Gas Turbines

A gas turbine is a rotary internal combustion engine that converts heat energy of fuel into
mechanical energy using a continuous flow of gas. It consists of three main components
— a compressor, a combustion chamber, and a turbine.
Air is drawn into the compressor, where it is compressed to high pressure and
temperature. This compressed air enters the combustion chamber, where fuel is injected
and burned, producing high-temperature gases. These gases expand through the turbine,
causing it to rotate and produce power.
A large portion of the turbine’s power drives the compressor and auxiliary systems, while
the remaining output is used for applications such as electric power generation or aircraft
propulsion.

Applications of Gas turbines

 Aircraft Propulsion ✈️
 Power Generation ⚡
 Industrial Drives ⚙️

 Marine Propulsion 🚢
 Railway Locomotives 🚂
 Military Tanks & Vehicles 🪖

 Hybrid Energy Systems 🌞 (Gas turbine + solar/biomass)

 Micro Gas Turbines 🔋
 Aircraft Propulsion Power Generation

Industrial Drives Marine Propulsion

Military Tanks & Vehicles Micro gas turbine

Comparison of Gas turbines and IC engines
Aspect Gas Turbine IC Engine (Reciprocating)
Rotary internal Reciprocating internal
Type of Engine
combustion engine combustion engine
Working Medium Continuous flow of air and Intermittent (cyclic) intake and
Flow combustion gases exhaust
Compressor, Combustion Cylinder, Piston, Valves,
Main Components
chamber, Turbine Crankshaft
Continuous rotary motion Intermittent power strokes
Power Output
directly from turbine converted to rotary motion
Size and Weight
Smaller and lighter Larger and heavier
(for same power)
Quick starting and smooth
Starting Time Slower start, more vibration
running
High efficiency at full load, Better efficiency even at part
Efficiency Range
drops at part load load
Fewer moving parts → less Many moving parts → more
Maintenance
maintenance maintenance
Mostly gaseous fuels, also
Fuel Used Gasoline, diesel, or gas
liquid fuels
Cooling Requires intensive cooling
Requires less cooling
Requirement (water or air)
Initial Cost High Moderate or low
Operational Life Long, if well-maintained Shorter due to wear and tear
Aircraft, Power plants, Automobiles, small generators,
Applications
Industrial drives marine engines

Classification of Gas turbines

1. According to the Cycle Type
 Open cycle gas turbine
 Closed cycle gas turbine
 Semi-closed cycle gas turbine

2. According to the Process of Combustion

 Constant Pressure (Brayton Cycle)
 Constant Volume (Humphrey Cycle)

Open cycle gas turbine

The gas turbines usually operate on open

cycle.
Closed cycle gas turbine

1. 1–2 → Isentropic compression

2. 2–3 → Constant pressure Heat addition
3. 3–4 → Isentropic expansion
4. 4–1 → Constant pressure Heat rejection
The steady-flow energy equation on a unit mass basis is q−w= Δ h=hexit −hinlet
q ¿=h3−h 2=C p ( T 3−T 2 )

q out =h 4−h1=C p (T 4−T 1)

w turbine =h3 −h4 =C p (T 3 −T 4)

w compressor =h 2−h1=C P (T 2−T 1 )

Actual work output wnet w turbine −wcompressor C P ( T 4−T 1 )

ηideal = = = =1−
Heat input q¿ q¿ C p ( T 3−T 2 )

1
ηideal = γ −1
γ
r p

r p= pressure ratio, γ = specific heat ratio.

The actual gas turbine cycle differs from an ideal Brayton cycle in the following manner.
Due to frictional effects, the working fluid experiences a pressure drop during heat
addition and heat rejection processes taking place in a heat exchanger. However, this
pressure drop is less significant and is thus neglected for simplicity of analysis.
Because of the frictional effects within the compressor and turbine, the actual work input
into the compressor is more than the isentropic work, and the actual work output of the
gas turbine is less than the isentropic work. It results in a marked decrease in the network
output of the gas turbine plant.
 Friction losses in compressor and turbine.
 Pressure drops in combustion chamber, regenerator, and ducts.
 Incomplete combustion and heat losses to surroundings.
 Non-isentropic compression and expansion processes.

1. 1–2: Actual compression (more work needed).

2. 2–3: Constant pressure heat addition (with some pressure loss).
3. 3–4: Actual expansion (less work output).
4. 4–1: Constant pressure heat rejection.
Isentropic efficiency of a compressor :

Actual work input T 2 s−T 1

η c= =
Isentropic work input T 1−T 1

Isentropic Efficiency of Turbine:

Actual work output T 3 −T 4

ηt = =
Isentropic work output T 3−T 4 s
Methods for improvement of Thermal efficiency of a gas
turbine plan
The network output of a gas turbine plant can be increased by either decreasing
compression work or by increasing the turbine work or both. The thermal efficiency of the
cycle can be improved by saving the heat input for the same network output.
The improvement is possible by
1. Regeneration by preheating the air leaving the compressor with turbine exhaust
gases, thus saving the heat input.
2. Reheating of gases after each stage of expansion to obtain more work from the
turbine.
3. Intercooling during compression stages to reduce the work input to the compressor.

Regeneration

 In a simple gas turbine, the exhaust gases leaving the turbine are still hot.
 The hot exhaust gases leaving the turbine at the state 4, are used to preheat the air
entering the combustion chamber.
 A heat exchanger (regenerator) is installed between the compressor and combustion
chamber.
 Hot turbine exhaust transfers heat to the compressed air.
 Less additional fuel is needed to reach turbine inlet temperature reducing fuel
consumption and improving thermal efficiency.
Heat transfer in regenerator = qreg = h5 - h2

Maximum heat transfer possible = q max = h 4 - h 2

q reg h 5 - h 2 T5 - T 2
Effectiveness of regenerator = = =
q max h 4 - h2 T4 - T2
 w net wT −wc ( h3−h 4 )− ( h1−h 2)
ηth ,regen = = =
q¿ q¿ h3−h 5

Reheating

 In a simple turbine, gases expand once from high to low pressure.

 In reheating, expansion is done in two or more stages, with fuel burned again
between stages to raise the temperature.
 By introducing reheating during expansion, the turbine work and consequently, the
net-Work of the gas turbine cycle can be improved without changing compressor work
or maximum temperature in the cycle.
 Gas expands in the first turbine (Work output) and then passes through a reheater
where the temperature rises again to be sent into a second turbine (work output).
 Net work output increases at the cost of thermal efficiency.
wnet w t 1 +w t 2−wc ( h3−h 4 )−( h5−h 6 )−( h2−h1 )
ηth ,reheat = = =
q¿ q1 +q 2 ( h3−h 2) + ( h5−h4 )
Intercooling

The net-work output of a gas turbine can also be increased by reducing the compressor
work input. It can be accomplished by use of multistage compression with intercooling.
Air is compressed in two or more stages. After first stage, it passes through an
intercooler (heat exchanger) where it’s cooled close to the initial temperature. Then it
enters the next compressor stage.
Compressor work is reduced and net work increases, but thermal efficiency also
decreases since the average temperature of heat addition decreases.
pi ( p 2= p3 )= √ p1 × p4
Semi-closed Gas turbine cycle
A semi-closed gas turbine cycle is a hybrid design that combines features of both open-
cycle and closed-cycle systems.
Its defining characteristic is the recirculation of a portion of the exhaust gas. After
combustion, a part of the exhaust is cooled, treated, and mixed with fresh air (or oxygen)
before being fed back into the compressor inlet. The rest of the exhaust is vented to the
atmosphere
This helps in improving efficiency and reducing fuel consumption compared to open
cycle.
Used in submarines where air is limited.

Feature Closed Cycle Semi-Closed Cycle

Working Fluid Recirculated completely Partially recirculated
External (via heat
Heat Addition Internal (combustion chamber)
exchanger)
No discharge to
Exhaust Partial discharge
atmosphere
Moderate (better than open
Efficiency Highest
cycle)
Complexity High Medium
Submarines, CO₂ recovery
Applications Nuclear, marine, space
systems
Easier than closed, harder than
Maintenance Difficult (due to sealing)
open
Weight Heavy Moderate
Response to Load
Slow Moderate
Changes
Combined cycle
 A combined cycle is a power generation process that uses two interconnected
thermodynamic cycles—a gas cycle and a steam cycle—to produce electricity more
efficiently than a single cycle alone.
 In a simple gas turbine, hot exhaust gases (≈500–600°C) are wasted to
atmosphere.
 In a combined cycle, this exhaust heat is used to generate steam in a Heat
Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG), which then drives a steam turbine.
 This combines the Brayton cycle (gas) and Rankine cycle (steam) →
improving overall efficiency.

Aspect Gas Turbine Alone Combined Cycle Plant

Main Cycle Brayton Brayton + Rankine

Efficiency 30–35% 50–60%

Exhaust Heat Wasted Recovered for steam

Complexity Simple More complex

Power Output Moderate High

Applications Aircraft, peak power Base-load power plants

Jet Propulsion
Jet propulsion works on Newton’s third law, (for every action there is equal and an
opposite reaction), so when hot gases are pushed backward at high velocities, the
reaction force pushes the engine forward.
Imagine a fully inflated balloon let go, air inside pushes the balloon in forward direction
opposite to the direction of air flow.
The forward pushing force is called thrust.
Jet engines are primarily classified into 2 types.
1. Air breathing engines
2. Non-air breathing engines
Air breathing engines carry the fuel and use the air from atmosphere for combustion,
whereas non-air breathing engines carry both fuel and oxygen with them to carry out
combustion.

Air-breathing engines
Ramjet engine
A ramjet is a type of airbreathing jet engine that has no moving parts and operates by
using the aircraft's forward motion to compress air for combustion.
Air is rammed into the engine, slowed down in a diffuser, mixed with fuel and ignited, and
then expelled through a nozzle to
generate thrust.
Ramjets require a high initial speed
(typically supersonic) to work and are
most efficient between Mach 3 and
Mach 6.
Main Parts
1. Diffuser (Inlet)
2. Combustion Chamber
3. Nozzle
How a ramjet works
1. Compression: As the aircraft moves at supersonic speeds, air is forced into the
engine's inlet. The "ram effect" uses the forward motion and shockwaves to rapidly
compress the incoming air, increasing its pressure and temperature.
2. Combustion: The compressed air moves into the combustion chamber, where fuel is
injected and ignited. This creates a high-temperature, high-pressure gas.
3. Expansion: The hot gas is accelerated and expelled through a nozzle at the rear of the
engine, generating thrust. The exhaust is expelled at a much higher velocity than the
incoming air.
Key characteristics
 No moving parts: The lack of a compressor and turbine makes ramjets simpler and
lighter than turbojet engines.
 Forward speed requirement: Ramjets cannot operate at zero or low speeds because
they rely on the forward motion to compress air. They must be accelerated to their
operational speed by another propulsion system, such as a rocket or turbojet.
 Efficiency: They are most efficient at supersonic speeds, typically between Mach 3 and
Mach 6.
 Applications: Due to their high-speed capabilities, they are used in applications like
missiles and high-speed aircraft.

Scramjet engine
A scramjet (Supersonic Combustion
Ramjet) is an advanced, air-breathing
jet engine that enables sustained
flight at hypersonic speeds (Mach 5+)
by enabling supersonic combustion.
It uses its forward motion to compress
incoming air to a high pressure
without moving parts, then injects and ignites fuel, such as hydrogen, while the air
remains supersonic.
Scramjet engines move at such high speeds that incoming air compresses and heats up
to a point where it ignites spontaneously when it comes into contact with fuel (hydrogen).
Scramjets have applications in hypersonic missiles, aircraft, and potentially for more
affordable space launches.
Main Parts
1. Inlet/Diffuser
2. Combustion chamber (supersonic combustion)
3. Nozzle
How it works
 Air Intake and Compression: At hypersonic speeds, the vehicle's forward motion
forces air into the engine. The engine's designed shape, or diffuser, compresses this
air without a compressor, keeping its speed supersonic.
 Fuel Injection and Combustion: Hydrogen fuel is injected into the supersonic
airflow and ignites. The rapid, supersonic combustion of the fuel and air mixture
produces thrust as the hot gases exit the nozzle.
 No Moving Parts: Unlike traditional jet engines, a scramjet has no compressor or
turbine. It relies on the vehicle's speed for compression and has specialized
components like a diffuser and a unique combustor.
Key features
 Efficiency at Hypersonic Speeds: Scramjets are designed to be more efficient than
rockets and are capable of speeds of Mach 6 and beyond.
 Flame Stabilization: A key technology is the ability to hold a continuous flame in the
combustor with air moving at speeds exceeding 1.5 km/s.
 Applications: They can be used for hypersonic missiles, high-speed reconnaissance
aircraft, and as an upper-stage propulsion for space launches.
 Advanced Technology: Some recent developments include using a special ceramic
heat-resistant coating to withstand extreme temperatures over 1,500 °C inside the
engine.
 Parameter Ramjet Scramjet
Combustion speed Subsonic Supersonic
Operating speed Mach 1–5 Mach 5+
Efficiency Lower at hypersonic Higher at hypersonic
Fuel type Kerosene Hydrogen
Applications Missiles Space vehicles

Pulsejet engine
A pulse jet engine is a simple, jet-like reaction
engine that generates thrust through a series
of pulsed combustion events rather than a
continuous burn.
These engines have very few or no moving
parts, and some are so simple they can be
made from basic materials like a tube.
The cycle involves igniting a fuel-air mixture in
pulses, which creates high pressure that forces gases out the back, generating thrust.
How it works
 Intake: Air and fuel are mixed in a combustion chamber. In engines with valves, one-
way valves open to let the mixture in. In "valveless" designs, the shape of the tube and
the pressure from the exhaust pulse itself pull the new mixture in.
 Combustion: A spark ignites the fuel-air mixture, causing a rapid, subsonic combustion
(deflagration).
 Exhaust: The heat and pressure from the explosion expand the gas, forcing it out the
back of the engine and creating thrust.
 Restart: The inertia of the exiting gas creates a low-pressure area that pulls a new
charge of air and fuel into the chamber. The hot gas left in the chamber from the
previous pulse ignites the new mixture, restarting the cycle automatically.
Key characteristics
 No moving parts: Many pulse jet designs, particularly "valveless" types, have no
mechanical moving parts, which makes them very simple to build and maintain.
 Simple design: The engine consists mainly of a combustion chamber and a tube, with
some designs incorporating one-way valves at the intake.
 Pulsed thrust: Instead of a constant thrust like a turbojet, a pulse jet produces a series
of "thump" or "pulse" sounds and thrust as the combustion events happen repeatedly.
 Self-sustaining: Once started with a spark plug or other igniter, the engine becomes
self-sustaining and can run for extended periods.
 Low efficiency: Due to their simple design and low compression ratio, pulse jets are not
very fuel-efficient compared to other types of jet engines.
Feature Ramjet Scramjet Pulsejet
Works on
Uses high-speed forward
Similar to ramjet but intermittent
motion (ram effect) to
Basic Principle combustion occurs at combustion
compress incoming air
supersonic speed producing pulses of
before combustion
thrust
By pressure pulses
Air By ram effect (no moving By ram effect (air
from combustion
Compression parts) remains supersonic)
(valve action)
Intermittent
Combustion Supersonic
Subsonic combustion (pulsating)
Type combustion
combustion
Speed Range
Above 5 Below 1 (Subsonic to
(Mach 1 to 5 (Supersonic)
(Hypersonic) Low Supersonic)
Number)
Needs very high
Starting Cannot start from rest, Can start from rest
initial speed (Mach
Requirement needs high initial speed using spark ignition
4–5)
Has simple inlet
Moving Parts None None valves (in valved
type)
Operating Atmospheric air (air- Atmospheric air (air- Atmospheric air (air-
Medium breathing) breathing) breathing)
Efficiency Moderate at supersonic Very high at
Low efficiency
Range speeds hypersonic speeds
Liquid or gaseous
Liquid fuels like kerosene Usually hydrogen
Fuel Type fuels (kerosene,
or hydrogen (for fast burning)
propane)
Thrust Continuous thrust
Continuous thrust Pulsating thrust
Production (higher than ramjet)
Very high (due to Very high (“buzzing”
Noise Level Moderate
hypersonic flow) sound)
Complex due to
Complexity Simple construction supersonic Simple but inefficient
combustion
Early drones (V-1
Missiles, target drones, Hypersonic vehicles,
Applications rocket), low-cost
high-speed aircraft space launch assist
propulsion
Example NASA X-43A, DRDO German V-1 “Buzz
BrahMos, Meteor missile
Vehicles HSTDV Bomb”
Starting Needs booster (rocket Needs rocket booster Can start with spark
Method assist) to reach Mach 5 ignition or blower
Combustion Very high
Increases due to ram Varies cyclically with
Chamber (supersonic flow
compression pulses
Pressure combustion)
Feature Ramjet Scramjet Pulsejet
Operation Below 5 km (low
8–25 km 25–50 km
Altitude altitude)
Turbojet Engine
A turbojet is a type of jet engine that creates thrust by compressing air, mixing it with
fuel, igniting the mixture, and then forcing the hot gas through a turbine and nozzle to
exit at high speed.

The turbine extracts energy from the expanding gas to power the compressor, creating a
continuous cycle.
All air entering the engine passes through the core, and turbojets are primarily used in
high-speed military aircraft, cruise missiles, and certain high-speed drones due to their
efficiency at high airspeeds.
Working Principle
 Intake: Air is drawn into the engine at the front.
 Compression: The air is compressed by a compressor, which consists of a series of
spinning blades.
 Combustion: The compressed air is mixed with fuel and ignited in a combustion
chamber, causing a rapid expansion of gas.
 Turbine: The hot, high-pressure gas flows through a turbine, causing it to spin.
 Exhaust: The turbine is connected to the compressor via a shaft, and the energy
extracted from the gas by the turbine drives the compressor, creating a continuous
cycle. The remaining gas is expelled at high speed through a propelling nozzle at the
rear of the engine, producing thrust.
Applications and characteristics
 Primary use: Turbojets are best suited for high-speed flight and are commonly found
in military fighter jets and high-speed unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs).
 Limitations: They are less efficient at lower speeds compared to other engine
designs, such as turbofan engines.
 Historical significance: The turbojet was the first type of jet engine and paved the
way for high-speed flight.
Advantages
✅ Simple construction
✅ Compact and light
✅ High speed and high-altitude operation
✅ Continuous combustion (no pulses)
Disadvantages
❌ High fuel consumption
❌ Poor efficiency at low speeds
❌ Very noisy

Turbofan engine
A turbofan is a type of jet engine that
uses a large fan at the front to propel an
aircraft, combining the efficiency of a
turbojet with the high thrust of a fan.
It works by drawing in air, splitting it into
two streams: a portion that goes through
the engine core to be compressed, mixed
with fuel, and combusted, and another
portion that bypasses the core and is
expelled by the fan, creating thrust.
This design is fuel-efficient, especially the
high-bypass ratio models common in
commercial aviation, and the bypass air
also helps reduce noise
How it works
 Fan: A large fan at the front ingests a huge amount of air.
 Bypass air: Most of this air bypasses the core engine and is accelerated by the fan,
producing most of the thrust. This bypass air also acts as a "sheath" around the hot
exhaust, reducing noise.
 Engine core: The remaining air enters the engine core, which functions like a
turbojet.
o Compressor: The air is compressed by a series of spinning blades.
o Combustor: Fuel is injected and ignited, causing the air to expand rapidly at
high temperature.
o Turbine: The expanding hot gas spins turbines, which drive both the compressor
and the fan via separate shafts.
o Nozzle: The hot exhaust gas exits through a nozzle at the back, creating
additional thrust.
Types and applications
 High-bypass turbofans: Used on commercial airliners, these engines have a large fan
and bypass a high volume of air for maximum fuel efficiency and thrust.
 Low-bypass turbofans: Found on military aircraft, these engines have a smaller fan and
are designed for higher speeds. They are often equipped with afterburners to provide a
high thrust boost for combat situations.
 Geared turbofans: A more modern variation that uses a gearbox to allow the fan and
the turbine to spin at their own optimal speeds, improving both fuel efficiency and
reducing noise.
Bypass Ratio
Mass of bypass air
This is the most important parameter in a turbofan → Bypass Ratio (BPR)= High
Mass of air through core
BPR (≥5) → more air bypasses → better fuel efficiency → used in passenger jets.
Low BPR (1–2) → more air through core → higher speed → used in fighter aircraft.
Advantages
 Better fuel efficiency (because of large mass of slower air)
 Quieter operation
 Good thrust even at low speeds
 Ideal for subsonic and transonic aircraft

Disadvantages
 Larger frontal area → more drag
 Slightly more complex and heavier

Turboprop engines
A turboprop engine is a type of jet
engine that uses a gas turbine to
power a propeller, making it very
efficient for lower speeds and short-
haul flights.
It works by compressing air,
igniting it with fuel, and using the
resulting hot gases to spin a turbine
connected to a propeller via a
gearbox, with the propeller
generating most of the thrust.
This makes them ideal for
commuter aircraft and regional planes, offering benefits like high fuel efficiency and short
runway requirements.
How it works
 Intake: Air is drawn into the front of the engine.
 Compression: The air is compressed by a series of compressors.
 Combustion: Fuel is injected into the compressed air and ignited, creating high-
temperature, high-pressure gas.
 Turbine: The expanding gases flow through a turbine, which spins and drives the
compressor and a drive shaft through a gearbox.
 Propeller: The drive shaft is connected to a gearbox, which turns the propeller,
creating most of the engine's thrust.
 Exhaust: The remaining gases are expelled through the nozzle, contributing a small
amount of thrust.
Key characteristics and advantages
 Efficiency: Highly fuel-efficient at lower speeds (below Mach 0.6) compared to pure jet
engines.
 Short-field performance: Requires shorter runways for take-off and landing, making
them suitable for regional airports.
 Applications: Commonly used in regional and commuter aircraft, but also in
unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for applications like rescue services and agriculture.
 Low noise: Often has a lower noise profile than other jet engines.
Advantages
 High propulsive efficiency at low speeds
 Good fuel economy
  Shorter take-off distance
Disadvantages
 Not suitable for supersonic flight
 Complex gearbox
 Propeller noise at high speeds

Feature Turbojet Turbofan Turboprop

Thrust Source Jet exhaust Jet + Bypass air Propeller

Speed Range Supersonic Subsonic / Transonic Subsonic

High at high
Efficiency High overall High at low speed
speed

Noise High Moderate Moderate

Fuel Economy Low High Very high

Applications Fighter jets Passenger aircraft Cargo, Regional aircraft

Thrust
The thrust developed in a turbojet engine is the unbalance force, which is caused by the
difference in the momentum of flow velocity of air entering the engine and high velocity
hot gases leaving the exhaust nozzle, and is given by Newton’s second law of motion,
F=( ṁa + ṁf ) · v jet −ṁa · v a

where ṁa is the rate of flow of air through the engine, ṁf is the rate of flow of fuel entering
the engine, v jet is the jet velocity of the gases leaving the nozzle, v a is the velocity of air
entering the engine

( ṁa + ṁf ) · v jet represents the nozzle gross thrust and ṁa · v arepresents the ram drag force of
the flight.

Thrust power
The power developed from thrust of the engine is called the thrust power Ẇ th , which is the
product of propulsive force and flight velocity . That is
Ẇ th =F· v a= ṁa · ( v jet−v a ) · v a

Propulsive power
It is the gross thrust power. It is defined as change in momentum of mass-flow rate of
gases. It is the difference between rate of kinetic energy of air entering and gas leaving.

( )
2 2
v jet −v a
Ẇ ¿ =Δ KE =ṁ a ·
2
Propulsive efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of thrust power to propulsive power.

Thrust power ṁa · ( v jet−v a ) · v a 2 va

η¿ = = =

( )
propuslive power 2 2
v jet −v a v jet +v a
ṁa ·
2
Analysis of Turbojet
A turbojet engine consists of a diffuser, a compressor, a combustion chamber, a turbine
and a jet nozzle. All of these devices operate in a steady flow manner.

Working Principle:
1. Air enters the diffuser and slows down → pressure increases.
2. Air is compressed in the compressor.
3. Fuel is injected and burnt in the combustion chamber → hot gases at high pressure.
4. Turbine extracts some energy to drive the compressor.
5. Remaining hot gases expand through the nozzle → high velocity jet → Thrust.

1 – 2 ⟶ Isentropic compression( Diffusion)

2 – 3 ⟶ Isentropic compression(Compressor)
3 – 4 ⟶ Constant pressure heat addition
(Combustion)
4 – 5 ⟶ Isentropic expansion (Turbine)
5 – 6 ⟶ Isentropic expansion in nozzle
Thrust Augmentation in Turbojet engines
Several modifications to turbojet engines have been made to cater to the special
performance requirement of various aircraft. One of them is thrust augmentation of
turbojet engine for short duration for better take-off performance, higher rate of climb
and increased performance at higher altitude.
Thrust augmentation can be done by increasing the maximum temperature of the cycle
and mass-flow rate of air.
Thus, the thrust of turbojet engine can be increased by
1. installing reheater or after burner before gases entering the exhaust nozzle.
2. Water or methanol injection
3. Bypass or turbofan arrangement
4. Rocket-assisted take off

a) Afterburning (Reheat)
 Fuel is injected into the exhaust gases after the turbine.
 Increases gas temperature and exhaust velocity → higher thrust.
 Disadvantage: High fuel
consumption.
(b) Water or Methanol Injection
 Injected at the compressor inlet
or combustion chamber.
 The working principle of water
or methanol injection is to
increase the thrust of a jet
engine by cooling the air
entering the compressor or combustion chamber, which increases the air density
and mass flow rate.
 The cooler, denser air allows more fuel to be burnt safely, producing higher
turbine power and greater thrust without exceeding temperature limits reaching
the extra thrust needed.
(c) Bypass or Turbofan Arrangement
 Some air bypasses the core → adds momentum to total thrust.
 Improves propulsive efficiency and reduces noise.
(d) Rocket-Assisted Take-off (RATO)
 Temporary rockets provide additional thrust for short take-off runs.

Rocket Propulsion
Rocket propulsion is the system that generates the force, or thrust,
needed to lift a rocket and propel it through the atmosphere and space.
It operates primarily on the principles of Newton's Third Law of Motion
("for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction") and the
conservation of linear momentum.

Principle of Operation
The core principle involves ejecting mass at high speed to create a
reaction force:
 Action: A large amount of propellant (fuel and oxidizer) is
combusted in a chamber, producing high-pressure, high-
temperature exhaust gases. These gases are then expelled at
high velocity downward through a specially shaped nozzle.
 Reaction: The rapid, forceful ejection of gas downward creates
an equal and opposite force that pushes the rocket upward (or forward).
The amount of thrust produced depends on the mass flow rate of the exhaust gases and
their exit velocity. As the rocket ascends and burns fuel, its total mass decreases, which,
combined with the constant thrust, causes its acceleration to increase.
Components of a Rocket Engine
A typical chemical rocket engine, whether liquid or solid-fueled, has
three main components:
 Combustion Chamber: Where the fuel and oxidizer are
mixed and ignited to create hot gases.
 Throat: A narrow section that focuses and pressurizes the
gases, accelerating them to the speed of sound (Mach 1).
 Nozzle: A divergent, bell-shaped section where the gases
undergo controlled expansion, accelerating to supersonic
speeds and maximizing thrust.

Applications
Where Used Example
Space Launch SpaceX Falcon, ISRO PSLV
Missiles Agni, BrahMos, Patriot
Orbit insertion, station-
Satellites
keeping
Fireworks Diwali rockets!
Emergency Escape Fighter jet ejection seats

Classification of Rockets
A rocket vehicle can be classified as follows:
Based on Propellant Type
1. Solid Propellant Rocket
 2. Liquid Propellant Rocket
3. Hybrid Rocket (solid fuel + liquid oxidizer)
Based on Fuel used
1. Chemical fuel rocket
2. Nuclear fuel rocket
3. Solar rocket
4. Electrical rocket
Based on Number of Stages
1. Single-stage Rocket – carries one propellant section
2. Multistage Rocket – several rockets fired in sequence (used in space launch
vehicles)
Based on Range
1. Short-range rocket
2. Medium range rocker
3. Long range rocket
Based on Purpose
1. Launch Vehicles – carry satellites/payloads (e.g., PSLV, GSLV)
2. Missiles – defence and tactical weapons
3. Sounding Rockets – research and weather studies
4. Space Probes – deep space missions

Differences between Jet engine and Rocket engine

[Link] Jet engine Rocket engine
.
1 It is an air-breathing engine. It is a non-airbreathing engine

2 Oxygen supply depends on It carries oxidiser on board; thus oxygen

atmospheric conditions. It carries only supply is not affected by outside
fuel. atmosphere.
3 Intake air supplies the oxygen required Oxidiser supplies the oxygen for
for combustion combustion.

4 It cannot be operated in vacuum. It can be operated in vacuum efficiently.

Space travel is possible.

5 Thrust produced depends on altitude Production of thrust does not depend

and flight speed. Thrust decreases with on altitude.
altitude.
6 Skin friction increases with flight speed It offers no surface drag. No
gravitational effect. Rate of climb
increases with altitude.
7 Flight velocity is aways less than jet Flight speed is unlimited, even greater
velocity than jet velocity.
8 It has reasonable thermal efficiency Low efficiency, except at extremely
and reasonable flight duration. high speed.

Solid propellent rocket

The rockets, which use solid fuels and oxidizers,
are known as solid propellant rockets.
A solid propellant rocket consists of a star-
shaped combustion chamber, propellant and an
expansion nozzle.
The solid fuel and oxidizer are mixed in a single
propellant and are packed inside the shell.
A liner is provided between shell and propellant
in order to protect the shell against high
temperature.
When ignited, this solid propellant burns to produce hot gases that are expelled through a
nozzle, creating thrust

Advantages
 Simple design: They have no moving parts and do not require complex pumps
or feed systems.
 Storage: They are dense, stable, and can be stored for long periods without
special handling.
 Reliability: The simple design leads to high reliability.
Disadvantages
 Cannot be stopped: Once ignited, they cannot be shut down or throttled.
 Inflexible thrust: The thrust cannot be easily adjusted, and the motor burns
until the fuel is exhausted
Liquid propellent rocket
A liquid propellant
rocket uses liquid
fuels and oxidizers
stored in separate
tanks, which are
pumped into a
combustion chamber,
mixed, and burned to
produce thrust.
Main components
 Fuel tank — stores liquid fuel (e.g., RP-1,
LH2).
 Oxidizer tank — stores liquid oxidizer (e.g.,
LOX, N₂O₄).
 Pipes, valves, feed lines — carry
propellants to the engine.
 Pumps / Turbopumps — pressurize and
deliver fuel/oxidizer to the chamber.
 Injector — atomizes and mixes fuel &
oxidizer inside the chamber.
 Combustion chamber — where propellant
burns (high pressure & temp).
 Nozzle (convergent-divergent) —
converts thermal/pressure energy into high-
velocity jet.
 Ignition system — initiates combustion
(spark, hypergolic ignition, torch).
Working
The fuel and oxidizer are pumped separately
into the mixing chamber through valves, where
the mixture is preheated to a suitable temperature.
Then the preheated fuel oxidizer mixture is injected into the combustion chamber, where
the mixture is ignited by an electric torch. The pumps are driven by a steam turbine. The
steam is produced by mixing a very high concentrated hydrogen peroxide with potassium
permanganate.
The high-pressure and high-temperature combustion products are discharged through the
nozzle with a high supersonic exit velocity. The high velocity exhaust propels the rocket in
the forward direction.
Advantages
 Controllable: The flow of liquid propellants can be controlled, which allows the engine
to be throttled, stopped, or restarted.
 High performance: Liquid rockets have a higher specific impulse than solid rockets,
meaning they are more efficient for a given amount of propellant.
 Reusability: Their ability to be stopped and restarted makes them suitable for
missions where precision is needed, such as orbital adjustments.
Disadvantages
 Complexity: The need for pumps, valves, and a complex plumbing system makes
these rockets more complicated to build and maintain than solid-fuel rockets.
 Cost: The complexity and special materials required contribute to a higher
manufacturing cost.
 Hazardous materials: Some liquid propellants and oxidizers can be highly toxic,
corrosive, or require storage at extremely low temperatures (cryogenic).

Hybrid propellant engine

A hybrid propellant rocket uses propellants in two different phases, typically a solid fuel
and a liquid or gaseous oxidizer. This design offers a balance of advantages from both
solid and liquid rockets, including increased safety, simpler mechanical design, and the
ability to throttle or shut down and restart the engine. The liquid oxidizer is injected into a
combustion chamber containing the solid fuel, where it burns to produce thrust.