Engineering Geology (BCV303)

Module 1- Introduction, the scope of earth science in Engineering

Geology: The science which deals with the physical structure and substance of the earth, their history,
and the processes which act on them.
Engineering Geology: is the application of the geology to engineering study for the
purpose of assuring that the geological factors regarding the location, design, construction,
operation and maintenance of engineering works are recognized and accounted for.
As we mentioned, there are many varieties of geology. There is so much to know about our home
planet that most geologists become specialists in one area. These specialties are known as branches of
geology, and have specific titles. For example, mineralogist studies minerals while a seismologist
monitors earthquakes to help protect people and property from harm.
Branches of Geology
As you’ve seen, different branches of geology study one particular part of earth. Since all of the
branches are connected, specialists work together to answer complicated questions. Let’s look at some
other important branches of geology.
Mineralogy - the scientific study of minerals
Petrology is the study of rocks - igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary - and the processes that form
and transform them. Mineralogy is the study of the chemistry, crystal structure and physical properties
of the mineral constituents of rocks.
Rock mechanics is a sub discipline within applied geology, geological engineering, and mining
engineering focused on the physical mechanics of rock with applications in both dynamic structural
geology and in engineering. ... In the lower end of the strength range, rock will approach soil-like
behavior.
Structural geology is scientific discipline that is concerned with rock deformation on both a large
and a small scale. Its scope of study is vast, ranging from submicroscopic lattice defects in crystals to
fault structures and fold systems of the Earth's crust.
Hydrogeology the branch of geology concerned with water occurring underground or on the surface of
the earth.
Stratigraphy is the science of understanding the variations in the successively layered character of
Rocks and their composition. These Rocks may be sedimentary, volcanic, metamorphic or igneous.
Geochemistry - Geochemistry is the study of the chemical processes which form and shape the Earth.

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It includes the study of the cycles of matter and energy which transport the Earth’s chemical
components and the interaction of these cycles with the hydrosphere and the atmosphere. It is a
subfield of inorganic chemistry, which is concerned with the properties of all the elements in the
periodic table and their compounds. Inorganic chemistry investigates the characteristics of substances
that are not organic, such as nonliving matter and minerals found in the Earth’s crust.

Oceanography
Oceanography is the study of the composition and motion of the water column and the processes which
are responsible for that motion. The principal oceanographic processes influencing continental shelf
waters include waves and tides as well as wind-driven and other oceanic currents. Understanding the
oceanography of shelf waters and the influence this has on seabed dynamics, contributes to a wide
range of activities such as the following:
1. Assessment Of Offshore Petroleum Production Infrastructure
2. Seabed Mapping And Characterization For Environmental Management
3. Marine Biodiversity Surrogacy Research
4. Assessment Of Renewable Energy Potential
Paleontology

Paleontologists are interested in fossils and how ancient organisms lived. Paleontology is the study of
fossils and what they reveal about the history of our planet. In marine environments, microfossils
collected within in layers of sediment cores provide a rich source of information about the
environmental history of an area.

Sedimentology

Sedimentology is the study of sediment grains in marine and other deposits, with a focus on physical
properties and the processes which form a deposit. Deposition is a geological process where geological
material is added toa landform. Key physical properties of interest include:
1. The size and shape of sediment grains
2. The degree of sorting of a deposit
3. The composition of grains within a deposit
4. Sedimentary structures.

These properties together provide a record of the mechanisms active during sediment transportation and
deposition which allows the interpretation of the environmental conditions that produced a sediment
deposit, either in modern settings or in the geological record.

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Additional Branches

Benthic Ecology. Benthic ecology is the study of living things on the seafloor and how they
interactwith their environment.
Biostratigraphy. Biostratigraphy is the branch of stratigraphy that uses fossils to establish relative
ages of rock and correlate successions of sedimentary rocks within and between depositional basins.
Geochronology. Geochronology is a discipline of geoscience which measures the age of earth
materials and provides the temporal framework in which other geoscience data can be interpreted in the
context of Earth history.
Geophysics. Information relating to various techniques including: airborne electromagnetics,
gravity, magnetics, Magnetotellurics, radiometrics, rock properties and seismic.
Marine Geochemistry. Marine geochemistry is the science used to help develop an understanding
of thecomposition of coastal and marine water and sediments.
Marine Geophysics. Marine geophysics is a scientific discipline which uses the quantitative
observationof physical properties to understand the seafloor and sub-seafloor geology.
Marine Surveying. The survey environment varies from oceanographic studies in the water
column to investigating sediment and geochemical processes on the seafloor and imaging the sub-
seafloor rocks. Surveys are carried over Australia’s entire marine jurisdiction, from coastal estuaries
and bays, across the continental shelf and slope, to the deep abyssal plains.
Spectral Geology. Spectral geology is the measurement and analysis of portions of the
electromagnetic spectrum to identify spectrally distinct and physically significant features of different
rock types and surface materials, their mineralogy and their alteration signatures.

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF EARTH

The Study of passage of earthquake waves through the earth has helped in knowing the interior of
earth. Velocity of seismic waves varies with depth below earth. Velocity curve shows sharp changes
at certain depths, these changes correspond to discontinuous surface which lie within the earth crust.

35KM

Mohorvicic Discontinuity

2908km Repetti Discontinuity

Oldham Discontinuity

Gutenberg Discontinuity

5370km

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CRUST: Outermost layer of solid rock which lies above mantle, has an average thickness of 35 km is
the crust. Under the continents it is possible to distinguish the layers, upper layer is less dense ([Link]-
2.65) and in granitic nature , is known as “SIAL” while the lower layer which is Basaltic in nature(
[Link]-3.0) is known as “SIMA”. The terms SIAL represents rocks rich in silica and magnesium. In
ocean areas only SIMA is found. Here there is a change in the velocity hence it is named as Mohorvicic
discontinuity.

Mantle: It lies beneath the earth’s crust and extends down up to 2908Km. It has been divided upper
and lower mantle. Upper mantle lies between 35 to 1000km depth. It is made up of ultrabasic rocks
like peridotite ([Link] 3.3) here we found Repetti Discontinuity. Lower mantle lies between 1000-
2900km and it contains Magnesium Minerals ([Link] 5.7), which is a mixture of basic rocks and metallic
Iron. Here we found Oldham discontinuity.
Core: It is situated from 2900km depth up to center of earth. Since S- waves do not pass through the
core, it is concluded that it may be liquid in state. Inner core begin at about 5000km. Here P- waves
increase in velocity which may indicate that may be solid state. Here we found Gutenberg
Discontinuity. Both states of core is believed to consists of NiFe having sp. Gr = 10.

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Application of Geology in Civil Engineering:

Geology is the study of earth, the materials of which it is made, the structure of those materials and the
effects ofthe natural forces acting upon them and is important to civil engineering because all work
performed by civil engineers involves earth and its features.

The value of geology in mining has long been known but its use in civil engineering has been
recognized only in comparatively recent years. Geology provides a systematic knowledge of
construction material, its occurrence, composition, durability and other properties. Example of such
construction materials is building stones, road metal, clay, limestone and laterite. The knowledge of the
geological work of natural agencies such as water, wind, ice and earthquakes helps in planning and
carrying out major civil engineering works. For example the knowledge of erosion, transportation and
deposition helps greatly in solving the expensive problems of river control, coastal and harbor work and
soil conservation.
Geology provides a systematic knowledge of construction materials and their occurrence, formation,
durability, strength, hardness and uses.
Before starting any major/minor civil construction at a place, a detailed geological report which is
accompanied by geological maps and sections is prepared. The detailed geological report
contains types of rocks (Petrology), types of formations (geological structures) and physical
properties of earth (Geophysics). Petrology is the study of rocks, where it provides rock hardness,
chemical composition, strength, durability etc.
Petrology is particularly important as it gives the required load bearing properties of the rock which
will help in deciding the usage. Sometimes there is a possibility of rocks of acceptable compressive
strength beingsusceptible to chemical reactions, and may not be preferred for construction fields .
Structural Geology is the study of patterns that are formed below the earth like folds, faults, joints and
unconformity. Structural Geology is the necessary factor at present for major construction projects.
On account of the effects of these anomalies on the structures, there are few examples with
negligible geological considerations which create loss to both life and property. In the recent years it
has been noticed that more importance is given to the study of geological structures due to the past
experiences.
Geophysics is the study of physical properties and composition of the interior earth using gravity field,
magnetic field and geothermal field. Modern geophysics methods that are used in civil engineering
are mainly non-destructive testing. Equipment like geophones are employed to map the interiors of the
earth crust by creating vibrations at a certain point and recording the same at a particular distance.
Geophones use the concept of wave propagation to map the materials that may be present in the
field. Geophysics is particularly important for shallow constructions where the underground
amenities are not known
Geological investigation in engineering construction is used to build Tunnels, dams and bridges.
Geology helps greatly in interpreting the drilling data. In tunneling, constructing roads, canals, docks
and in determining the stability of cuts and slopes, the knowledge about the nature and structure of
rocks is very necessary. Before staring a major engineering project at a place, a detailed geological
report which is accompanied by geological maps and sections, is prepared. Such a report helps in
planning and constructing the projects. The stability of civil engineering structure is considerably
increased if the geological feature like faults, joints, bedding planes, folding solution channels etc. in
the rock beds are properly located and suitably treated.

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Plate Tectonics
Plate tectonics is a scientific theory that explains how major landforms are created as a
result of Earth's subterranean movements. The theory, which solidified in the 1960s,
transformed the earth sciences by explaining many phenomena, including mountain building
events, volcan oes, and earthquakes. There are four types of boundaries between tectonic plates
that are defined by the movement of the plates: divergent and convergent boundaries,
transform fault boundaries, and plate boundary zone

SEISMOLOGY

EARTHQUAKE

It is a sudden and rapid shaking of the ground occurs due to rapid release of energy.
Earthquake occurs occasionally but the destruction causes loss of life and property. FOCUS is
the exact spot underneath the earth surface at which an earthquake originates
(Hypocenter), while the point on the earth surface lying above thefocus is defined as
EPICENTER.

Earthquake focus is described based on the depth as follows,

i. Shallow:- It is less than 70 km below ground surface.
ii. Intermediate: Between 70 to 300 km.
iii. Deep: Below 300 to 700 km.

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CAUSES of Earthquakes: broadly classified based on the following categories

Safety measures in seismic areas: It is impossible to stop the earthquake and the effects depends from
place to place. All earthquakes can create great damage to life, buildings, natural ecosystem
[Link] it is possible to minimize the impact by predicting through Seismograph instrument.

SIESMIC WAVES: The focus releases strain energy in several types of wave motions called
as seismic or earthquake waves. These waves travel in all directions in different paths, modes
and speeds proportional to the densities of the materials through which they travel. The speed
increases with density when they reach the ground surface and spread out in ever widening
circles around the epicenter like water waves from a point of impact in a pond and causes that
span of the ground to shake

SEISMOLOGY

Study of Earthquake.

Different types of scales that measures the Intensity of earthquake in different countries as follows

Old gram scale of India

 Omari scale of Japan
Rossiforel scale of Italy
 Richters scale of France

Richters is the standard scale among the above mentioned scales. In the year 1935, C.F. Richters
developed different types of logarithmic scales for comparing the magnitude of California earthquake.

Seismograph:- Sensitive instrument that records the vibrationof earthquakes using Pen, Rotating drum,
Spring/ wire, Weight rod, Damping magnet and Metallic frame. A simple seismograph consists of rigid
metallic frame fixed firmly tothe ground by a metallic frame.
A heavy weighted rod with attached pen is made oscillate freely through a wire on the rotating
drum mounted with photosensitive graph paper. Minute oscillations occurinside the earth waves are
recorded in zig zag pattern called seismograph.

Seismogram:- Vibrations detected by seismograph are commonly recorded on a photographic paper as

a series of zig zag line called seismogram. Seismogram records the different kinds of earthquake waves
namely P- waves, S-waves and L- waves.

P-waves (Primary or push and pull waves):- These arethe 1st recorded in recoding station as
compressive typeof push and pull waves, like sound waves. These waves can penetrate through solid,
liquid and gaseous media and travel at a speed of about 5.4 km/sec.

S-waves (Secondary or shake waves):- These are vibrations caused by the shake of the earthquake
such as light waves which travels at a speed of about 3.5 km/sec. This can penetrate only through solid
media.

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L-waves (Long or surface waves):- These are the waves produced by reflections and refractions of P
and S waves in the immediate neighborhood of the epicenter. These travel with a rotary movement in
thevertical plane,like sea waves. They travel at a speed of 1km/sec only along the ocean floor.

DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKE:

Indian continent is divided into different zones based on the intensity of earthquake such as

Zone Of Maximum Intensity: - It covers the North-Eastern regions especially the folded chains of
Himalayas. Geographically, it covers the important states of Jammu & Kashmir, Assam, Himachal
Pradesh, Nagaland, Uttar Pradesh etc.

Zone Of Intermediate Intensity:- It covers the important regions of Indo-gangetic basin covering an
area of Punjab, West Bengal, Bihar etc.

Zone Of Minimum Intensity:- This covers the important states in South India such as Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu, Kerala.

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Important criteria to build Earthquake resisting structures as follows

Light and elastic constructions.

Heavy and rigid constructions with uniform depth of foundation.
One should strictly utilize the best quality materials according to the standard specifications.
The size of the doors and windows should be minimized.
Height of the building should be kept to single floor only.
Seismic waves should be recorded using Seismograph before selecting a site for construction.
Making reinforce structural columns should be maintained to distribute the load on each column.
 The seismogram below shows the arrival times of an earthquake's P-wave and S-wave
recorded at a seismic station in Portland, Oregon. What was the distance from Portland to the
earthquake's epicenter? A) 1800 km B) 2500 km C) 3200 km D) 4100 km. Use of polymer and
lightweight materials.
Avoid stone cladding and stone pillars.
Bridges with screw pile foundation stand better to the shocks.
 The wall should be continuous in nature, the long walls and cross walls be created
simultaneously without any joints.
Strongly designed steel framed or reinforced ferro-concrete structures posses’ high degree of
Resistance should be well utilized.

1) The seismogram below shows the arrival times of an earthquake's P-wave and S-wave
recorded at a seismic station in Portland, Oregon. What was the distance from Portland to the
earthquake's epicenter? A) 1800 km B) 2500 km C) 3200 km D) 4100 km

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VOLCANIC ERUPTION

It is an outpour of thick lava and ashinto the earth when magma rises through cracks or weak-
spots. Magma forms when a part of earth’s upper mantle or lower crust melts. Mixture of melted rock
and dissolved gases which accumulated below the earth crust is called as magma; whereas the
magma material which poursout of the surface through volcanic eruptions is called as lava.

As an average, one volcano erupts in every 12 hours and 1,500 volcanoes have been active in the last
10,000 years. A violently erupting volcano that has produced ash fall, ash flow and volcanic mudflows
is likely to do the same in the future.

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CAUSES:

i. Plate Tectonics: Movement of tectonic plates pushes under the other plate causing the magma
chamber to burst out. This kind of eruption produces sticky, thick lava at temperatures from 8000 to
1,0000C.

ii. The buoyancy of the magma: The volume of overlying magma will increase due to increase in
temperature causing buoyancy. This lighter overlying magma then rises toward the surface by virtue of
its buoyancy and erupts.

iii. The pressure from the gases in the magma: Water, sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide are the
volatiles occur in magma with zero atmospheric pressure. These increase their volume due to rise in
pressure conditions.

iv. Forceful injection of new magma into the magma chamber will move up and erupt to the surface

EFFECTS:

i. Tephra: During powerful explosion the old lava at the top will blasts into tiny pieces and will hurled
into the air.

ii. Lahars: These are mixtures of water, rock, ash, sand and mud that originates from the slopes of a
volcano occurs due to heavy rainfall.

iii. Landslides: Heat from cooling magma can cause hydrothermal alteration of the rocks turning the
minto clay. This weakens the rocks and increases the risk of slope failures.

iv. Flooding: Explosive eruptions can change the surface areas around a volcano and disrupt drainage
patterns leading to long-term flooding.

v. Volcanic eruption will also impacts on Food, Water Supply interruption, Homelessness, Businesses
forced to close, Cost of insurance claims, Unemployment, Long-term issues with the tourism industry.

LANDSLIDES

The surface movements of the materials from its original position either by suddenly or
extremely slow motion on the hill slope, valley, reservoir etc. Such movements of the surfacial rock
mass which may be minor or major; may involve consolidated rocks or loose material which may take
in any direction are popularly known as landslides.

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Classification of Landslides:- Mass failure is divided into four major groups on the basis of type of
failure. Each, group is further subdivided into classes on the basis of rate of movement, nature of the
mass and degree of saturation.
SlNo Flowage Sliding Subsidence
Slow flowage Rapid flowage
1. Rock creep Earth flow Slump Sinking of the
mass
2. Soil creep Mud flow Rock slides
3. Solifluction Rock fall Debris slides
Debris fall

Flowage:- It is a downgrade movement of mass of invariably loose packed by natural process of decay.
Flowage is further divided into slow and rapid flowage. Slow flowages will move down about few cms
a year; while rapid flowages are visible and may travel a few meters a day or even more.

Sliding:- An unstable rock mass fails and move along the slopes due to underneath soft soil or rock of
curved surface. In loose rock mass and weathered top surfaces failures mostly noticed along curved
surfaces.

Subsidence:- It is the sinking of the ground in almost vertically downward direction, which may occur
due to removal of the support from the underground and overlying mass.

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CAUSES OF LANDSLIDES:- Many factors are causing a mass of material to slide or flow. Some of
them play a direct role and are easily understand whereas others are indirectly responsible for the
instability of the landmass. All such factors that facilities land sliding in one way or another is generally
grouped under two headings.

INTERNAL FACTORS:-

a. The nature of slope:- Great majority of mass failure indicates that the slopes are directly
responsible. In some cases, steep to very steep slopes are stable, but in some other cases, even gentle
slopes show unstable conditions.

b. Water content:- Water act in a number of ways to reduce the shearing strength of the rock or soil
mass. Presence of water in the
rocks pore spaces affects all the strength properties adversely, when water flow around the grains. This
flow of water around grains and planes of weaknesses creates lubricating action which is of greater
importance.

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c. Composition and compaction of the mass:- Compaction plays as important part in stability of
the masses. Sandstone exhibits a great variation in chemical composition. Siliceous sandstones would
be highly stable even during intensive rains and at steep slopes; whereas clayey or calcareous may
suffer repeated failure under same conditions. Texture of rocks also plays an important part indicating
the degree & packing of grains. Porosity and
permeability are the two important factors influencing the percolation of water throughthe mass.

d. Geological structures: Of all the geological structure the inclination (dip), joints, fault zones of
the rock beds, presence or deposition of shear and other planes of weakness are important in defining
their stability.

II. EXTERNAL FACTORS:- Rock mass failure occurs due to earthquakes and blasting around
mines nearby.

a. Soil creep:- It is a type of slow flowage of soil take place under the vegetation cover commonly
in cold humid slopes. Frost (ice) action favors soil creep in particular when water seeping in pores and
expands due to freezing. This repeated expansion and contraction or drying and wetting may result in
breaking the soil to loose grains that can be moved downward under
the pull of the gravity.

b. Solifluction:- It is also a slow flowage type of mass movement and issimilar to soil creep in the
rate of downward. It is the slow movement of blankets of soil or rock fragments occurs even in very
gentle slopes after rainfall. It differs from soil creep in water content and that it is comparatively faster.

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c. Earth and Mud flow:- These are rapid type of clays, silts type of mass movements takes place
usually after heavy rains or heavy meltingof snow and ice. Clay on becoming wet rendered plastic and
start almost slipping under its own load in the presence of water. In mudflows the quantity of the water
is very high so that the whole massis reduced to slush or mud.

d. Rock slides:- It’s a type of compact rock fails due to the pull of gravity which starts moving
downward without rolling action. This failure surface may be curved or planar in nature. It’s a very
complex phenomenon occurs due to either natural orartificial frictional forces offered by the mass
against gravity. Rocks containing layers of clay with dipping towards valley are likely to cause
rockslides.

f. Rock falls:- This occurs when the slopes are extremely high or rocksurface is highly fractured or
jointed so that the falling mass is made up of numerous small or large blocks. These blocks slide for
some distances and then start rolling down when the slope is very steep.

REMEDIAL MEASURES OF LANDSLIDES

Many methods for controlling the slides are available and choice of many methods will depend
of factors like nature of slide, the underlying cause for it, the nature and amount of material involved
and the economical consideration, of such method most important are.

1. Providing adequate drainage:- It involves the removal of moisture from the rocks as well as
preventing any further moisture to approach the material to sliding. This may be achieved either by
surface drainage or by subsurface drainage, construction of interpretation ditches, waterway, trenches
and drainage tunnels may become necessary. Grouting the joints and other fractures may also prove
helpful.

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2. Construction of retaining walls:- All such devices like construction of retaining wall are
aimed to stop the moving mass by force and their success is always doubtful. Construction of retaining
wall requires an accurate assessment of the forces, which the wall has to withstand. Retaining walls
may prove exceptionally, successful where,
i) The ground is neither too fine nor too plastic
ii) The sliding mass is likely to remain dry
iii) The movement is of shallow nature

3. Slope treatment:- When the material is soil and situation is a slope the failure is attributed to a
loss of stability. In such cases the treatment involves stability for the particular type of soil and slope
and if such computation indicate that a given slope of soil will not be stable, then the solution lies in
either.
I. Flattening the slope
II. Decreasing the load
III. Increasing the shearing resistant of the soil by decreasing its water content with help of
drainsand evaporation
IV. Afforestation that is growth of vegetation cover with intricate and interwoven root system has
also been found useful in stabilizing the barren slopes.

TSUNAMI:- It is derived from Japanese word meaning very tall tidal waves (or) Harbor waves. The
Intensity of Tsunami is measured by the speed and height of water waves on land. The run-off of water
on land is related to the magnitude of the earthquake and may exceed 30mts (1000 ft) for the largest
Tsunami. Tsunami occurred many times in history. Huge mass of rising water rushed at a tremendous
speed destroying and devastating whatever came in its way. Tsunami caused a wide spread damage and
destruction to life and property in coastal areas of Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand etc.
 The first Tsunami in India struck in 1874 near Bhola, a small town in Bengal killing 12
lakhpeople.
 The second Tsunami hit Andaman and Nicobar Islands in India on 26th June1941 and
recorded amagnitude of 8.5 in Ritcher’s scale.
 The latest Tsunami is occurred on 26th Dec 2004 in Indian Ocean with magnitude of 8.9
inRichter scale killing thousands of people in Chennai.

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Fig. Section of Sea basin

SECTION OF SEA BASIN: Depth of earth crust about 35 km exist below the continents, a thickness
of hardly 6 km if earth crust exist below an ocean and bottom of the ocean basin is about 5 km below
the sea water level. The depth of ocean basin is not achieved abruptly and steeply from shoreline, but it
is achieved gradually from the shore to the deep interior as shown in figure. Starting from the shore
towards the deep sea, the
following four may be recognized in an ocean basin.

i. Littoral zone:- The littoral zone is the near shore area of 5 to 10 mts depth where
sunlight penetrates all the way to the sediment and allows aquatic plants (macrophytes) to grow. In
coastal environments the littoral zone extends from the high water marks that is permanently
submerged. This zone indicates the area between the high tide and low tide levels. The sediments
found are the coarse fragments of the rock waste and bare sands zone make beautiful beaches.

i. Continental shelf:- The maximum depth in this zone is about 180 to 200 mts and showing
gentle slopes. The continental shelf starts below the low tide level and may extend upto 300 km in
distance. The sediments deposited are well sorted with coarse particles in initial shallower zone,
and finer particle towards the deeper portions. The upper portion is liable to be affected by the
sunlight, seasonal temperature changes, and current wave action. A major part of sea plant life
and animals like molasses grow. Lower part shows little penetration of sunlight and it is
characterized by the deposition of only fine sediments like mud & sea animals like corals.
ii. Continental slope:- This zone is represented by a suddenly increased slope as shown in figure.
The depth variation in this zone from sea level may be from 200 m to as much as 3000 m and so
on. It is characterized low temperature and deposition of fine colored muds & micro organisms in

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this zone.

iv. Abyssal zone/ deep sea:- This is the deepest zone of the sea basin situated at the depth of 4000
to 6000 mts marking the deep sea/ ocean floor and it is characterized by deposition of finest muds
of oozes and red clays. The red color of the fine clays of this zone is primarily due to iron
oxidation.

CAUSES

1. Tsunamis are caused by sudden movements of the earth that happens under the sea. Often the
most destructive Tsunamis are caused by earthquakes but causes can also include volcanic
eruptions, landslides or even a comet hitting the sea.
2. Landslides cause tsunamis when the debris falls into the water. This has the same effect of
dropping a large stone into a pool - big ripples are created. But when this happens in the sea and it is
thousands of tonnes of rock and earth falling into the sea a very large ripple, more like a tidal wave is
created. This travels across the sea until it comes into contact with land and a tsunami is formed.
3. Volcanoes cause tsunamis when there is an eruption. The volcano can either be on land or
under the sea, in which case it is known as a submarine volcano. If the volcanic eruption happens on
land, the tsunami is caused by debris and lava from the volcano flowing into the sea, which once again
causesa bug ripple.

If the eruption happens under water, the enormous power of the eruption sends shudders through
the earth and disrupts the water. The water in the sea then breaks into waves which travel across the
ocean until they come into contact with a coast. Here, a tsunami is formed

EFFECTS

1. Loss of Life: People living in coastal regions, towns and villages have no time to escape. Since
1850 alone, tsunamis have been responsible for the loss of more than 430,000 lives. As Tsunami hits
the land it leaves very little to time to escape. This results in instant death by drowning, building
collapsing, electrocution and others.

2. Disease: Flooding and contamination of drinking water can cause disease to spread in the
tsunami hit areas. Illnesses such as malaria arise when water is stagnant and contaminated. Under these
conditions it is difficult for people to stay healthy and for diseases to be treated, so infections and
illnesses can spread very quickly, causing more death.

3. Environmental impacts: It uproots trees and plants and destroys animal habitats such as nesting
sites for birds. Land animals are killed by drowning and sea animals are killed by pollution if dangerous
chemicals are washed away into the sea, thus poisoning the marine life. Solid waste and disaster debris
are the most critical environmental problem faced by a tsunami-hit country.
4. Cost: Massive costs hit communities and nations when a tsunami happens. The total financial

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cost of the tsunami could be millions or even billions of dollars of damage to coastal structures and
habitats. Reconstruction and clean up after a tsunami is a huge cost problem. Infrastructure must be
replaced, unsafe buildings demolished and rubbish cleared.
Psychological effects: Victims of tsunami events often suffer psychological problems which can last
for days, years or an entire lifetime. Survivors of the Sri Lankan tsunami of December 2004 were found
to have PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder) when examined by the World Health Organization
(WHO): 14% to 39% of these were children, 40% of adolescents and 20% of mothers of these
adolescents were found to have PTSD 4 months after the tsunami.

Prepared By: Bhavya S ,SJCIT Page 19