effect

Direction of the force

Material flow

a) Small Tools – Small compressive forces. The

surfaces deform more. Flow difference
surface/center of the piece.

b) Large tools – Greater compressive forces. Flow

of draining homogeneous material.
 Forging-Stretching Process
Stretching Defects
Forging Process

Closed Matrix
 Closed Die Forging Process

No closed die forging, the material-

first, at an adequate temperature, is
deformed by the action of the matrices that, when
move one in relation to the other, it
print the negative form of the cavities.
The raw material must be cut with a
dimension such that its volume assures the
filling of the cavities of the molds.
Closed Die Forging Process with
Rebarba

In this type of forging, two or more

matrices that contain the shape of the piece are
moved in vertical directions or
horizontal between each other, to conform the
material, at a working temperature,
ensuring the filling of the cavities and the
burr formation.
 Closed Die Forging Process with
Ribbed

For the die forging operation

being closed successfully implies verification
the following conditions:
The volume of material inside the matrix
should be enough to ensure your
filling;
The flow of material through the channel
the rebar will be more difficult than the
filling in the more complex details that
they exist inside the matrix.
Forging Process - Closed Die with
Rebarba
Basin
Throat
Superior Mat

Inferior Mat

Types of Deburring Basins

Closed Die Forging Process with
Rebarba
 Closed Die Forging Process with
Rebarba

Principles of Conformation

Reinforcement
The original height of the piece is reduced.

Widening
The material flows predominantly in the direction
perpendicular to the movement of the matrices.

Ascension
The material is propelled against the movement of the
tools, and perpendicular to the burr.
Forging Process–Closed Die with
Rebarba

Reinforcement Widening Ascension

Closed Matrix Forging Process with
Rebar–Pre-form

No forging in closed die with

several passes are required for rebar
obtain the desired final geometry. The shape
initial is called pre-form.
The initial passes are designed to
redistribute the metal in the piece, so as to
achieve a uniform deformation and a
metallurgical structure favorable for the
subsequent passes.
Closed Die Forging Process with Flash
Pro forma

Deburring basin

Pro forma

Final form
Matrix guides
Closed Die Forging Process with
Rebar–Pre-form
Closed Die Forging Process with
Rebar - Pre-form
Closed Die Forging Process - Pre-form
Closed Die Forging Process - Pre-form
Closed Die Forging Process with Burr
Pro forma
Crankshaft (old)
Closed Die Forging Process with Flash
Grindstone
Closed Die Forging Process with Burr
Grinder
Closed Mould Forging Process with Burr
Grinder
Puncture

Material Rebarbative
Zone of Zone of
fracture shear
roughness (Polished)
Closed Die Forging Process with Flash
Rebarbador - Desgaste
Forging Process – Closed Die with Flash
Project Conception

1. Analysis of the piece

(complexity)
2. Need for pre-form
the project of the matrices.
3. Construction of the deburring machine
Closed Die Forging Process with Burr
Project Design
Forging Process–Closed Die with Flash
Project Conception

Internal pressure Number of rings Reason Diameters Diameter relationship

N/mm2 D/d
 Closed Die Forging Process with Flash
Project Conception
Centralize (Guides) matrices
 Closed Matrix Forging Process with Burr
Project Conception

Types of Guides

Side guides
Closed guides

Guide pins

Song guides
Open guides
Closed Die Forging Process with Burr
Project Conceptualization

Types of Guides
 Closed Die Forging Process with Flash
Project Conception
Tribology

Upper Matrix

Wear (abrasion) - 70%

Thermal fatigue – 3%

Mechanical fatigue - 25%

Plastic deformation–2%

Lower Matrix
Closed Die Forging Process with
Rebarba
Evolution of Strength
 Closed Die Forging Process with
Rebarba

The formula for calculating force is the same.

the equation for die forging
open, but its interpretation is slightly
different.
Maximum force (N) F Kf. .A
It is the area of the projection of the finished piece,
including the burr;
•Kfé the shape coefficient for the operation of
forging.
Closed Die Forging Process with
Rebarba

The value of Kf it is a factor used for

consider required increases in strength
forging for parts of various
complexities.
 Closed Die Forging Process without
Rebarba

In this type of forging process, the

the material to be shaped is totally
confined within the matrix(es) during the
compression, without the formation of burrs.
Forging Process - Closed Die without Flash
Closed Die Forging Process with Punch
Puncture

Matrix
Puncture

Forged

Puncture
Matrix
Closed Die Forging Process with Punch
Closed Die Forging Process with Punch
Forging Process – Defects in the Process

Among the most common defects in the process of

forging with closed dies, we have:
The excess of material, compromising in
closing of matrices;
The rays of agreement with dimensions
adequate measures aim to prevent the
doubling of the material about oneself
(formation "lap").
Closed Die Forging Process with
Rebarba - Good

Flow Analysis

Increase of the radius

Forging Process - Defects in the Process
-Formation of the fold
Forging Process - Defects in the Process
–No formation of the fold
Closed Die Forging Process with
Rebarba - Good
Screw Head Forging
Forging Screw Head

1aStage 2aStage 3aStage 4aStage

 Typical Forging Defects
•Lack of reduction – characterized by incomplete penetration of the
metal in the tool cavity. This changes the shape of the part and
it happens when quick and light hammer strikes are used;
Superficial cracks – caused by excessive work on the periphery
from the piece at low temperature, or due to some hot fragility;
Cracks on the burrs - caused by the presence of impurities in
metals or because the burrs are small. They start at the
burrs and can penetrate the piece during the operation of
rebarbation;
Internal cracks - originate from within the part, such as
consequence of tensions arising from large deformations;
•Oxide incrustations - caused by the layer of oxides that
form during heating. These deposits typically
they detach, but, occasionally, they can get stuck in the
pieces;
Decarbonization - is characterized by the loss of carbon in
surface of the steel, caused by the heating of the metal;
 Typical Forging Defects
Cold drops - are discontinuities caused by bending
surfaces, without the occurrence of welding. They are caused
for abnormal flows of hot material within the matrices,
burr embedded, improper placement of the material
in the matrix.
 Typical Forging Defects
Burning - oxidizing gases penetrate into the
limits of the contours of the grains, forming
oxide films. It is caused by
heating close to the melting point.
Forging Process–Alternatives

Among the alternative forging processes,

we can cite:
1. Forging by axial compression;
2. Forging through rollers;
Forging by Axial Compression
 Lubrication in forging

The friction, in forging, influences:

•no drainage of the material,
in the pressure distribution,
in the strength and energy required in the process.
determinant in quality and dimensional
of the final piece.
Lubrication in forging - Aspects

Facilitate the flow of material among the

cavities.
Refrigerate the molds to prevent cracks.
thermal.
It must be free of residues in order to avoid
accumulation, and generate imperfections in the material.
The lubricant cannot be corrosive or
abrasive, thus avoiding erosions in the
matrices.
Lubrication in forging - Aspects
Dry surface
µ=0.1…0.3

Oxide Layer
µ=0.1...0.3

Layer of
Oxide/Lubricant
µ=0.03...0.1

Lubrication
hydrodynamics
µ<0.05
 Forging Equipment

Hammers Free Fall Hammer

Double Action Hammer
Back Hammer

Mechanical Presses
Friction Presses
Hydraulic Presses
 Forging Equipment

Hammers
High speed causing impacts through
quick and successive blows.

Hammers can be classified into three types:

Free fall hammer
Double-action hammer
Counterpunch hammer
 Free Fall Hammers

The impact energy is determined by the height and mass of the

hammer. After being lifted by a hydraulic system,
pneumatic or otherwise, the hammer is released in free fall.
Free Fall Hammers
Dual-action Hammers
Dual-action Hammers
 Hammers

Efficient for the forging processes of parts

medium and small sizes;
The maximum pressure is reached at the bottom dead center.
Use of actuators (air pressure, steam or even
hydraulics) to provide more force;
Advantages
Low matrix/component contact time;
•Pre-form can be made in the forging matrix with
hammers, while other forging equipment
they require that the pre-form be made outside the press;
High speeds.
Disadvantages
Automation is not typically practical;
The matrices are devoid of ejectors;
The operation of a hammer is normally an operation
100% manual for the movement of the workpiece.
 Mechanical Press
Eccentric Presses

The capacity of the press depends on the power and

engine torque, gear diameters,
pulleys and the eccentric.
 Mechanical Press
Eccentric Presses
 Mechanical Press
(Excentric Presses)
 Mechanical Press
Excentric Presses
 Mechanical Press
Eccentric Presses
 Mechanical Press
Eccentric Presses
Efficient for the forging processes of parts
medium and small sizes and in the process of
rebarbation.
Forces of forging up to 12,000 tons;
Transformation of rotational motion into motion
linear
Advantages
Ease of use;
Low maintenance;
High speeds;
Low contact time compared to hydraulic presses.
Disadvantages
Limited course by the eccentric;
They are not suitable for components that require
high deformations;
They are not suitable for matrices heated above 260°C;
System freezing under load.
 Mechanical Press
Excentric Presses
Hydraulic Press
Hydraulic Press
 Hydraulic Press
Efficient for the processes of recalibrating, folding and
partially or of stretching;
High forging forces up to 50,000 tons;
Transformation of hydraulic energy into mechanical energy.
Advantages
Precision;
Variable course with large displacement, force, and velocity
controllable;
Maximum pressure available during the full cycle
Disadvantages
They are rarely used for forging parts.
plans and formation of burr (low speed and high
contact time);
Expensive maintenance;
Longer contact time of the matrix with the workpiece;
Low speeds.
Fixed Spindle Friction Press
Fixed Spindle Friction Press
 Friction Press
Efficient for hot forging processes;
High speeds;
Transformation of rotational motion into
linear movement.
Advantages
•Precision in strikes;
Good productivity;
Greater precision compared to eccentric presses;
Low contact time with the processed part.
Disadvantages
Difficult automation;
Very noisy;
High levels of vibration.
 Alternative Processes
Forged or rolled ring;
Forged or laminated balls (spheres);