Introduction to Load-Sensing Pressure-Compensating Introduction to pressure compensation with load detection

Hydraulic Systems Hydraulic Systems

The previous chapter focused on pressure compensating hydraulic The previous chapter focused on hydraulic compensation systems.
systems, which use a variable-displacement hydraulic pump that pressure, using a variable flow hydraulic pump that maintains high
maintains high pressure and practically no flow anytime the VCDs pressure and practically no flow whenever the VCD (control valves)
are in a neutral position. LSPC systems use closed center VCDs and Directional) are in a neutral position. LSPC systems use VCD of
one of two hydraulic pump designs: closed center and one of the two designs of hydraulic pumps:
•Variable-displacement with variable flow. Variable displacement with variable flow.
Fixed-displacement with constant flow. Fixed displacement with constant flow.

In order to fully understand LSPC systems, it is helpful to break the To fully understand LSPC systems, it is useful to divide the system into
system into two separate operations: load sensing and pressure two separate operations: load detection and pressure compensation. This
compensation. This chapter will begin by explaining load sensing The chapter will begin by explaining load detection and compensation.
pressure separately in order to build a foundation for better understanding the
and pressure compensation separately in order to build a
foundation to better understand the principles of load sensing principles of pressure compensation systems with load detection
pressure compensating (LSPC) systems. (LSPC).

Load-Sensing System Load detection system

Figure 18-1. The fixed displacement pump in this diagram operates at high
Figure 18-1. The fixed-displacement pump in this schematic
constant pressure. It also wastes a lot of energy and generates an excess of
operates at a constant high pressure. It wastes too much energy and
heat when the VCD moves to a neutral position.
generates excess heat when the VCD is moved to a neutral position.
In Figure 18-1, a center control directional valve (VCD) is used.
In Figure 18-1, a closed-center VCD valve is used with a fixed-
closed with a fixed displacement pump. In this scenario, whenever the
displacement pump. In this scenario, anytime the VCD is in a neutral
VCD is in a neutral position, the maximum hydraulic power will be generated
position, maximum hydraulic horsepower will be generated by
through the constant flow of oil over the system's relief valve
constantly flowing oil over the main system relief valve at a high
mainly under high system pressure. As a result, the system will generate
system pressure. As a result, the system will generate unnecessary
heat, pressure, and unnecessary noise. This is one of the reasons why this
heat, pressure, and noise. This is one reason this style of hydraulic
Hydraulic system style is not used in current machinery.
system is not used in machinery today.
A hydraulic system with load sensing (LS) is designed to operate at a
A load-sensing (LS) hydraulic system is designed to operate at a
prescribed pressure value above the highest working pressure. See the
prescribed pressure value above the highest working pressure. See
Figure 18-2.
Figure 18-2.

Figure 18-2. A fixed displacement pump can be used in an application

Figure 18-2. A fixed-displacement pump can be used in a load- of load detection by adding a shuttle valve and a valve of
sensing application by adding a shuttle valve and an unloading drain. The discharge valve keeps the pump operating at a pressure
valve. The unloading valve keeps the pump operating at a set low of the established low system when the VCD is in a neutral position.
system pressure when the VCD is in a neutral position.
Two elements have been inserted into the closed center system scheme.
Two items have been inserted into the previous closed-center. before to convert the simple hydraulic system into a hydraulic system with
system schematic in order to convert the hydraulic system into a LS sensed load: a unloading valve and a double valve
hydraulic system: an unloading valve and a shuttle valve. The term check (shuttle valve). The term discharge valve means that the valve
Unloading valve means that the valve dumps the hydraulic pump’s download the flow of the hydraulic pump to the tank at a low pressure value
flow to the reservoir at a set low-pressure value anytime the closed- established each time the closed center VCD is in the neutral position. In
center VCD is in the neutral position. In this case, the unloading in this case, the value of the discharge valve spring is set at 300 psi (21
The valve's spring value is set at 300 psi (21 bar). bar).
When the VCD is actuated, the shuttle valve senses the load's When the VCD is activated, the double check valve detects the working pressure.
working pressure and sends that signal pressure to the unloading from the load and sends that pressure signal to the double check valve. If the cylinder
valve. If the cylinder requires 1000 psi (69 bar) to extend, the shuttle requires 1000 psi (69 bar) to extend, the double check valve sends that
valve sends that 1000 psi (69 bar) signal pressure to work in pressure signal of 1000 psi (69 bar) to work together with the spring pressure
conjunction with the unloading valve’s spring pressure. The from the discharge valve. The combination of spring pressure and pressure of
combination of the spring pressure and signal pressure causes the the signal makes the system operate at 1300 psi (90 bar). The difference between the
system to operate at 1300 psi (90 bar). The difference between the pump discharge pressure and the signal pressure is known as pressure
Pump outlet pressure and signal pressure is known as differential differential or margin pressure.
pressure or margin pressure.
The margin pressure regarding displacement LSPC systems
Margin pressure as it relates to variable-displacement LSPC systems variable is explained later in this chapter.
is explained later in this chapter.
Note
The discharge valve spring can be called differential spring, spring of
Note margin, reserve spring, low pressure reserve spring or spring of the
The unloading valve’s spring can be called the differential spring. flush valve.
margin spring, standby spring, low-pressure standby spring, or the
dump valve spring.

At least one gear pump supplier, Concentric (formerly Haldex), At least one gear pump supplier, Concentric (formerly Haldex),
manufactures a LS gear pump that places the unloading valve inside manufactures an LS gear pump that places the discharge valve inside of
the pump housing. the bomb casing.

They advertise that this design has the pump directly controlling the This design has the pump controlling the flows and pressures directly, it
flows and pressures, which will reduce valving losses and circuit which will reduce valve losses and circuit inefficiencies.
inefficiencies.
Some people may be tempted to call the hydraulic system of the
Some individuals might be tempted to call the hydraulic system in Figure 18-2 an open center hydraulic system. When the VCD is in the
Figure 18-2 an open-center hydraulic system. When the VCD is in neutral position, the fixed displacement pump supplies a maximum amount
the neutral position, the fixed-displacement pump delivers a flow at a relatively low pressure of 300 psi (21 bar). Technically, the
maximum amount of flow at a relatively low pressure of 300 psi (21 VCD is a closed center and the VCD sends a signal to a discharge valve. For
bar). Technically, the VCD is closed center and the VCD sends a thus, the hydraulic system is described more accurately as a system
signal to an unloading valve. The hydraulic system is therefore more constant flow closed center LS hydraulic. This style of system
accurately described as a constant flow closed-center LS hydraulic Hydraulic still wastes hydraulic power when the VCD is in the position
system. This style of hydraulic system still wastes hydraulic neutral. In this case, if the gear pump supplies a constant flow of
horsepower when the VCD is in the neutral position. In this case, if 30 gpm (113.5 lpm) at 300 psi (21 bar), the system will consume a certain amount of
the gear pump is delivering a constant 30 gpm (113.5 lpm) of flow at motor power: 30 gpm (113.5 lpm) × 300 psi (21 bar) × 0.000583 = 5.2 HP
300 psi (21 bar), the system will consume a certain amount of
engine horsepower: 30 gpm (113.5 lpm) × 300 psi (21 bar) ×
0.000583 = 5.2 hp
Fixed-Displacement Pump Standby Mode Fixed displacement pump standby mode

Figure 18-3 illustrates a cross-sectional drawing of an unloading Figure 18-3 illustrates a cross-sectional drawing of a discharge valve.
valve that is used in a fixed-displacement LS hydraulic system. that is used in a fixed displacement LS hydraulic system. The valve of
The spool valve has a cross-drilled passageway, which enables the pump. carpet has a cross-perforated passage, which allows the pressure of the
pressure to act on the left-hand side of the spool. Pump pressure The pump acts on the left side of the reel. The pump pressure opposes the
opposes the margin spring. When the VCD is in the neutral position, margin spring. When the VCD is in the neutral position, the pressure of the
signal pressure will equal zero. Chapter 25 will explain that some the signal will be equal to zero. Chapter 25 will explain that some steering circuits
steering circuits will have a residual steering signal pressure that will they will have a residual directional signal pressure that will cause the pressure of
cause the standby pressure to be a little higher than the margin The reserve should be a little higher than the margin spring value.
spring value.

Figure [Link] the VCD is in a neutral position, the unloading Figure 18-3. When the VCD is in a neutral position, the discharge valve
valve receives no signal pressure. The pump will build enough does not receive signal pressure. The pump will generate sufficient pressure, like 300 psi
pressure, such as 300 psi (21 bar), to overcome the unloading (21 bar), to overcome the spring pressure of the discharge valve margin.
valve's margin spring pressure. This causes the unloading spool This causes the discharge spool valve to shift to the right,
valve to shift to the right, allowing the constant flow of oil to be allowing the constant flow of oil to discharge into the tank at a value of
dumped to the reservoir at a relative low pressure value. relatively low pressure.

Pump pressure will build to achieve the margin spring value—300 The pump pressure will increase to reach the margin spring value.
psi (21 bar) in this example—causing the spool to shift to the right, 300 psi (21 bar) in this example, which will cause the reel to move towards the
compressing the margin spring. As the spool shifts to the right, it right, compressing the margin spring. As the reel
opens the passageway allowing the pump’s constant flow of oil to shift to the right, open the passage allowing for the constant flow of
be dumped to the reservoir at the margin spring value of 300 psi (21 the pump oil drains into the tank at the spring margin value
bar). While the VCD is in neutral, the system is in standby mode. 300 psi (21 bar). While the VCD is in neutral, the system is in mode of
also called low-pressure standby. LS systems normally operate at a wait, also known as low pressure wait. LS systems typically
pressure between 300 to 500 psi (21 to 34 bar) while in the standby they operate at a pressure between 300 and 500 psi (21 to 34 bar) while in mode of
mode. Standby mode as it relates to variable-displacement LSPC wait. The waiting mode regarding LSPC systems of
systems will be explained later in this chapter. variable displacement will be explained later in this chapter.

Fixed-Displacement Pump Working Mode Fixed displacement pump working method

When a VCD is actuated, its shuttle valve directs the hydraulic When a VCD is activated, its shuttle valve directs the working pressure of the
cylinder's working pressure, also known as signal pressure, to the hydraulic cylinder, also known as signal pressure, to the valve of
unloading valve so that the signal pressure can work in conjunction download so that the signal pressure can work together with the spring of
with the margin spring. See Figure 18-4. margin. See Figure 18-4.

Anytime an actuator is moving, the hydraulic system is in the Whenever an actuator is in motion, the hydraulic system is in mode
working mode. of work.

While in the working mode, hydraulic pump outlet pressure will While in working mode, the output pressure of the hydraulic pump
it will be equal to the signal pressure plus the margin pressure. For example, if the
equal the signal pressure plus the margin pressure. For example, if
the cylinder requires 1000 psi (69 bar) to extend, and the margin cylinder requires 1000 psi (69 bar) to extend and the margin pressure is
pressure equals 250 psi (17 bar), the pump outlet pressure will equal to 250 psi (17 bar), the pump outlet pressure will be equal to 1250 psi (86
equal 1250 psi (86 bar). bar).

Figure 18-4. In the working mode, the VCD’s shuthe valve sends the
working signal pressure to the unloading valve. The system pressure
builds only to the necessary pressure value, which equals signal
pressure plus margin pressure. The remaining pump flow that is not
used by the VCD is dumped over the unloading valve back to the
reservoir.

Figure 18-4. In working mode, the VCD swing valve sends the pressure
from the work signal to the discharge valve. The system pressure increases.
only up to the necessary pressure value, which is equal to the signal pressure plus the
margin pressure. The remaining flow of the pump that is not used by the VCD is
pour over the discharge valve back into the tank.
Differential Spring Value Value of differential spring

A margin spring has a static spring pressure value, known as standby. A margentene spring has a static spring pressure value, known
pressure, and a dynamic spring pressure value, known as margin as reserve pressure, and a value of dynamic spring pressure, known
pressure. The standby pressure is usually a higher value than the as margin pressure. Waiting pressure is usually a higher value than the
margin pressure. Some service literature will only specify adjusting margin pressure. Some service literature will only specify the adjustment of the
the standby pressure, while other literature will specify only reserve pressure, while other literature will specify only the adjustment of the
adjusting the margin pressure. Some service manuals will provide margin pressure. Some service manuals will provide
specifications for adjusting both the standby and the margin specifications to adjust both the margin pressure and the waiting pressure
pressure.
Referring to Figure 18-4, the function of the LS system’s working Referring to Figure 18-4, the function of the operating mode of the LS system is the
mode is the heart of LS hydraulics. The system builds only the heart of the hydraulic system LS. The system generates only the necessary pressure for
necessary pressure to do the work, plus the set pressure value of perform the work, plus the adjustment pressure value of the margin spring.
the margin spring.

Stall Pressure Locking pressure

When the cylinder reaches its end of travel, the LS system will be in When the cylinder reaches the end of its travel, the LS system will be in its mode.
its final mode, called the stall mode. It is also called the high- final, called lock mode. It is also referred to as high cut mode
pressure cutoff mode or high-pressure standby mode. In this mode, pressure (cutoff) or high pressure standby mode. In this mode, the pump
the hydraulic pump cannot build enough pressure to overcome both Hydraulics cannot generate sufficient pressure to overcome both the pressure of
the signal pressure and the margin spring. As a result, the margin signal like the margin spring. As a result, the margin reel
spool remains closed, blocking off pump flow, which causes the remains closed, blocking the flow of the pump, which causes the pressure
system pressure to climb to the highest system pressure value. In a of the system rises to the highest pressure value of the system. In a system of
In a fixed-displacement system, a high-pressure relief valve is used to set fixed displacement, a high-pressure relief valve is used to establish the
the pump’s stall pressure. pump lock pressure.

LS systems can also use variable-displacement pumps. Systems LS systems can also use variable flow pumps. The systems
using variable-displacement LS pumps are even more efficient than those that use variable flow LS pumps are even more efficient than the
fixed displacement LS systems. In variable-displacement LS systems, LS systems of fixed flow. In variable displacement LS systems, the
the unloading valve becomes the flow control valve or the margin the flush valve becomes the flow control valve or the spool of
spool. margin.
Signal Network Signal network
LS hydraulic systems require a group of shuttle valves to sense LS hydraulic systems require a shuttle valve group to
actuator working pressure. As mentioned in Chapter 9, a shuttle detects the working pressure of the actuator. As mentioned in Chapter 9,
valve is a T-shaped valve that determines the higher pressure of two a shuttle valve is a T-shaped valve that determines pressure
inlet pressures and sends the higher pressure to a new destination highest of two input pressures and sends the highest pressure to a new
within the system. See Figure 18-5. That destination can be another destination within the system. See Figure 18-5. That destination may be another valve
shut-off valve, a pump compensator assembly, or an unloading valve. of a shuttle, a pump compensator set or a discharge valve.
Figure 18-5. Most LS VCDs have the shutle valves incorporated Figure 18-5. Most LS VCDs have shuttle valves
inside the VCD's valve block. Individual shuttle valves are also incorporated within the valve block for the VCD. The shuttle valves
available for building a LS system when using simple closed-center individuals are also available to build an LS system when
VCDs. they use simple closed center VCD.

Primary Shuttle Valve Primary shuttle valve

Shuttle valves can be designated as primary or secondary shuttle.
valves. Shuttle valves can be designated as shuttle valves.
primary or secondary.
A primary shuttle valve chooses an actuator’s higher working A primary shuttle valve selects the highest working pressure of a
pressure. This means the primary shuttle determines if the double- actuator. This means that the primary launcher determines whether the double cylinder
actuating cylinder is extending or retracting based on the higher action is extending or retracting based on the work pressure more
working pressure and sends the appropriate signal pressure to a high and sends the appropriate pressure signal to a secondary shuttle valve,
secondary shuttle valve, as shown in Figure 18-6. as shown in Figure 18-6.

Figure 18-6. The primary shuttle valves in this schematic determine

if the cylinder it monitors is extending or retracting and send the
higher signal pressure to a secondary shuttle valve. The secondary
The shuttle valve selects which VCD is operating at the higher pressure.
and sends that signal pressure to another secondary shuttle valve or
to the unloading valve, depending on the design of the signal
network.

Figure 18-6. The primary shuttle valves in this diagram determine whether the
cylinder that monitors whether it is extending or retracting and sends the signal to
higher pressure to a secondary shunt valve. The shunt valve
secondary chooses which VCD is operating at the highest pressure and sends that signal
pressure to another secondary shuttle valve or to the discharge valve, according to the
design of the signal network.

Secondary shuttle valve

Secondary Shuttle Valve
A secondary shuttle valve is used to select the working pressure.
A secondary shut-off valve is used to choose the higher working. higher among the working pressures of two different VCDs. A series is used
pressure between two different VCDs' working pressures. A series of of secondary shuttle valves to send the higher working pressure to
Secondary shuttle valves are used to send the highest working. margin reel. The primary shuttle valve group and valves of
pressure to the margin spool. The group of primary shutle valves Secondary launchers build the signal network of the hydraulic system.
and secondary shuttle valves make up the hydraulic system's
signal network. For example, see Figure 18-7 and consider the following requirements of the
actuator
For example, refer to Figure 18-7 and consider the following VCD 3 requires 1500 psi (103 bar) to retract its cylinder.
actuator requirements: VCD 2 requires 1000 psi (69 bar) to extend its cylinder.
VCD 3 requires 1500 psi (103 bar) to retract its cylinder. VCD 1 requires 500 psi (34 bar) to extend its cylinder.
VCD 2 requires 1000 psi (69 bar) to extend its cylinder.
VCD 1 requires 500 psi (34 bar) to extend its cylinder.

Figure [Link] inital secondary shuttle valve in a signal network

sequence chooses the higher working pressure between its VCD and
the working pressure it receives from the downstream VCD(s). It
sends the higher signal pressure to the unloading valve, which
maintains system pressure at 1800 psi (124 bar).
The following sequence of events would occur if the operator
requested the previous actions from the cylinders:
The primary shuttle inside VCD 3 would direct 1500 psi (103 bar)
to VCD 2 secondary shuttle.
2. The primary shuttle in VCD 2 would direct 1000 psi (69 bar) of
signal pressure to the VCD 2 secondary shuttle.
3. The secondary shuttle in VCD 2 would choose the higher working.
pressure of 1500 psi (103 bar) and send it to the secondary shuttle
located in VCD 1.
4. The primary shuttle in VCD 1 would direct 500 psi (34 bar) to the
Figure 18-7. The initial secondary shuttling valve in a network sequence of
secondary shuttle inside VCD 1.
signals choose the highest working pressure between its VCD and the working pressure
5. The secondary shuttle in VCD 1 would choose 1500 psi (103 bar)
that receives from the VCD downstream. Sends the highest pressure signal to the valve
and send the 1500 psi (103 bar) to the unloading valve.
discharge, which maintains the system pressure at 1800 psi (124 bar).
6. The unloading valve would maintain a system pressure of 1500
psi (103 bar), plus the value of margin pressure, 300 psi (21 bar).
The following sequence of events would occur if the operator requested the actions
cylinder previews:
Note that VCD 3 in Figure 18-7 does not contain a secondary shuttle The primary shuttle within VCD 3 would direct 1500 psi (103 bar) to the shuttle.
valve. The last VCD does not have to distinguish the difference in secondary VCD 2.
signal pressure of a downstream valve that does not exist. However, 2. The primary shuttle in VCD 2 would direct 1000 psi (69 bar) of signal pressure to
if a customer wanted to add another VCD (such as VCD 4, power the secondary shuttle VCD 2.
beyond, or a three-point hitch), a secondary shuttle valve must be 3. The secondary shuttle in VCD 2 would select the highest working pressure of
installed inside VCD 3. 1500 psi (103 bar) and I would send it to the secondary launcher located at VCD 1.
The primary shuttle in VCD 1 would direct 500 psi (34 bar) to the shuttle.
The signal network must have an orifice that allows the network to secondary within VCD 1.
have a controlled drain back to the reservoir. If the signal network 5. The secondary shuttle in VCD 1 would choose 1500 psi (103 bar) and would send 1500 psi.
has no controlled drain back to tank it can cause one of two (103 bar) to the discharge valve.
problems, depending on whether the system uses a variable- 6. The relief valve would maintain a system pressure of 1500 psi (103
displacement pump or a fixed-displacement pump. In a fixed- bar), plus the value of the margin pressure, 300 psi (21 bar).
displacement LS hydraulic system, a plugged LS network orifice will
cause the signal network to hydrostatically lock, resulting in the
unloading valve blocking system oil flow. When the unloading valve
blocks off the fixed displacement pump, the constant flow of oil Note that VCD 3 in Figure 18-7 does not contain a shuttle valve.
must dump across the main system relief at high pressure. In a secondary. The last VCD does not have the ability to distinguish the difference in pressure.
variable-displacement LS hydraulic system, a plugged orifice in the signal from a downstream valve that does not exist. However, if a customer wishes
LS network will cause the variable-displacement pump to achieve add another VCD (such as VCD 4, power beyond or a three-point hitch), it
high-pressure standby. This mode will be discussed later in the You must install a secondary shuttle valve inside the VCD 3.
chapter.
The signal network must have an opening that allows the network to have drainage.
Note controlled back to the reservoir. If the signal network does not have a drainage
In John Deere agricultural machines, the shuttle valves are called controlled back to the tank, it can cause one of two problems,
Dime valves because they resemble the shape of a dime, as shown depending on whether the system uses a variable flow pump or a pump of
In Figure 18-8, the shuttle valves are called isolators in John Deere. fixed flow. In a fixed displacement hydraulic LS system, a network orifice
Construction machines. Caterpillar calls their shuttle valves resolvers. Blocked LS will cause the signal network to be blocked hydrostatically, which
because the shuttle valves determine which pressure is higher will cause the discharge valve to block the flow of oil from the system.
pressure. When the relief valve blocks the positive displacement pump, the flow
oil constant must be discharged through the main system relief to
high pressure. In a variable displacement LS hydraulic system, an orifice
obstructed in the LS network will cause the variable displacement pump to reach the
high pressure standby mode. This mode will be discussed later in the
chapter.

Note
In John Deere agricultural machines, the shuttle valves are called valves
of ten cents because they resemble the shape of a ten-cent coin,
as shown in figure 18-8. The shuttle valves are called
insulators in John Deere construction machines. Caterpillar refers to their
shuttle valves resolvers because shuttle valves determine
What pressure is the highest pressure.
Diagnosing Secondary Shuttle Valves Diagnosis of secondary shuttle valves

Shut-off valves can cause malfunctions in hydraulic systems if they Shuttle valves can cause failures in hydraulic systems if they
become stuck in one position. If a technician is faced with a scan in a position. If a technician encounters a downstream VCD that does not
downstream VCD that will not flow oil, it is possible that an oil flows, there may be a secondary shuttle valve upstream
The upstream secondary shuttle valve is at fault. have the fault.

For example, in Figure 18-8, if the secondary shuttle valve in VCD 1 For example, in Figure 18-8, if the secondary check valve in VCD 1 is
is stuck in the lifted position, it would cause problems downstream stuck in the raised position, would cause problems downstream for VCD 2 and
for VCD 2 and VCD 3. Initially, a technician might think that VCD 2 VCD 3. Initially, a technician might think that VCD 2 and VCD 3 are suspicious.
and VCD 3 are suspect because those are the valves having trouble because those are the valves that have problems with oil flow. Without
flowing oil. However, the problematic shuttle valve is actually the problematic check valve is actually located upstream
located upstream in VCD 1. in VCD 1.

Load-Sensing System with Single-Acting Actuator Load detection system with single action actuator

Figure 18-9 illustrates an LS system with one single-acting actuator. Figure 18-9 illustrates a LS system with a single action actuator, a motor.
a unidirectional hydraulic motor. Note that neither a primary shuttle unidirectional hydraulic. Please note that neither a valve is needed.
A valve nor a secondary shut-off valve is necessary. Primary shut-offs primary shuttle not a secondary shuttle valve. Required
are required for choosing the higher working pressure of a double- primary launchers to choose the highest working pressure of an actuator
acting actuator, for example choosing between the working double action, for example, choosing between the work pressures at the end of
pressures at the rod end and cap end of a double-acting cylinder. A stem and the end of the cap of a double-acting cylinder. An actuator of
A single-acting actuator only has one possible working pressure. simple effect only has one possible working pressure.
In this example, it is the forward rotation of the hydraulic motor. If the system
In this example, it is the hydraulic motor’s forward rotation. If the
The hydraulic system contained multiple single-acting actuators. the hydraulic system contained multiple single-action actuators, would be needed
secondary shuttles would be required to choose the highest system secondary shuttles to choose the highest working pressure of the system among
working pressure among the multiple actuators so it could be the multiple actuators so that it could be directed to the discharge valve.
directed to the unloading valve.

Figure 18-9. An LS system with one single-actng actuator does not

require the use of a primary shuttle valve or a secondary shuttle
valve.

Figure 18-9. A single-action actuator LS system does not require the use of
a primary shunt valve or a secondary shunt valve.

Pressure-Compensating System Pressure compensation system

Most LS hydraulic systems are also pressure compensating (PC). The Most LS hydraulic systems also have compensation for
The combination of LS and PC can be called any one of the following pressure (PC). The combination of LS and PC can be referred to by any of the
following names, according to the manufacturer:
names, depending on the manufacturer:
LSPC: pressure compensation system with load detection (Caterpillar).
LSPC—Load-sensing pressure compensation system (Caterpillar).
PCLS: pressure compensation load detection system (division of
PCLS—Pressure compensation load-sensing system (John Deere’s
construction division John Deere construction
PFC: pressure and flow compensated system (Case IH, Eaton and the division)
PFC—Pressure and flow compensated system (Case IH, Eaton, and
agricultural from John Deere).
John Deere’s agricultural division.
CCLS: closed center load detection system (New Holland Agriculture)
CCLS—Closed-center load-sensing system (New Holland)
Agriculture and AGCO. and AGCO.
The most problematic of the five descriptors is PFC. Although Case The most problematic of the five descriptors is PFC. Although Case IH, the equipment
IH, John Deere agricultural equipment, and Eaton have all used PFC. John Deere and Eaton agricultural have used PFC to describe a hydraulic system.
to describe a load-sensing pressure-compensating hydraulic system, of pressure compensation with load detection, there is another type of system
there is another type of PFC hydraulic system known as positive hydraulic PFC known as positive flow control that is completely
flow control which is completely different than an LSPC system. different from an LSPC system. The hydraulic flow control systems
Positive flow control hydraulic systems will be explained in Chapter will be explained in Chapter 20. LSPC is the term adopted for this book of
20. LSPC is the term adopted for this textbook. The term pressure text. The term pressure compensation, in the context of an LSPC system,
Compensation, in the context of an LSPC system, can have two it can have two different meanings:
different meanings. 1. If you are inside a bomb
2. If it is part of a VCD
Pressure-Compensating Hydraulic Pump Hydraulic pump with pressure compensation

The first PC description is based on the pressure compensator valve The first description of the PC is based on the pressure compensating valve.
located inside a variable-displacement pump, which was the focus located within a variable flow pump, which was the central theme of
Chapter 17. The reel of the pump's PC works in the same way as the
of Chapter 17. The pump’s PC spool operates in the same manner as
described in Chapter 17. describe in Chapter 17.
Within an LSPC variable-displacement pump, the PC spool has the Inside a variable displacement LSPC pump, the PC reel has the
responsibility to destroy the pump when a hydraulic cylinder responsibility to reduce the pressure of the pump when a hydraulic cylinder
reaches its end of travel. llega a su fin de carrera.
The PC spool maintains that constant high pressure until the VCD is The PC reel maintains that high constant pressure until the VCD returns to the
returned to the neutral position. neutral position.

Pressure-Compensated VCD VCD with pressure compensation

The second description for pressure compensation in an LSPC The second description of pressure compensation in an LSPC system is
system focuses on a pressure compensator valve inside the VCD, centers on a pressure compensating valve inside the VCD, which is
which was briefly mentioned in Chapter 8. The valve is also called a briefly mentioned in Chapter 8. The valve is also referred to as a valve
flow compensator valve. It is essentially a pressure-reducing valve flow compensator. It is essentially a pressure reducing valve that
that senses working pressure. The valve uses this signal pressure to detects the working pressure. The valve uses this signal pressure to compensate
the flow of the VCD.
compensate the VCD’s flow.
Without the compensating valve, every time the flow or pressure of the system changes,
Without the compensator valve, anytime the system’s flow or
pressure changes, the operator would have to readjust the position the operator would have to readjust the position of the VCD reel to try
of the VCD spool to attempt to maintain the same implement speed. maintain the same speed of the implement. In this context, the compensation
In this context, pressure compensation is used to maintain a pressure is used to maintain a constant speed of the actuator (cylinder
constant actuator speed (cylinder or hydraulic motor) based on a the hydraulic motor) based on a fixed position (opening) of the VCD spool.
fixed position (opening) of the VCD spool.
The PC valve can be placed before the VCD spool, which is known as
The PC valve can be placed before the VCD spool, which is known as pre-roll compensation or upstream compensation. The compensation of
pre-spool compensation or upstream compensation. Pre-spool pre-spool is the central theme of this chapter. When the compensating valve of
Compensation is the focus of this chapter. When the pressure Pressure is placed after the VCD reel, many terms can be used.
The compensator valve is placed after the VCD spool; it can be called. different. Two of the most common terms are post-compensation
many different terms. Two of the most common terms are post- spool of downward compensation, which is the central theme of Chapter 19.
spool compensation or downstream compensation, which is the
Consider an agricultural tractor that uses a VCD to operate the engine of the
focus of Chapter 19.
fan of a seed drill. The hydraulic motor is used to develop a
Consider an agricultural tractor that is using a VCD for operating a precise positive air pressure or precise vacuum pressure. The farmer must
planter's fan motor. The hydraulic motor is used to develop either a mark the speed of the hydraulic motor to achieve an air or vacuum pressure
precise positive air pressure or a precise vacuum pressure. The Specify, otherwise the seeding mechanism will not sow accurately.
farmer must dial in the speed of the hydraulic motor to achieve a
specific air pressure or vacuum, otherwise the seeding mechanism In this example, suppose that the operation of the seed drill's engine needs
will not plant accurately. precisely 4 gpm (15 lpm) at 1000 psi (69 bar). The challenge is that, as
the operator uses other hydraulic functions, such as raising or lowering the hitch of
In this example, assume that planter motor operation needs three points to control the tractor or drive it along a line of
precisely 4 gpm (15 lpm) at 1000 psi (69 bar). The challenge is that, trees, the flow and pressures of the hydraulic system will vary. As the
as the operator uses other hydraulic functions, such as raising or flow and pressures vary, the speed of the hydraulic motor of the seeder is
lowering the three-point hitch for draft control or steering the will be negatively affected. As a result, the speed of the hydraulic motor
tractor along a line of trees, the hydraulic system flow and pressures the planter will fluctuate, causing problems with seed population.
Inserting a compensating valve inline before the VCD reel can relieve
will vary. As the flow and pressures vary, the planter’s hydraulic
motor speed will be negatively affected. As a result, the speed of this problem.
the planter’s hydraulic motor will fluctuate, causing seed population
problems. Inserting a compensator valve in-line prior to the VCD Most of the planter's engines are unidirectional. However, the
spool can alleviate this concern. the diagram of Figure 18-10 shows a bidirectional hydraulic motor for
illustrate how to use the primary shuttle to direct the signal pressure of a
Most planter motors are unidirectional. However, the schematic in double-acting actuator to the compensating valve.
Figure 18-10 shows a bidirectional hydraulic motor to illustrate how
the primary shuttle is used to direct signal pressure of a double-
actuating actuator to the compensator valve.
Pre-spool compensation has the following attributes:
The compensator valve must sense the actuator's working The pre-spool compensation has the following attributes:
pressure. The compensating valve must detect the working pressure of the actuator.
Therefore, a primary shuttle valve is used to send the actuator’s Therefore, a primary shuttle valve is used to send the pressure from
signal pressure to the compensator valve. actuator signal to the compensating valve.
The compensator’s spring value establishes the pressure drop. • El valor del resorte del compensador establece la caída de presión a través del
across the VCD spool. VCD reel.
The VCD spool must be closed center. The VCD reel must have a closed center.

The pressures in Figure 18-10 will equal the following values:

Working pressure/signal pressure. The pressures in Figure 18-10 will be equal to the following values:
1000 psi (determined by the load on the actuator) • Working pressure / signal pressure. 1000 psi (determined by the load on the
Pump outlet pressure. actuator
• 300 psi (unloading spring) + 1000 psi (working pressure) = 1300 psi • Pump discharge pressure: 300 psi (discharge spring) + 1000 psi (pressure
working pressure) = 1300 psi
Pressure drop across the compensator valve.
1300 psi - (1000 psi + 40 psi spring) = 260 psi Pressure drop across the compensating valve: 1300 psi - (1000 psi + 40
Pressure supplied to the VCD spool. (spring psi) = 260 psi
1000 psi + 40 psi = 1040 psi • Pressure supplied to the VCD reel: 1000 psi + 40 psi = 1040 psi
Pressure drop across the VCD spool (equals the value of the PC) Pressure drop across the VCD spool (it is equal to the value of the PC spring):
spring). 1040 psi - 1000 psi = 40 psi
1040 psi - 1000 psi = 40 psi

Figure 18-10. The pressure compensation of the pre-carriage positions the valve
compensator before the VCD reel. The compensator valve detects the
working pressure of the actuator using a shuttle valve for
maintain a fixed speed of the implement.

The addition of the shuttle valve and the pressure compensator. The addition of the shuttle valve and the pressure compensator valve
valve provides precise flow to the actuator. As the hydraulic provides a precise flow to the actuator. As the flow and pressure change
system’s flow and pressure changes, the pressure compensator from the hydraulic system, the pressure compensating valve will compensate and adjust
valve will automatically compensate and adjust the flow so that the automatically the flow so that the actuator remains at the same speed.
actuator remains at the same speed.
There is a limit to pressure compensation. If the pump driven by the
There is a limit to pressure compensation. If the engine-driven the motor slows down and no longer provides the minimum flow requested by the
the pump is slowed and is no longer delivering minimum flow as Operator, the pressure compensating valve cannot magically amplify.
requested by the operator, the pressure compensator valve cannot the flow of oil that is not there.
magically magnify oil flow that is not there.
The check valve and the pressure compensating valve also help to
The shuttle valve and the pressure compensator valve also help relieve an additional problem. As the oil flows through a valve
alleviate an additional problem. As oil flows through a spool valve, During the winding process, the oil speeds create forces that affect the position of the
Oil velocities create forces that affect the position of the spool valve. cartridge valve. See Figure 18-11.
See Figure 18-11.

The addition of the compensator valve results in a smaller pressure The addition of the compensating valve results in a pressure drop.
drop across the VCD spool, which minimizes the negative effect of smaller through the VCD reel, minimizing the negative effect of the
flow forces. If the VCD spool is manually operated, the PC valve will flow forces. If the VCD reel is operated manually, the PC valve will help.
help by lowering the amount of effort the operator must use to to reduce the amount of effort that the operator must use to operate the
actuate the spool valve and the effort required to maintain the valve spool and the effort required to maintain the valve's position
position of the spool valve. of the spool.
 Figure 18-11. The oil flowing through a VCD reel creates forces that
they cause resistance when trying to open and close the reel valve. The flow of the
high-pressure pump is directed to extend the cylinder when the
reel. The shuttle valve and the PC valve work in unison to
maintain the pressure drop in the VCD reel relatively low, 60 psi.
reduction of the size of the opening between the pump inlet oil and the
oil ports of cylinder extension when closing the reel increases these
flow forces.

Note Note
Some personnel will label constant-flow LSPC systems (for example, Some people will label constant flow LSPC systems (for example,
Figure 18-6) as an open-center hydraulic system. They would point Figure 18-6) as an open center hydraulic system. They would point out that the
out that the system uses a fixed-displacement pump that delivers a the system uses a positive displacement pump that delivers a constant flow to
constant flow at a relatively low pressure anytime the VCDs are in a una presión relatvamente baja siempre que los VCD estén en una posición
neutral position. However, this system uses closed-center VCDs; has neutral. However, this system uses closed center VCD; it has valves
pressure compensator valves installed in series prior to the VCD pressure compensators installed in series before the VCD cartridges; and uses
spools; and uses an unloading valve that enables the hydraulic a discharge valve that allows the hydraulic system to operate at a value
system to operate at a preset value above the actuator working preset above the working pressure of the actuator.
pressure. Technically, the VCDs of this system are identical to the VCDs used in a
Technically, the VCDs in this system are identical to the VCDs used in variable flow LSPC system.
a variable flow LSPC system.
A disadvantage of a fixed displacement LSPC system is that the pump
One drawback to a fixed-displacement LSPC system is that the pump produce a constant flow when the VCD are in a neutral position. Although
produces a constant flow when the VCDs are in a neutral position. the flow is at a relatively low pressure, this still results in a
Even though the flow is at a relatively low pressure, this still results energy waste. The variable displacement LSPC hydraulic systems
in wasted power. Variable-displacement LSPC hydraulic systems can they can reduce the horsepower consumption of the hydraulic pump to just
a fraction, sometimes just 0.15 hp.
reduce the hydraulic pump’s horsepower consumption to only a
fraction, sometimes as little as 0.15 hp.
Review Questions Review questions
Answer the following questions using the information provided in Answer the following questions using the information provided in
this chapter. this chapter.

1. Load-sensing pressure-compensating hydraulic systems can be 1. Pressure compensation hydraulic systems with load detection
called all of the following, EXCEPT: they can be called all the following, EXCEPT:
A. Closed-center load-sensing system. A. Closed center load detection system.
B. Negative flow control system. B. Negative flow control system.
C. Pressure compensation load-sensing system. C. Pressure compensation load detection system.
D. Pressure and flow compensated system. D. Pressure and flow compensated system.

2. Which of the following terms can be defined as a system that is

2. Which of the following terms can be defined as a system that is designed to operate at a fixed value above the working pressure?
designed to operate at a fixed value above working pressure? A. Load detection.
A. Load sensing. B. Pressure Compensation.
B. Pressure compensating. C. Stopping mode.
C. Stall mode. D. None of the above.
D. None of the above.
3. Which of the following terms can be defined as a system that
3. Which of the following terms can be defined as a system that provides a constant speed of the cylinder for a fixed position of a
provides a constant cylinder speed for a fixed position of a VCD VCD reel?
spool? A. Load detection.
A. Load sensing. B. Pressure compensation.
B. Pressure compensating. C. Stopping mode.
C. Stall mode. D. None of the above.
D. None of the above.
4. What is the name of the valve that selects that working port pressure more
4. What is the name of the valve that chooses that higher working high between two different control valves and sends the highest pressure to
port pressure between two different control valves and sends the pump compensator?
higher pressure to the pump compensator? A. Shuttle valve.
A. Shuttle valve. B. Pressure reducing valve.
B. Pressure-reducing valve. C. Pressure relief valve.
C. Pressure relief valve. D. Falling check valve.
D. Drop check valve.
5. What does John Deere's agricultural division call the valve that selects the pressure?
from the highest work port between two different control valves and sends the
5. What does John Deere’s agricultural division call the valve that
chooses the higher working port pressure between two different higher pressure at the pump compensator?
control valves and sends the higher pressure to the pump A. Nickel valve.
compensator? B. Ten-cent valve.
A. Nickel valve. C. Quarter valve.
B. Tell me valve. D. Insulator.
C. Quarter valve.
D. Isolator. 6. What does Caterpillar call the valve that selects the pressure of the working port?
higher between two different control valves and sends the highest pressure to
pump compensator?
What does Caterpillar call the valve that chooses the higher A. Check valve.
working port pressure between two different control valves and B. Reiterating valve.
sends the higher pressure to the pump compensator? C. Resolution valve.
A. Restoration valve. D. Insulator.
B. Reiterator valve.
C. Resolver valve. 7. When did LSPC displacement bombs start to appear?
D. Isolator. variable in agricultural equipment?
A. Late 1950s and early 1960s.
7. In which time era did variable-displacement LSPC pumps begin? B. The late sixties and early seventies.
appearing in agriculture equipment? C. Late 1970s and early 1980s.
A. Late 1950s-early 1960s. D. Late 80s and early 90s.
B. Late 1960s-early 1970s.
C. Late 1970s-early 1980s. 8. What is the name of the valve that is responsible for choosing the
D. Late 1980s-early 1990s. work pressure of the cylinder higher, whether from the end of the rod or from
end of the cover of a double-acting cylinder?
8. What is the name of the valve that has the responsibility of A. Primary launcher.
choosing the higher cylinder working pressure, either from the rod B. Secondary launcher.
end or the cap end of a double-acting cylinder? C. Intermediate shuttle.
A. Primary shuttle. D. None of the above.
B. Secondary shuttle.
C. Intermediate shuttle. 9. What is the name of the valve that is responsible for choosing the
D. None of the above. higher working pressure between two different VCDs?
A. Primary launcher.
B. Secondary launch pad.
9. What is the name of the valve that has the responsibility of
C. Intermediate shuttle.
choosing the higher working pressure between two different VCDs?
None of the above.
A. Primary shuttle.
B. Secondary shuttle.
10. A tractor with an LSPC hydraulic system has a total of 4 VCD, without
C. Intermediate shuttle.
engagement and without superior power. How many primary shuttle valves in
D. None of the above. How many are needed in total?
A three.
10. A tractor with an LSPC hydraulic system has a total of 4 VCDs. B. Four.
with no hitch and no power beyond. How many total primary C. Five.
Are shuttle valves required? D. Six.
A. Three.
B. Four.
C. Five. 11. A tractor with an LSPC hydraulic system has a total of 4 VCD, without
D. Six. hitch and without higher power. How many secondary shuttle valves in
How many are needed in total?

11. A tractor with an LSPC hydraulic system has a total of 4 VCDs, A three.
with no hitch and no power beyond. How many total secondary B. Four.
Are shuttle valves required? C. Five.
A. Three. D. Six.
B. Four.
C. Five. 12. Technician A claims that LSPC systems can use pumps.
D. Six. fixed displacement. Technician B claims that LSPC systems can use
variable displacement pumps. Who is right?
12. Technician A states that LSPC systems can use fixed- A. Técnico A.
B. Technician B.
displacement pumps. Technician B states that LSPC systems can use
variable displacement pumps. Who is correct? C. Both A and B.
Neither A nor B.
A. Technician A.
B. Technician B.
13. What will a hydraulic LSPC system display with an obstructed orifice in the network?
C. Both A and B.
D. Neither A nor B. signals?
A. Only low pressure from the system.
B. Only moderate pressure from the system.
13. An LSPC hydraulic system with a plugged orifice in the signal
What will the network exhibit? C. Only high system pressure.
A. Only low system pressure.
B. Only moderate system pressure. 14. Everything that follows can be used to describe the spring of a valve
C. Only high system pressure. download, EXCEPT:
A margin.
B. differential.
All of the following can be used to describe an unloading valve’s
spring, EXCEPT: C. waits.
A. margin. D. position.
B. differential.
C. standby. 15. Everything that follows is necessary for a gear pump and two VCD
D. stall. they are used in a load detection system, EXCEPT:
A. Closed center VCD.
15. All of the following are required for a gear pump and two VCDs B. flush valve.
to be used in a loadsensing system, EXCEPT: C. pressure reducing valves.
A. closed-center VCDs. D. shuttle valves.
B. unloading valve.
C. pressure-reducing valves. 16. Everything below is necessary for a VCD with pressure compensation.
D. shuttle valves. operates a bidirectional motor, EXCEPT:
A. Closed-Center VCD.
16. All of the following are required for a pressure-compensated B. flushing valve.
VCD to operate a bidirectional motor, EXCEPT: C. pressure reducing valve.
A. closed-center VCD. D. swing valve.
B. unloading valve.
C. pressure-reducing valve. 17. How many control reels (used to control the flow and pressure of the
D. shuttle valve. It has a variable displacement axial pump in line that is used in
a hydraulic torque limiting system LSPC?
17. An inline axial variable-displacement pump that is used in an A. Zero.
How many control spools does the LSPC torque-limiting hydraulic system have? B. One.
(used for controlling the pump flow and pressure)? C. Two.
A. Zero. D. Three.
B. One.
C. Two. 18. What is the common pressure of the system in an LSPC hydraulic system when
D. Three. Are the control valves in the neutral position?
A. 300–550 psi.
18. What is a common system pressure in an LSPC hydraulic system B. 550-1000 psi.
when the control valves are in the neutral position? C. 1000-1500 psi.
A. 300–550 psi. D. 2000–2500 psi.
B. 550–1000 psi.
19. What type of pressure will an LSPC hydraulic system have in the mode of
C. 1000–1500 psi.
blocking?
D. 2000–2500 psi.
A. Zero pressure.
19. What type of pressure will an LSPC hydraulic system have in the B. Low pressure.
stall mode? C. Moderately medium pressure.
A. Zero pressure. D. High pressure.
B. Low pressure.
C. Moderately average pressure. 20. When an LSPC system operates a hydraulic motor, the pressure of the
D. High pressure. signal plus the margin pressure is equal to _____.
A. pump discharge pressure
B. working pressure
20. When an LSPC system is running a hydraulic motor, signal C. regulated pressure
pressure plus margin pressure equals _____. D. relief pressure
A. pump outlet pressure
B. working pressure 21. As long as the pump outlet pressure is connected directly to
C. regulated pressure the signal pressure, what will happen?
D. relief pressure A. Waiting mode.
B. Work mode.
Anytime pump outlet pressure is directly connected to signal C. Stopping mode.
What will occur under pressure? D. Transfer mode.
A. Standby mode.
B. Working mode. 22. In a traditional variable displacement LSPC pump equipped with two
C. Stall mode. spools, what is the name of the small spool that has a hydraulic port?
D. Carryover mode. connect a hydraulic line?
A. Pressure compensating reel.
B. Torque limiter reel.
22. In a traditional LSPC variable-displacement pump equipped with C. Control flow reel.
two spools, what is the name of the small spool that has a hydraulic
port for connecting a hydraulic line? 23. When activated, a signal valve (sometimes called a blocking valve)
A. Pressure compensator spool. What is done hydraulically in an LSPC system?
B. Torque-limiting spool. A. Puts the system in low pressure standby.
C. Flow control spool. B. Connect the box pressure to the signal pressure.
C. Connect the pump's outlet pressure to the signal pressure.
23. When actuated, a signal valve (sometimes called a jammer D. Reduce the output pressure of the pump.
What does the valve do hydraulically in an LSPC system?
A. Puts the system in a low-pressure standby. 24. Which of the following systems has the capability to provide high
B. Connects case pressure to signal pressure. pressures or high flows for a certain amount of horsepower?
C. Connects pump outlet pressure to signal pressure. A. Open center.
D. Lowers pump outlet pressure. B. Pressure compensation.
C. Load detection pressure compensation.
D. LSPC and torque limitation.
24. Which of the following systems has the ability to provide either
high pressures or high flows for a given amount of horsepower?
25. Inside an LSPC pump with torque limitation, which of the following
A. Open-center.
component is responsible for transmitting the angle of the plate
B. Pressure compensating.
oscillating?
C. Load sensing pressure compensating.
A. Pressure compensating reel.
D. LSPC and torque limiting.
B. Flow control reel.
C. Piston sensor.
25. Within a torque-limiting LSPC pump, which of the following D. Diagonal piston.
components has the responsibility of conveying the angle of the
swash plate? 26. Power beyond is being added to an LSPC hydraulic system. What else is
A. Pressure compensator spool. Should it be added?
B. Flow control spool. A additional shuttle valve.
C. Sensing piston. B. A relief valve.
D. Bias piston. C. Torque limitation controls.
A variable flow pump.
26. Power beyond is being added to an LSPC hydraulic system. What
else must be added? 27. By observing a PQ graph, the power point at the corner illustrates what
A. An extra shuttle valve. system
B. A relief valve. condition?
C. Torque-limiting controls. A. Minimum pressure, minimum flow.
A variable-displacement pump. B. Maximum pressure, maximum flow.
C. Wasted horsepower.
D. Usable horsepower.
27. Looking at a PQ graph, the corner horsepower point illustrates
what system 28. Is a variable displacement LSPC hydraulic system that uses a
condition? Locking solenoid for all its functions can eliminate which of the
A. Minimum pressure, minimum flow. next elements of the system?
B. Maximum pressure, maximum flow. A. Signal network.
C. Wasted horsepower. B. Flow control valve.
D. Usable horsepower. C. Pressure compensating valve.
D. Hydraulic pump.
28. A variable-displacement LSPC hydraulic system that uses a
Jammer solenoid for all of its functions can eliminate which of the 29. A LSPC VCD has a manual disconnection of the seal. The shuttle
following from the system? The principal for VCD will send acceptance to all the following, EXCEPT:
A. Signal network. A. Disconnecting the VCD seal.
B. Flow control valve. B. pressure compensating valve.
C. Pressure compensator valve. C. Secondary launch pad VCD.
D. Hydraulic pump. D. válvula de alivio del sistema principal.
 30. Which of the following systems will consume the least amount of horsepower?
29. An LSPC VCD has a manual detent kickout. The VCD’s primary
shutle will send oil to all of the following, EXCEPT: force when the VCDs are in a neutral position?
A. VCD detent kickout. A. Traditional open center system.
B. pressure compensator valve. B. Pressure compensation system.
C. VCD secondary shuttle. C. Fixed displacement LSPC system.
D. main system relief valve. D. Variable Displacement LSPC System.

30. Which one of the following systems will consume the least
amount of horsepower when the VCDs are in a neutral position?
A. Traditional open-center system.
B. Pressure-compensating system.
C. Fixed-displacement LSPC system.
D. Variable-displacement LSPC system.