CHAPTER 9

Electrons in Atoms and the

Periodic Table
Electromagnetic
Radiation and Energy
Wave-Particle Duality
• Wave-like: electromagnetic wave Characteristic Particle Wave

• Particle-like: localized in packets

of discrete energy
Reflection v v
Refraction v v
Interference x v
Diffraction x v
Polarization x v
Photoelectric effect v x
Vocabulary
• The distance between two
corresponding points on a wave is
the “wavelength (λ)” (Greek lower-
case lambda)

• How many waves go past a point in

1 second is called the “frequency
(ν)” (Greek lower-case nu)

• The vertical distance from the

midline to the top of the peak or
bottom of the trough is the
“amplitude”
 C=λν
• C = Speed of light (3.0 x 108 m/s)
• λ = Wavelength (in m)
• ν = Frequency (in 1/s)

hc
E= =hν
λ
• E = energy of the photon (in J)
• h = Planck’s constant (6.626 x 10-34 J•s)
The Bohr Model of the
Hydrogen Atom
The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
• Max Planck first hypothesized that energy produced by atoms can
only have certain values and is therefore quantized.
• That’s the reason why only distinct lines are seen in element line
spectra. Energy is quantized and can only exist at certain wavelengths.
The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
• Niels Bohr, a student of Rutherford, studied the line spectra of the
hydrogen atom to try to understand the electrons in the nuclear
model of the atom
• Bohr came up with a planetary model, in which electrons orbit the
nucleus in circular pathways
• His model was based on the idea that electrons and their energies are
quantized: they can have only certain values
Bohr’s Planetary Model
• The electron in the H atom can
occupy a specific orbit
• Electron energy increases as
distance from the nucleus
increases
• Bohr labeled the electron orbits
with a number, starting with 1
closest to the nucleus and
increasing as the orbits get
further away from the nucleus
Electron transitions to lower energy levels
result in the emission of light
• Which transition results in the
emission of light with the
greatest photon energy?

• Longest wavelength?

• Highest frequency?
Deficiencies of the Bohr Model
• It explains only the hydrogen atom and its spectrum
• The quantum math for electron energies can only be solved for hydrogen
• A more complex model was needed to describe all atoms in general
• As more data was collected, it became apparent that electrons are
not particles that physically travel around their nucleus
• The Bohr Planetary Model of the atom IS WRONG!
• Gppd scientists reevaluate theories in light of new evidence

• However, the Bohr model did give insight into the quantized behavior
of the atom that was later better understood
Electron Configuration
and Orbital Diagram
The Modern Model of the Atom
• The modern model of the atom is based on
Schrödinger’s mathematical model of waves
• This model describes electrons as occupying
orbitals, not orbits

• An “orbital” is a three-dimension region

in space where electrons are likely to be
found
• An orbital is not a circular pathway, like
planets around stars
Probability Map for lowest-energy state of
the electron in a H atom:
• A probability map shows where the
electron is most likely to be found
• The closer the dots, the higher the
probability
• Can use some observations and some
math to figure out orbitals

Example: A BMW in Los Angeles

S

F
Wavefunctions for H atom
Orbital Diagrams
Aufbau principle – “fill up” electrons in lowest energy orbitals first
Hund’s rule – The most stable arrangement of electrons in subshells is the one with the greatest number of
parallel spins. For the orbitals with the same energy, fill it up half way first, then pair it up.
Electron Configuration
Abbreviated electron configurations
Fe 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6
Ar 1s22s22p63s23p6

• It’s a hassle to keep writing out the same beginning for every atom
• Instead, a [noble gas] can be used:
Fe [Ar] 4s23d6
• This means, ‘the electron configuration is identical to that of Ar, plus
4s24d6
Paramagnetic
• contain unpaired
spins and are
attracted by a
magnet

Diamagnetic
• do not contain
unpaired spins and
are slightly
repelled by a
magnet
Valence Electrons
• “Valence electrons” are the
electrons in the outermost shell
of any given atom
• All electrons at that energy level
are valence electrons
• Valence electrons are the
electrons that participate in
chemical bonding
• A transition metal always has
two valence electrons. Why?
Electron Configurations for Ions
• In atoms, the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons,
which is the atomic number
• In ions, the number of electrons does not equal the atomic number
• Electrons must be added or subtracted, depending on whether the
ion is an anion or cation
• Electrons in ions otherwise follow exactly the same rules for orbital
filling
• When removing electrons to form a cation, the electron is always removed
from the outermost shell of orbitals
Electron Configurations of Cations of
Transition Metals
• When ionizing, electrons are always removed from the valence shell
• In transition metals, because the (#)s orbital fills before the (#-1)d
orbital does, the outermost electron shell is always the #th, even when
there are electrons in the d orbital

Example:
Fe: [Ar]4s23d6
Fe2+: [Ar]4s0d6 or [Ar]d6
Periodic Properties of
Atoms
Chemical Reactivity
• Chemical reactivity of element depends on their valence electron
configuration

• When two elements are “isoelectronic” they have the same number
of electrons and the same electron configuration
Examples: Na+ , Al3+, F-, O2-, and N3- are all isoelectronic with Ne
Effective Nuclear Charge (Zeff)
• The “effective nuclear charge” is the ‘positive charge’ felt by valence
electrons, minus the repelling force by electrons in inner orbitals

Zeff = Z – σ

Z is the actual nuclear charge

σ is the shielding constant (repulsive effect of other electrons)
Atomic Radii
Horizonal Trend
• To the right → more p+ →
electron cloud attracted to the
center → smaller size

Vertical Trend
• Go down → more electrons →
more occupied shells → bigger
size
Ionic Size
• A cation is always smaller than atom from which it formed
• An anion is always larger than atom from which it is formed

For each of the following pairs, indicate which one of the two species
is larger
a) N3- or F-
b) Mg2+ or Ca2+
c) Fe2+ or Fe3+
Ionization energy
• Energy (kJ/mol) required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom
in its ground state
• One electron is removed at a time
• Each succeeding ionization energy is larger than the preceding energy
Horizonal Trend
• To the right → more p+ →
more attraction → need
more energy to overcome
the attraction when an e- is
removed

Vertical Trend
• Go down → More layers of
electron → the valence
electron is further away
from the center (less
attraction) AND there are
more electrons in between
the nucleus and the valence
electron (less attraction) →
need less energy to
overcome the attraction
when an e- is removed
Exception in Ionization Energy Trend
• Orbitals are most stable when completely full,
and second most stable when half-filled
• If an atom can reach completely-full or half-
full orbitals by losing one electron, it will be
easier to do so

Example:
• P orbital in nitrogen is already at the stable
state (half-full); removing an electron from
there is difficult (takes more energy)
• P orbital in oxygen has one more electron
than the stable state (half-full); removing an
electron helps it to go back to the stable
state, so it is easier (takes less energy)
Electron Affinity (EA)
• “Electron affinity” is the amount of energy released when an electron is
added to a neutral atom or molecule in the gaseous state to form a
negative ion
• Sort of the opposite of ionization energy

Example:
F(g) + e- → F-(g) ΔH = -328 kJ/mol (negative sign = release)

Amount of energy released is 328 kJ/mol when the electron is gained.

• Large EA means the negative ion is very stable

Electronegativity
• “Electronegativity” is a quantification of an atom’s ability to attract
an electron, either to steal it outright or to form a joint custody
agreement
• Cannot be exactly known ahead of time
• It depends on the other forced affecting the electron, which is tun
depends on other atoms in the molecule
• There are general trends, which allows it to have predictive power
Horizonal Trend
• To the right → more p+ → more attraction
Vertical Trend
• Go down → More layers of electron → the valence electron is further
away from the center (less attraction) AND there are more electrons
in between the nucleus and the valence electron (less attraction)