Astronomy Quiz

Study Material Part 3

The Big Bang

The universe formed some 12.5 billion years ago. Much is speculation, but somehow from a tiny speck
everything including space, time, matter and energy unfolded into something that became recognizable as an
early version of the universe we see about us today. Initially, the temperature was too intense to allow matter to
condense from energy. All of the energy was in the form of fierce gamma radiation.
After expanding for many thousands of years, the temperature of the Universe had cooled to the point where
gamma radiation could form neutrons, protons and electrons. Almost all of this matter was in the form of
hydrogen (91+%) and helium (8%) and less than a percent lithium, an isotope of hydrogen (deuterium) and an
isotope of helium (helium 3). Almost no other elements were created at this time. It is a matter of debate
whether primordial black holes were also created. The forces were enough so that dense knots of matter
could create black holes. These black holes may be the "seed" around which galaxies formed.

The Universe
Today large clouds of gas exist throughout the universe. Most of it is simple atoms, but some of these clouds
contain simple molecules and dust. Most of it has collected in and around galaxies. While we see star formation
throughout the universe, and we see the absorption of smaller galaxies when the encounter larger galaxies, we
no longer see the formation of new galaxies.
The nature of the interstellar gas is very different today from the original gas. While hydrogen and helium still
abound, other elements can be found in densities as high as 7%. This has profound consequences for the type
of stellar systems that can form. Most importantly, heavy elements allow rocky planets such as the Earth to
form. These new elements came from the transmutation of elements in the hearts of first generation stars.
Elements up to iron in weight can be formed in normal stars and ejected into space as solar winds and
exploding shells when the stars reach the red giant stage. Elements heavier than iron are created and
distributed by a much more dramatic process - supernovas.

Star Formation
Stars are continually being formed from the huge reservoirs of hydrogen gas the fill the galaxies. It was once
thought that gravity played the role of "gas compressor", but we now know that there hasn't been time since the
formation of the universe to have many clouds compress naturally into stars. A triggering event is required. The
two principle events are density waves and supernovae.
The center of every galaxy appears to contain a black hole. This is by no means certain, but something large
and dense exists there. Lines of magnetic force stream outwards and are bent along the leading edges of the
galactic arms. This creates a density wave, which sweeps up and compresses hydrogen and helium along
with any other elements, which may be in the region. Although we cannot look down on the Milky Way to see
such area, we can see similar areas in thousands of other galaxies. Along the leading edge of their arms,
young fierce glowing blue white stars abound, a sure sign of star formation.
Stellar Luminosity
The luminosity (the total emitted energy) of a star is directly proportional to
the fourth power of it mass. To maintain this power output, the star must
consume its fuel proportional to its fourth power as well. If one main
sequence star is 3 times as massive as another star, it will shine 81 times
as brightly. It also fuses its fuel 81 times as rapidly. As stars leave the
main sequence this relationship is disrupted.
The term luminosity is the preferred to describe the brightness of a star.
For historical reason, the portion of a star's spectrum that lies in the visual
range is measured by a magnitude scale. Stars of the first magnitude
seem to be twice as bright as those of the second magnitude, which in
turn seem to be twice as bright as those of the third magnitude. In fact, a
closer relation ship is that every five magnitudes in brightness represent a
100-fold change in luminosity. Luminosity is measured directly. Magnitude
is measured on an inverse logarithmic scale. Larger magnitudes mean
dimmer stars, which is counterintuitive. Larger luminosities mean brighter
stars exactly as you would think.
Do not confuse apparent luminosities with absolute luminosities. Apparent
brightness depends on how a star looks to us on Earth. Absolute
brightness depends on how bright a star would be at the standard distance
of ten parsecs (33.26 light-years).

Stellar Lifetimes
The time that a star spends on the main sequence is INVERSELY
proportional to the cube of its mass. This is a direct result of the luminosity relationship we just discussed.
Since a stars luminosity (and hence its rate of fuel consumption) is proportional to the fourth power of the mass
but its mass is only the first power, stars have a lifetime which is proportional to M/M4 or simply M-3.
Large stars have very short lifetimes. A maximal sized star of about 100 solar masses will live 1 MILLIONTH as
long as the Sun. A minimal sized star of 0.08 solar masses will
live 1950 times as long as the Sun. Since the Sun will live about 10 billion years, the largest
stars burn out in just about 10 THOUSAND years but smallest stars will
live 19.5 TRILLION years.

Stellar Classifications
When stars coalesce from interstellar gas clouds, their temperature and
pressure rise from frictional heating and gravity. Once nuclear processes
begin gas already falling in from the spinning disk collides with gas
expanding from nuclear fusion. One way that Herbig-Haro stars relieve
this problem is to eject mass at the poles of the new star.
Young stars have yet to achieve hydrostatic balance between the rate of
energy production and the size of the star. As much as ten times the
material that will eventually form the finished star exists in the new stellar
system. This material must be driven back into the interstellar medium.
Stars in this stage of development are called T-Tauri stars.
Brown dwarfs weighing between 0.01 and 0.08 stellar masses are neither true stars nor planets but
intermediate objects. They radiate in the infrared. Most of their heat comes from gravitational contraction.
However, sometimes their central cores are hot enough to fuse deuterium, lithium or beryllium. These elements
fuse at a temperature several million degrees cooler than the minimum required for hydrogen fusion. However,
there are so few of these atoms that they are unlike to encounter each other in a core that is largely hydrogen
and helium. When these elements do fuse, they expand the core cooling it enough to shut down the reactions.
Once a body of hydrogen reaches 0.08 solar masses, it has enough material so that gravitational contraction
will raise the central core to 15 million degrees. Hydrogen begins to fuse. A true star is born.
When the new star has a mass between 0.08 and 0.4 solar masses, it forms a small dim red dwarf star. Of the
100 nearest stars 92 are red dwarfs. They form in great numbers but their total luminosity is so low that
galaxies seem blue white. Indeed, Proxima Centauri, the nearest star to the solar system is 13th magnitude -
no brighter than dim little Pluto.
Most normal sized stars are the so-called main sequence dwarfs. They are in the spectral classes K, G, F and
A with masses between 0.4 and 3.3 solar masses. The term "dwarf" is unfortunate because it seems to imply a
star of small dimensions. In fact they are much larger and brighter than an average star. For example the Sun is
a yellow G2 dwarf, yet of the 100 nearest stars only 3 are a bit larger and another is just a bit smaller. 95 stars
have diameter, which are less than 60% of the Sun, and masses, which are less than 40% of the Sun. No
nearby star is really large, although Sirius is almost twice the mass of the Sun. Some orange, yellow, white
(green) stars fall into a category of subgiants. Subgiants are large stars, which are in the process of leaving
the main sequence. These stars swell as the hydrogen fusion shell approaches the surface. Most of these stars
are variables.
The largest main sequence stars are the blue giants. They are between 3.3 and 100 solar masses. While they
are called blue giants, they can be blue, violet or even ultraviolet in color. These stars are extremely bright and
short lived. Of the roughly 6000 stars that can be seen by the human eye, all but 50 are either red or blue
giants. Blue giants of necessity are all very young stars. Some of these blue giants become unstable - like
Dschubba and Gamma Cassiopeia - throwing off huge shells of gas and briefly becoming very bright. A few
actually become supernovae without first becoming red giants.
Red giants posed a paradox to early astronomers. They were very red (hence they were cool) and they were
very bright (which seemed impossible - because the black body laws [which we shall learn about in the Physics
Section] say the red objects emit light dimly). Finally, astronomers realized that a star with a very low brightness
per square meter could actually put out a huge luminosity if its surface area was enormous.
Red giants have HUGE volumes although they have low density. A typical red giant like Antares or Betelgeuse
will have a volume as large as the orbit of Mars. The largest known red giant VV Cassiopeia is calculated to
have a diameter as large as the orbit of Saturn.
Red giants are aging stars, which have converted a large portion of their hydrogen to helium (typically 40-50%).
As the core fills up with helium "ashes" the fusion zone approaches the surface. However at some point the gas
above the star has too little remaining mass and the star stops being stable and begins to swell. The swollen
star emits more light that before cooling it at a new less healthy stage. Red giants with lower mass (such as the
Sun will become) will eventually simply become white dwarfs. High mass red giants are rapidly on their way to
becoming supernova.

Stellar Instability : Variable stars

Eclipsing binaries are binary stars have the plane of their orbit edge on to the solar system. As the stars
revolve around their barycenter they will regularly pass in front of one another. Since at least some of the total
surface area is masked, the luminosity will drop. If one star is much brighter than its companion, there will be
alternating large and small dips in the luminosity. By timing the dips precisely and determining the stars mass
and velocity by applying Newton's laws of gravitation, it is possible to determine the diameters of the stars very
accurately.
Flare stars appear to change more profoundly than they really do. All main sequence stars appear to emit
flares. Against a bright star such as the Sun, Sirius or Rigil, a flare is lost in the overall brightness of the star.
Against a dim red dwarf however, the flare can actually be brighter than the rest of the star's surface. All stars
have flares where a pocket of overheated gas erupts at the surface. Momentarily, the star emits radiation of
shorter wavelengths (blue, violet, ultra violet and x-rays). On a moderate star like the Sun, a flare tends to fade
into surface brightness. Flares are unnoticeable on large blue stars. However, on a small red dwarf, a flare can
actually be brighter than the star itself. For periods of a few minutes to a few hours the star may brighten
several magnitude. Some amateurs watch a collection of red dwarfs looking for these flares.
Certain yellow orange subgiants (called Cepheid variables) pulsate in a very regular manner. It is possible to
determine exactly how far these stars are from the solar system by timing the pulse rate. What makes these
Cephied variables unusually useful is that they are bright enough to be seen in distant galaxies.
Hydrostatic balance is the balance between the expanding forces from the heat produced by fusion and
compressive forces from gravity. Imbalances between the expansion and compression can cause pulsations.
These stars expand when they are hottest, emit radiation more rapidly when they are inflated, cool and contract
in a cycle. Cepheid variables are examples of pulsating stars.

Stellar Deaths :

Supernovae are the deaths of very large stars. Stars which start out at least 10 times the mass of the Sun
cannot shed enough mass by ejecting shells by the time their core reaches 1.4 solar masses
(Chandrashekhar's limit) [details to follow in Physics]. This results in an enormous explosion where all the
elements of the periodic table beyond the first groups are produced. Supernovae can outshine their galaxy
(billions and even trillions of star power) for a few weeks. Even this most titanic of nuclear explosions does not
totally destroy the star. A core of compressed material remains. If the core is less than 1.4 solar masses it
creates a white dwarf. If it is between 1.4 and 3 solar masses it forms a neutron star. More than 3 solar masses
results in a black hole.
White dwarfs can result from supernovae, but they also are the end product of stars, which go through the red
giant stage without going supernova. The sun will someday become a white dwarf after it swells into a red giant
stage. You can see a white dwarf at the center of the Cat's Eye nebula.
White dwarfs no longer fuse hydrogen into helium. The core is composed of helium or some heavier element
(usually, carbon, oxygen, neon, silicon, magnesium or sulfur). Since there is no steady source of fusion energy,
white dwarfs slowly cool down eventually become cold inert [hundreds of trillions of years] black dwarfs. No
white dwarf is believed to have entered black dwarf stage yet.
Astronomers used to think that nova and supernova were differing degrees of the same thing - stellar
explosions. However, they are really quite dissimilar. Supernovae are titanic explosions, which rip stars
scattering elements into the universe. Novae are recurring small explosions, which leave their "star" intact.
Novae are white dwarfs or neutron stars in close orbit around a main sequence star. The fierce gravity of the
burnt out star strips the outer layers of hydrogen from the main sequence star. When enough accumulates on
the burnt out star, a hydrogen bomb type explosion takes place.
We have already seen that neutron stars are supernovae remnants where the core is greater than 3 solar
masses. These objects are very odd things indeed. In "normal" white dwarfs, the elements left after the
supernova explosion, are left as plasma (sort of a gas where the electrons have been stripped away). The white
dwarf does not have fusion energy to hold the star up from collapse, but the "electron pressure" (like charges
repel) keeps the white dwarf steady at about the size of the planet Earth in diameter.
All this changes in neutron stars. Once the mass reaches 1.4 Sol, the gravity becomes so intense that the
electrons are dragged kicking and screaming into the core. They get squished into the protons (positively
charged nuclear particles) neutralizing them and becoming neutrons (uncharged nuclear particles). The star
loses the pressure of the "degenerate electrons" and it collapses into a ball about 10 miles in diameter spinning
at hundreds and thousands of times per second. The surface of a neutron star spins very near the speed of
light.
Effectively, this neutron star is a single giant (fiercely radioactive) atom. It is very nearly the densest object in
the universe. A sugar cube chunk of this stuff would weigh more that Mount Everest.
Pulsars (a type of neutron star) spin extremely rapidly. Near their poles, they emit
charged particles at very near the speed of light. Think of them as swizzle sticks
spinning around blindingly fast. The swizzle sticks of charged particles sweep up and
stir around the gas in the system they reside in causing a form of electromagnetic
radiation. Some of this is in the radio frequencies and the rest in higher frequencies up
to visible flashes. If the beam of charged particles is lined up in the direction of the
Solar system, the electromagnetic radiation will flash on us. When these very regular
flashes were first detected many astronomers suspected they were artificially produced
by alien species.
Supernova remnants greater than 3 solar masses cannot remain stable at the neutron
star stage. They become the most exotic of all stellar objects - black holes. Gravity again begins its relentless
pull. The gravity reaches a point where no particles, not even light can escape because they would have to
travel above the speed of light (the universal maximum) to leave the ex-star. [There is an odd form of radiation
(Hawking radiation) which can leave the event horizon of a black hole through quantum mechanical processes
but we will not discuss it here].
Role of Supernovae
We are such things as dreams are made on,” said Shakespeare. I wonder what he would
have said if he realized that it is also quite literally true that once our very elements were
forged in the hearts of the largest stars. Look at the Crab Nebula as the explosion, which
tore it apart, sends material through space. However, the material which pours out of a
supernova is not just the hydrogen and helium which formed the star but nitrogen,
oxygen, carbon, silicon, sulfur, magnesium, neon, iron and in fact to some degree or
other every element in the natural world.
One role of a supernova is to create the elements from which Population I (metal rich)
stars are formed. These are the stars that can have rocky, watery worlds where life can
form. The other crucial role that supernova play is becoming another source of gas
compression and the triggering of new stars. Like density waves, the bow wave of a
supernova explosion pushes everything before it and compresses gas until its own
gravity can take over forming a new set of stars.
For our purposes, the event horizon marks the point where anything that enters the black hole cannot leave.
There is a false belief that black holes are all powerful vacuums, which slurp anything and everything into their
maw. This is not so. For example if you squeezed the Earth into a black hole (an event horizon about the size
of a marble), and stood at a distance of 6,400 kilometers from it (our current distance from the center of the
Earth) the gravity would be exactly 1 G. The field would only become great as we came very close to the black
hole.

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 Some useful terms & definitions

Asteroids : Asteroids (sometimes called planetoid) are planetesimals, which orbit a star. Ideally, all asteroids
would be planetesimals, however some larger asteroids are actually worlds. The dividing line is an arbitrary
1000 km.
Brightness : A measure of a star's magnitude or brightness as seen from the Earth. Brightness is dependent
on luminosity and distance.
Degrees : The separation between two points of light on the celestial sphere is measured in degrees. A closed
fist held at arms length is about 10 degrees while a finger would be 1 degree or two moon widths.
Dwarf Stars : Dwarfs are regular stars like the Sun, which have modest masses and modest volumes. Stars,
which are not some sort of “giant”, are called dwarfs no matter what their size. super dense star is called a
white or a black dwarfs.
Giant Stars : Giant Stars have volumes many thousands of times that of the Sun. Some "sub-giants" and "blue
giants" have masses much greater than the Sun, but volumes, which are not radically larger than the Sun.
Luminosity : The intrinsic brightness of a star -- as it would appear if you orbiting it -- compared to the Sun.
The Sun's luminosity is 1. Sirius has a luminosity of 23 and Betelgeuse 55, 000.
Magnitude : A logarithmic brightness scale, the difference between magnitude 1 and magnitude 5 is 100 fold.
The larger the magnitude, the fainter the object. The lower the magnitude, the brighter the object. The brightest
stars have negative magnitudes.
Main Sequence Stars : Main Sequence Stars are huge bodies, which derive the vast majority of their energy
primarily from fusing hydrogen to helium. Main sequence stars are in hydrostatic balance between the forces of
gravity and nuclear fusion. Stars too young to have achieved this balance throw off huge amounts of material
via jets and fierce solar winds. Stars that have used up their hydrogen fuel supply swell enormously.
Planetesimals : Planetesimals are bodies, which is too small to attain spherical shape simply through their own
gravity. A planetesimal melted by passing too close to a star and becoming spherical due to surface tension (a
result of electromagnetic force) does not count, because the forming was not done primarily by gravity.
Rogues : Rogues are suspected (but unproven) worlds like planets that do not orbit stars. These are believed
to be ejected from star systems as the systems grow older. See Planets.
Satellites : Satellites (often called moons) are either worlds or planetesimals, which orbits a planet.
Worlds : Worlds are bodies large enough to be pulled into roughly spherical shape by their own gravity. All
stars fall within this definition as do major planets and large moons.
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Indian Space Research

Milestones in Indian Space Research

PSLV-C9 successfully launches CARTOSAT-2A, IMS-1 and 8 foreign nano satellites from
Sriharikota (April 28, 2008).
2008
PSLV-C10 successfully launches TECSAR satellite under a commercial contract with Antrix Corporation (January 21,
2008).

ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C8, successfully launched Italian astronomical
 satellite, AGILE from Sriharikota (April 23, 2007).

Successful launch of INSAT-4B by Ariane-5 from Kourou French Guyana, (March 12, 2007).

2007
Successful recovery of SRE-1 after manoeuvring it to reenter the earth’s atmosphere and
descend over the Bay of Bengal about 140 km east of Sriharikota (January 22, 2007).

ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C7 successfully launches four satellites - India’s
CARTOSAT-2 and Space Capsule Recovery Experiment (SRE-1) and Indonesia’s LAPAN-
TUBSAT and Argentina’s PEHUENSAT-1 (January 10, 2007).

Second operational flight of GSLV (GSLV-F02) from SDSC SHAR with INSAT-4C on board. (July
2006
10, 2006). Satellite could not be placed in orbit.

Successful launch of INSAT-4A by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana, (December 22, 2005).

2005
ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C6, successfully launched CARTOSAT-1 and
HAMSAT satellites from Sriharikota(May 5, 2005).

The first operational flight of GSLV (GSLV-F01) successfully launched EDUSAT from SDSC
2004
SHAR, Sriharikota (September 20, 2004)

ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C5, successfully launched RESOURCESAT-1 (IRS-
P6) satellite from Sriharikota(October 17, 2003).

Successful launch of INSAT-3E by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana, (September 28, 2003).

2003

The Second developmental launch of GSLV-D2 with GSAT-2 on board from Sriharikota (May 8,
2003).

Successful launch of INSAT-3A by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana, (April 10, 2003).

ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C4, successfully launched KALPANA-1 satellite
from Sriharikota(September 12, 2002).
2002

Successful launch of INSAT-3C by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana, (January 24, 2002).

ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C3, successfully launched three satellites --
Technology Experiment Satellite (TES) of ISRO, BIRD of Germany and PROBA of Belgium - into
their intended orbits (October 22, 2001).
2001
The first developmental launch of GSLV-D1 with GSAT-1 on board from Sriharikota (April 18,
2001)

INSAT-3B, the first satellite in the third generation INSAT-3 series, launched by Ariane from
2000 Kourou French Guyana,
(March 22, 2000).

Indian Remote Sensing Satellite, IRS-P4 (OCEANSAT), launched by Polar Satellite Launch
Vehicle (PSLV-C2) along with Korean KITSAT-3 and German DLR-TUBSAT from Sriharikota
(May 26, 1999).
1999

INSAT-2E, the last satellite in the multipurpose INSAT-2 series, launched by Ariane from Kourou
French Guyana, (April 3, 1999).

INSAT system capacity augmented with the readiness of INSAT-2DT acquired from ARABSAT
1998
(January 1998).

INSAT-2D, fourth satellite in the INSAT series, launched (June 4, 1997). Becomes inoperable on
October 4, 1997.
(An in-orbit satellite, ARABSAT-1C, since renamed INSAT-2DT, was acquired in November 1997
to partly augment the INSAT system).
1997

First operational launch of PSLV with IRS-1D on board

(September 29, 1997). Satellite placed in orbit.

Third developmental launch of PSLV with IRS-P3 on board (March 21, 1996). Satellite placed
1996
in polar sunsynchronous orbit.

Launch of third operational Indian Remote Sensing Satellite, IRS-1C (December 28, 1995).

1995

INSAT-2C, the third satellite in the INSAT-2 series, launched (December 7, 1995).

Second developmental launch of PSLV with IRS-P2 on board (October 15, 1994). Satellite
successfully placed in polar sunsynchronous orbit.

1994

Fourth developmental launch of ASLV with SROSS-C2 on board (May 4, 1994). Satellite placed
in orbit.

First developmental launch of PSLV with IRS-1E on board (September 20, 1993). Satellite could
not be placed in orbit.
1993

INSAT-2B, the second satellite in the INSAT-2 series, launched (July 23, 1993).
 INSAT-2A, the first satellite of the indigenously-built second-generation INSAT series,
launched (July 10, 1992).

1992

Third developmental launch of ASLV with SROSS-C on board (May 20, 1992). Satellite placed
in orbit.

1991 Second operational Remote Sensing satellite, IRS-1B, launched (August 29, 1991).

1990 INSAT-1D launched (June 12, 1990).

INSAT-1C launched (July 21, 1988). Abandoned in November 1989.

Second developmental launch of ASLV with SROSS-2 on board (July 13, 1988). Satellite could
1988
not be placed in orbit.

Launch of first operational Indian Remote Sensing Satellite, IRS-1A (March 17, 1988).

First developmental launch of ASLV with SROSS-1 satellite on board (March 24, 1987). Satellite
1987
could not be placed in orbit.

1984 Indo-Soviet manned space mission (April 1984).

INSAT-1B, launched (August 30, 1983).

1983

Second developmental launch of SLV-3. RS-D2 placed in orbit (April 17, 1983).

INSAT-1A launched (April 10, 1982).

1982
Deactivated on September 6, 1982.

Bhaskara-II launched (November 20, 1981).

APPLE, an experimental geo-stationary communication satellite successfully launched (June

19, 1981).
1981

RS-D1 placed in orbit (May 31, 1981)

First developmental launch of SLV-3.

Second Experimental launch of SLV-3, Rohini satellite successfully placed in orbit. (July 18,
1980
1980).
 First Experimental launch of SLV-3 with Rohini Technology Payload on board (August 10,
1979). Satellite could not be placed in orbit.
1979

Bhaskara-I, an experimental satellite for earth observations, launched (June 7, 1979).

1977 Satellite Telecommunication Experiments Project (STEP) carried out.

1975-
Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) conducted.
1976

ISRO First Indian Satellite, Aryabhata, launched (April 19, 1975).

1975

Becomes Government Organisation (April 1, 1975).

1972-
Air-borne remote sensing experiments.
1976

Space Commission and Department of Space set up

1972
(June 1, 1972). ISRO brought under DOS.

Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) formed under Department of Atomic Energy (August
1969
15, 1969).

1968 TERLS dedicated to the United Nations (February 2, 1968).

1967 Satellite Telecommunication Earth Station set up at Ahmedabad.

1965 Space Science & Technology Centre (SSTC) established in Thumba.

First sounding rocket launched from TERLS

1963
(November 21, 1963).

Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) formed by the Department of
1962 Atomic Energy and work on establishing Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS)
started.

Milestones in Indian Space Research

2005 ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C6, successfully launched CARTOSAT-1 and
HAMSAT satellites from Sriharikota(May 5, 2005).

2004 The first operational flight of GSLV (GSLV-F01) successfully launched EDUSAT from SDSC SHAR,
Sriharikota (September 20, 2004)
2003 ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C5, successfully launched RESOURCESAT-1 (IRS-
P6) satellite from Sriharikota(October 17, 2003).

Successful launch of INSAT-3E by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana, (September 28, 2003).
 The Second developmental launch of GSLV-D2 with GSAT-2 on board from Sriharikota (May 8,
2003).

Successful launch of INSAT-3A by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana, (April 10, 2003).

2002 ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C4, successfully launched KALPANA-1 satellite from
Sriharikota(September 12, 2002).

Successful launch of INSAT-3C by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana, (January 24, 2002).

2001 ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C3, successfully launched three satellites --
Technology Experiment Satellite (TES) of ISRO, BIRD of Germany and PROBA of Belgium - into
their intended orbits (October 22, 2001).

The first developmental launch of GSLV-D1 with GSAT-1 on board from Sriharikota (April 18, 2001)

2000 INSAT-3B, the first satellite in the third generation INSAT-3 series, launched by Ariane from Kourou
French Guyana, (March 22, 2000).

1999 Indian Remote Sensing Satellite, IRS-P4 (OCEANSAT), launched by Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle
(PSLV-C2) along with Korean KITSAT-3 and German DLR-TUBSAT from Sriharikota (May 26,
1999).

INSAT-2E, the last satellite in the multipurpose INSAT-2 series, launched by Ariane from Kourou
French Guyana, (April 3, 1999).

1998 INSAT system capacity augmented with the readiness of INSAT-2DT acquired from ARABSAT
(January 1998).

1997 INSAT-2D, fourth satellite in the INSAT series, launched (June 4, 1997). Becomes inoperable on
October 4, 1997. (An in-orbit satellite, ARABSAT-1C, since renamed INSAT-2DT, was acquired in
November 1997 to partly augment the INSAT system).

First operational launch of PSLV with IRS-1D on board (September 29, 1997). Satellite placed in
orbit.

1996 Third developmental launch of PSLV with IRS-P3 on board (March 21, 1996). Satellite placed in
polar sunsynchronous orbit.

1995 Launch of third operational Indian Remote Sensing Satellite, IRS-1C (December 28, 1995).

INSAT-2C, the third satellite in the INSAT-2 series, launched (December 7, 1995).

1994 Second developmental launch of PSLV with IRS-P2 on board (October 15, 1994). Satellite
successfully placed in polar sunsynchronous orbit.

Fourth developmental launch of ASLV with SROSS-C2 on board (May 4, 1994). Satellite placed
in orbit.

1993 First developmental launch of PSLV with IRS-1E on board (September 20, 1993). Satellite could
not be placed in orbit.

INSAT-2B, the second satellite in the INSAT-2 series, launched (July 23, 1993).

1992
INSAT-2A, the first satellite of the indigenously-built second-generation INSAT series, launched
(July 10, 1992).
 Third developmental launch of ASLV with SROSS-C on board (May 20, 1992). Satellite placed
in orbit.

1991 Second operational Remote Sensing satellite, IRS-1B, launched (August 29, 1991).

1990 INSAT-1D launched (June 12, 1990).

1988 INSAT-1C launched (July 21, 1988). Abandoned in November 1989.

Second developmental launch of ASLV with SROSS-2 on board (July 13, 1988). Satellite could
not be placed in orbit.

Launch of first operational Indian Remote Sensing Satellite, IRS-1A (March 17, 1988).

1987 First developmental launch of ASLV with SROSS-1 satellite on board (March 24, 1987). Satellite
could not be placed in orbit.

1984 Indo-Soviet manned space mission (April 1984).

1983 INSAT-1B, launched (August 30, 1983).

Second developmental launch of SLV-3. RS-D2 placed in orbit (April 17, 1983).

1982 INSAT-1A launched (April 10, 1982). Deactivated on September 6, 1982.

1981 Bhaskara-II launched (November 20, 1981).

APPLE, an experimental geo-stationary communication satellite successfully launched (June 19,

1981).

RS-D1 placed in orbit (May 31, 1981)

First developmental launch of SLV-3.

1980 Second Experimental launch of SLV-3, Rohini satellite successfully placed in orbit. (July 18, 1980).

1979 First Experimental launch of SLV-3 with Rohini Technology Payload on board (August 10, 1979).
Satellite could not be placed in orbit.

Bhaskara-I, an experimental satellite for earth observations, launched (June 7, 1979).

1977 Satellite Telecommunication Experiments Project (STEP) carried out.

1975-1976 Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) conducted.

1975 ISRO First Indian Satellite, Aryabhata, launched (April 19, 1975).

Becomes Government Organisation (April 1, 1975).

1972-1976 Air-borne remote sensing experiments.

1972 Space Commission and Department of Space set up (June 1, 1972). ISRO brought under DOS.

1969 Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) formed under Department of Atomic Energy (August
15, 1969).

1968 TERLS dedicated to the United Nations (February 2, 1968).

1967 Satellite Telecommunication Earth Station set up at Ahmedabad.
1965 Space Science & Technology Centre (SSTC) established in Thumba.

1963 First sounding rocket launched from TERLS (November 21, 1963).

1962 Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) formed by the Department of Atomic
Energy and work on establishing Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) started.