EARTH SCIENCE DETAILED NOTES
I. WEATHERING, EROSION, AND DEPOSITION
Weathering – the breakdown of rocks into smaller fragments by physical or chemical means.
Types of Weathering:
Mechanical Weathering – physical disintegration of rocks without changing their composition (e.g., freeze-thaw,
abrasion, root wedging).
Chemical Weathering – decomposition of rocks due to chemical reactions (e.g., oxidation, hydrolysis,
carbonation).
Erosion – the movement of weathered rock and soil from one location to another by water, wind, ice, or gravity.
Deposition – the laying down or settling of sediments in new locations, forming landforms such as deltas and
dunes.
When water in rock pores freezes, it expands, forming cracks and causing physical weathering.
II. MASS MOVEMENT AND GRAVITY
Mass movement or mass wasting – the downslope movement of soil, rock, and debris due to gravity.
Types:
Landslide – sudden movement of a mass of rock or soil down a slope.
Mudflow – movement of water-saturated soil, often following heavy rains.
Creep – slow, gradual downhill movement of soil.
Glaciers – large masses of moving ice that shape the landscape through erosion and deposition.
III. EARTH’S INTERNAL HEAT
Earth’s internal heat originates from two main sources:
• Primordial heat – leftover from Earth’s formation.
• Radioactive decay – energy released from decaying isotopes in the mantle and core.
Heat transfer occurs through:
• Conduction – direct heat transfer through contact.
• Convection – circulation of heat through fluids or semi-solid rock (mantle convection).
• Radiation – transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves.
IV. MAGMA FORMATION
• Magma forms when rocks partially melt due to changes in temperature, pressure, or addition of volatiles (water
and CO₂).
Conditions for Magma Formation:
• Decrease in pressure (decompression melting).
• Increase in temperature (heat transfer).
• Addition of volatiles (flux melting).
• Tectonic settings where magma forms:
• Subduction zones, mid-ocean ridges, and hot spots.
After formation, magma rises due to its lower density and may erupt as lava or cool underground to form igneous rocks.
V. METAMORPHISM
• Metamorphism – the process by which rocks change in mineral composition and texture due to heat, pressure, and
chemical activity.
• Forces causing metamorphism: Earth's internal heat, pressure from overlying rocks, and tectonic forces.
Types:
• Contact metamorphism – occurs near magma intrusions (localized).
• Regional metamorphism – affects large areas due to mountain building.
Example sequence: Shale → Slate → Schist → Gneiss.
The term comes from Greek 'meta' (change) and 'morph' (form).
VI. STRESS AND DEFORMATION
• Stress – force applied to rocks that may cause deformation.
Types of stress:
• Compression – squeezing (convergent boundary).
• Tension – pulling apart (divergent boundary).
• Shear – sliding past each other (transform boundary).
Rock structures formed: folds (anticlines, synclines) and faults (breaks where movement occurs).
Stress causes strain (the deformation of rocks).
VII. EARTH’S LAYERS AND PLATE MOVEMENT
Earth’s Layers:
• Crust – thin, solid outermost layer (continental and oceanic).
• Mantle – thick layer of semi-solid rock with convection currents.
• Core – inner metallic layer; outer core is liquid, inner core is solid.
1. Seafloor spreading – process where new crust forms at mid-ocean ridges and moves outward.
2. Evidence: magnetic stripes, rock age, and matching ridge patterns.
3. Ocean basins form and expand at mid-ocean ridges; old crust subducts into trenches.
4. Plate tectonics explains crust movement, creating mountains, rift valleys, trenches, and volcanoes.
5. Earth’s size remains constant due to a balance between creation (spreading) and destruction (subduction).
VIII. STRATIFICATION AND DATING OF ROCKS
• Stratified rocks form in layers; the Law of Superposition states that the oldest layers are at the bottom and
youngest on top.
Dating methods:
• Relative dating – estimates age based on rock position or fossil presence.
• Absolute dating – determines exact age using radioactive decay (radiometric dating).
• Geologic time scale divisions are based on fossil records and major Earth events.
Eras (oldest to youngest): Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic.
1. Mesozoic – Age of Reptiles.
2. Cenozoic – Age of Mammals and Humans.
IX. INDEX FOSSILS AND GEOLOGIC TIME
• Index (guide) fossils are used to define and identify specific geologic time periods.
• Characteristics of good index fossils: abundant, widespread, short-lived, and easily recognizable.
Examples: Ammonites, Trilobites, Brachiopods.
Geologic Time Order (oldest to youngest): Precambrian → Paleozoic → Mesozoic → Cenozoic.
Time units:
• Eon – spans hundreds to thousands of millions of years.
• Era – spans tens to hundreds of millions of years.