Chapter 7

Line Modeling
Transmission

1. OBJECTIVE
This chapter aims to present the modeling of the lines of
transmission to be used in steady state studies (flow of car-
and short circuit in electrical systems.
The main aspect to be considered in the modeling of a line of
transmission is the difficulty of representing it by an equivalent circuit.
concentrated parameters. A transmission line consists of a
set of distributed parameters, inductance, resistance, capacitance and
dispersion conductance. According to circuit theory, for the lines of
transmissions to be represented by equivalent circuits with parameters
concentrated, they must have dimensions much smaller than ¼ of the
wavelength of the tensions and currents that circulate through it in steady state
permanent. In the particular case of power electrical systems in steady state
permanent sinusoidal at a frequency of 60 Hz, the value corresponding to ¼ of
wavelength is 1250 km, therefore transmission lines of some
Dozens of kilometers or more deserve special attention.

2. INTRODUCTION
Transmission lines are the 'arteries' of electrical systems, they
we transport all the electric energy produced at the generation plants to the
large consumption points. The transmission of energy in large blocks
they can be made through air lines, underground cables, and isolated lines

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 Chapter 7 - Transmission Line Modeling

in compressed gas, like the vast majority of cases of transport of gran-

The blocks in the world are overhead lines, these deserved our attention.
in this chapter.
The term transmission lines is generic and includes lines of all levels.
voltage levels, from the 13.8 kV used in distribution to the levels of
EAT.
The choice of the nominal voltage of a transmission line depends
essentially of two magnitudes: the power to be transported and the dis-
importance associated with this transport. There are several criteria for the determination of

preliminary indication of the voltage level of a transmission line, the reference

[1] presents the results of Still, which are considered satisfactory for
lines with lengths greater than 30 km, in this criterion the voltage level
preliminary in kV is obtained from the following equation:

P
Vnom@5,5. 0,62.L+ [1]
100
where:
L - length of the line in km
P - power to be transported in kW

The choice of conductors for a given transmission line

they obey technical and economic aspects. Among the aspects
we highlight: mechanical efforts, heating, voltage drop and
Corona effect. The conductors used in transmission lines are in
the vast majority are cables formed by the stranding of the elementary wires
in pure aluminum (CA or aluminum conductor AC) or aluminum with a core
of steel (CAA or aluminum conductor steel reinforced ACSR). In the States
United and Canada also adopt aluminum conductors in alloy with
other materials such as AAAC (all aluminum alloy conductor) and ACAR
aluminum conductor alloy reinforced with aluminum core. The use of copper
Copper alloys are restricted to a small number of electrical systems.
like the urban aerial network of CELPE.

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 Chapter 7 - Modeling of Transmission Lines

The performance characteristics and the operation of the lines themselves

of transmission are related to its parameters, they are:

a) line resistance, in ohms per meter;
b) inductance, in Henrys per meter;
c) capacitance in parallel of the line, in Farads per meter;
d) conductance in parallel of the line, in mhos per meter.

3. ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE OF TRANSMISSION LINES

The electrical resistance of a conductor used in transmission lines
mission is associated with the driver's opposition to the flow of electric current
AC resistance. The resistance of the conductor to alternating current at a frequency
f is defined as being:

active power loss

r= [2]
current2

This value varies with temperature and with electrical frequency. The vari-
The action with temperature is mathematically expressed by the following equation:

RT2=RT1.[1+ at.(T 2-T1)] [3]

where:
RT1electrical resistance of the conductor at temperature T1
RT2– electrical resistance of the conductor at temperature T2
atcoefficient of resistance increase with temperature
T2conductor temperature where the resistance is desired
T1– temperature of the conductor where the value of the resistance is known
tendency.

The coefficient of increase of resistance with temperature has a

value related to the material used in the conductor, for hard copper taking

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 Chapter 7 - Transmission Line Modeling

the temperature of 20oC as a reference is worth 0.00385 (1/0C), for the cables
for aluminum, a value of 0.00403 can be adopted (1/0C).
The variation of resistance with frequency is related to the effect
skin or film. This effect causes a cylindrical conductor to be traversed
I slide longitudinally by an alternating current, the current density in the
its interior is smaller along its longitudinal axis and maximum along its su-
perfection.
The skin effect can be easily understood by imagining
the conductor composed of an infinite number of parallel longitudinal fibers
between itself and the longitudinal axis, each representing an infinite conductor
similar. Assuming two cross sections, at a certain distance from each other, the
voltage drop in any of the fibers must be the same. In alternating current-
nothing, in each wire there is not only an ohmic voltage drop, but also
an induced voltage or electromotive force by the alternating magnetic flux. The emf along with the

the surface of the conductor will be smaller than that induced in a fiber along with

a fiber closer to the conductor's axis, since the outer fiber is intertwined
for a magnetic flux smaller than that which encircles the most inter-
So that the voltage drops are equal in the smaller fibers.
inductive reactance that in those with higher inductive reactance, it is necessary that

if the currents in the first are greater than in the second, then the density-
Current density will be greater at the periphery of the conductors.

The series resistance of a transmission line can be decomposed

in three installments:

r=rcc+ra+rad [4]

where:
rcc(ohm/km) - resistance that the conductor presents to the flow
of direct current;
ra (ohms/km) - apparent resistance caused by the existence of
tendency of magnetic flows inside the con-
ducts;
rad (ohms/km) - additional apparent resistance.

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 Chapter 7 - Transmission Line Modeling

The resistance to direct current depends on the following factors:

a) nature of the conductor material, characterized by its re-
resistivity. The resistivity is affected by the following factors:
material temper, material purity, temperature and strengthening
tempering. The higher the tempering of the material, the greater the re-

resistivity and the purer the conductive material, the lower

it will be the resistivity.

b) its dimensions, electrical resistance is directly proportional

to the area of its cross-section.
l
rcc= r [5]
S
where:
l - length of the conductor;
S - area of the conductor's cross-section.

The term radthe electrical resistance presented in equation [2] is

related to multi-grounded lightning rods that in steady state
constitute additional sources of energy loss. Due to the coupling
magnetic with the phase conductors, voltages are induced in steady state
remains in the multi-grounded lightning rods, producing currents and obvious
mind losses and heating by the Joule effect. These energy losses are
included in the calculations of the performance of transmission lines.

4. INDUCTANCE OF THE TRANSMISSION LINE

Inductance is by far the most important parameter for analysis of the
performance of a transmission line. In transmission line projects
transmission usually inductance dominates the series impedance and
consequently the intensity of the voltage drop and the capacity of
transmission.
The circulation of alternating current through the conductors of the lines of

transmission generates alternating internal and external magnetic flows, these

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 Chapter 7 - Modeling of Transmission Lines

flows intertwine their own conductors as well as neighboring conductors

producing a magnetic coupling is essentially an inductive effect,
as can be seen in Figure 1.

Figure 1 - Magnetic coupling in an LT

The most common way to calculate the inductance of a line of

transmission is from the obtaining of the woven flow in a given conductor
using the following equation:
l
L=
i [6]

On obtaining the formulas for the inductance of a line of

transmission requires accurately knowing the geometry of the field
magnetic. Considering that the conducting cables form between towers
adjacent to an arrow in relation to the ground, as well as the lines can
crossing terrain with a very uneven topography whose characteristics
magnetics are not well known, any expression obtained will be
approximately. Based on these facts, the following hypotheses are reasonable and the

test results confirm that they provide acceptable results:

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 Chapter 7 - Transmission Line Modeling

The conductors must be assumed to be straight, parallel, and of length

infinite

The conductors are cylindrical and their current densities are uniform.

The presence of the land does not affect the magnetic field, therefore it does not affect the

inductance formulas.

The presence of the land affects the electric field, therefore it affects the formulas of the

capacitance.

Figure 2 - Infinite straight conductor carrying a current I

Let's consider a straight cylindrical conductor of length

infinite, solid, homogeneous and isolated, sufficiently far from the ground and from
any other conductors that conduct currents, in a way that is not
influenced by the same as shown in Figure 2. This conductor
is traversed by a current I, which produces a concentric magnetic field
with the conductor. This magnetic field exists both inside and outside the conductor.

exterior of the conductor, in the space that surrounds it. The total magnetic flux
it will be equal to the sum of the internal and external flows.

The external magnetic flux of a conductor at a point far from it.

the center of the conductor can be calculated using Ampère's Law,
what relates the electric current flowing in a conductor with the field
magnetic generated by this current. Mathematically, Ampère's law is
expressed by the following equation:

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 Chapter 7 - Transmission Line Modeling

ò[Link] = i T
7
where :
H – magnetic field vector
ITtotal current involved in the closed loop

Assuming a circular path of radius y, as presented in

Figure 3 where the magnetic field is constant, applying Ampère's Law
results in:
i
H= [8]
2py

Figure 3 - External magnetic field to the conductor

The magnetic flux density in a certain region of space

is related to the magnetic field by the following equation:

B=mR.m0.H [9]
where:
H - field intensity vector;
B - magnetic flux density vector
-7
0 magnetic permeability of vacuum (4π × 10 );
m-
mR - relative magnetic permeability of the medium

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 Chapter 7 - Transmission Line Modeling

As the magnetic permeability of air is very close to that of a vacuum,

admite-sem=
R 1.

The magnetic flux that circulates through a region of space S, with a

magnetic flux density B is determined by the following equation:

f = ò[Link] 10
S

Applying equation [10] to determine the external magnetic flux at

a conductor, traversed by a current i from its surface at a radius R
up to a very distant point D, we obtain:

y=D y=D
m0.i m0.I D
ò
f = [Link]=
y=R
ò2.p.y .dy=
y=R 2.p
.Ln
R
[11]

By substituting equation [11] into equation [6], we can then obtain the in-
external inductance of this conductor LE

mR.m0 æD ö
THE
= .Ln ç ÷ 12
p èR ø

Figure 4 – Magnetic field inside a conductor

The magnetic flux inside a conductor is calculated considering

a cross section A of the conductor of radius R, carrying a current i,
that we admit as uniformly distributed in its interior producing
magnetic flux lines as can be seen in Figure 4. In a circle of radius

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 Chapter 7 - Transmission Line Modeling

x inside the conductor, the current inside is (x/R)2and using Am's law
father applied to this circle we obtain:

mR.m0.x.i
B = mR.m0.H= [13]
2.p.R2

The volume element shown in the figure has a volume of [Link] and the
the total energy stored in the magnetic field within the conductor is:
2
mR.m0 x =Ræ x.i ö mR.m0 2
wmf= .ò ç ÷ .[Link]= .i 14
2 x =0è 2.p.R2 ø 8.p

The same energy stored inside the conductor can also

to be determined from the following equation:

1
wmf=.LI.i2 [15]
2

By equating equation [11] with equation [12], we obtain the expression

for the internal inductance of the conductor, a constant value given by:

m.m
R 0
LI = [16]
8.p

Finally, the total inductance of an infinite cylindrical conductor

traversed by a current i is the sum of the external inductance with the internal one,

this is:

1 æ ö
mR.m0 mR.m0 æD ö mR.m0 é 4 æD öù mR.m0 ç D ÷
L=
T + .lnç ÷ = . êline +ln ç ÷ú = .lnç 1 ÷ [17]
4.p p èR ø p ë è R øû p ç - ÷
è R.e 4
ø

Analyzing equation [17], we find that by substituting the radius of the con-
by a ray equivalent this equation becomes identical to that of inductance
external to the conductor. This equivalent radius can be interpreted as sin-
of the radius of a fictional, theoretical conductor, which does not possess flux in-

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 Chapter 7 - Transmission Line Modeling

It produces, however, the same total flow that would be produced.

through the current and while traversing the examined solid conductor.
Therefore, in the calculations of the flow produced by conductors

solid cylinders, we must replace their actual external radii with:

-1
r'=r.e40.7788 [18]

The term r' is referred to as the geometric mean radius (RMG) and is defined
as if being the radius of a fictitious solid cylindrical conductor that produces
a magnetic field equal to the magnetic field of the real conductor.

5. CAPACITANCE OF TRANSMISSION LINES

A transmission line, when energized, absorbs charges from the source.
necessary electricals for their charging, in the same way as a cover-
citation.
Applying a sinusoidal alternating voltage to a transmission line
the electric charge of conductors at any point varies according to
with instantaneous values of the potential differences existing there between the
conductors or between the conductor and the ground. The flow of electric charges consists of

in a current, current of the line load.

The electric charge of an isolated, long, straight cylindrical conductor and
sufficiently far from the ground and other charged conductors, distribute
uniformly over its surface, forming a field around it
electric, homogeneous, whose equipotential surfaces are also cylindrical,
concentric with the conductor.
Let q be the instantaneous charge value in one linear meter of conductor,
uniformly distributed over the surface. By convention, it is equal to q.
number of lines of force that radiate radially from its surface, in a
metro conductor.

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 Chapter 7 - Transmission Line Modeling

Let's consider a cylindrical surface of radius x[m] concentric with the

conductor. This surface is equipotential. The electric charge density is ex-
pressure for:

q q
D= = [19]
s2px
where:
2px - area per linear meter of the conductor.
q - number of lines that cross this surface.

The electric field is defined as

D q
E= = [20]
x 2xp x

x = x 0xr 21

where:
x is the electrical permittivity of air.

Consider a long, straight conductor with a positive charge.

of q [coulomb/m]. The points P1e P2are placed, respectively, to dis-
D Tendency1e D2from the center of the conductor. The positive charge on the conductor will exert
a force on the positive charge placed in the field. The instantaneous value of the
potential difference between P1e P2will be

D2
q D
ò
v 12=Edx=
D1
ln 2
2pxD1
[22]

The potential difference between two conductors a and b charged with

R rays with the same charge q, separated by a distance D using the
equation [22] is

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 Chapter 7 - Transmission Line Modeling

D
q 1 q D
v ab = .ò .=dx .ln 23
2pxxR 2px R

And the capacitance of these two conductors is calculated from the charge
per unit of potential, that is:

q px
C ab= = 24
U ab D
ln
R

6. CONDUCTANCE OF TRANSMISSION LINES

The dispersion conductance (g) is the line parameter that models the
losses due to dispersion. These losses include losses due to the
corona effect generated by the ionization of the air around the conductor and the losses

dielectrics in insulators. The losses due to the corona effect are distributed
along the line, and the dielectric losses in the insulators are concentrated in the
the same, however, as the distances between support structures are relatively
small is usually considered to be uniformly distributed as well.
From the theory of electrical materials, it is a known fact that no di-
Electric is perfect, that is, all of it has leakage currents. Thus, the insulators
the transmission lines, at the industrial frequency itself, are subject to
these leakage currents that cause energy losses. These losses vary
I am with the quality of the insulator material, with the surface conditions (
pollution, salinity), insulator geometry, frequency of the applied voltage,
weather conditions ...
The term corona is used to describe discharge phenomena.
electric events that occur internally or externally to equipment or with
electric components. The corona can be defined as a localized discharge,
resulting from the transient ionization of gases in an insulation system
when the applied voltage exceeds the critical value.

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 Chapter 7 - Transmission Line Modeling

There is a distinction between the term corona and partial discharges. The term

corona is associated with the visual phenomenon, partial discharges are phenomena
not visible, as it is internal to the material or component.
The corona effect can produce light, audible noise, and ozone, and can be
detected by our conventional sensory capabilities of vision, audio-
taste and smell.
The selection of drivers is one of the most important decisions to be made.

rem taken by the designer of the transmission lines. In medium voltage lines and
high voltages, the choice of conductor sections is usually related to
I need an economic equation involving losses due to Joule effect.
transport capacity and the necessary investments. In the lines in ten-
of EHV and UHV, the control of the manifestations of the Corona effect can be
the dominant element to guide this choice.
The corona effect appears on the surface of the conductors of an overhead line.

transmission area when the value of the potential gradient present there ex-
yield the value of the critical disruptive gradient of the air. In the non-uniform field in

around a conductor, the divergence of the field exerts additional influence, and
any contaminating particle, such as dust, for example, transforms
in a punctual discharge source.
Electrical discharges in gases are usually initiated by a field
electric that accelerates free electrons present there. When these electrons acquire
enough energy from the electric field, they can produce new electrons by
collision with other atoms. It is the process of ionization by impact. During the
acceleration in the electric field, each free electron collides with oxygen atoms
nitrogen and other gases present, losing part of it in this collision,
its kinetic energy. Occasionally an electron can hit an atom with
sufficient force, in order to excite it. Under these conditions, the affected atom reaches

to an initial state, releasing the excess energy in the form of heat, light,
acoustic energy and electromagnetic radiation. An electron can also
collide with a positive ion, converting it into a neutral atom.

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 Chapter 7 - Transmission Line Modeling

All the energy released must come from the electric field of the line,
so much, from the feeding system, for which it represents energy loss, due to
subsequent, loss. The losses are related to the geometry of the conduit.
res, operating tensions, potential gradients on the surfaces of the conductors
stores and with the local weather conditions.
Individual corona discharges cause pulses of voltage and color.
short-term rates that propagate along the lines, resulting in
electromagnetic fields in their vicinity. These discharges occur under
cover both semicircles of the applied voltage, however those that occur
during the positive semicircles is when noise is emitted that can interfere with
radio reception in the frequency bands of amplitude transmissions
sweets.

7. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF TRANSMISSION LINES

As described at the beginning of this chapter, due to the extent of the li-
transmission lines, model a line using its parameters concen-
trados can lead to significant errors in analyses involving the com-
her permanent regime behavior. From the theory of electric circuits, it is co-
It is known that in order to model a component by a circuit to
concentrated parameters need their dimensions to be very me-
no more than 1/4 of its wavelength, that is:

l c 300,000
= = =1250 Km
4 4. f 4.60
where:
c - speed of light propagation;
f - frequency in Hz

Thus, to study a transmission line in a steady state,

One must consider a very small segment of extension Dx of this.
transmission line where: l is the inductance per unit length, c is the

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 Chapter 7 - Transmission Line Modeling

capacitance per unit length, r is the resistance per unit of

length and g is the dispersion conductance per unit length,
as shown in figure 5.

i(x D
+ x, t)
i(x,t)
r. Dx l. Dx

v(x D
+ x, t)
v(x,t) [Link]
[Link]

Figure 5 - Extension segment Dx of the transmission line

Applying Kirchhoff's laws of voltage and current in the section of the line
of length Dx shown in the figure, it is shown that:

¶v
i(x,t) = i(x + Dx, t) + v(x + Dx, t) . g . Dx + c . Dx. [25]
¶t

¶i
v(x,t)=v(x+Dx,t)+i(x,t).[Link]+[Link]. [26]
¶t

reorganizing equations [25] and [26],

v(x+Dx,t)-v(x,t) i
= -r.i-l. [27]
Dx ¶t

i(x+Dx,t)-i(x,t) ¶v
=-g.v-c. [28]
Dx ¶t

taking the limit as Dx approaches zero in equations [27] and [28],

¶v ¶i
= -r.i-l. [29]
¶x ¶t

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 Chapter 7 - Transmission Line Modeling

¶i ¶v
= -g.v-c. [30]
¶x ¶t

differentiating with respect to x the equations [29] and [30],

¶ 2v ¶i ¶ 2i
= -r.-l. [31]
2
¶ x ¶x ¶x.¶t

¶ 2i ¶v ¶ 2v
= -g.-c. [32]
2
¶ x ¶x ¶x.¶t

differentiating with respect to t the equations [29] and [30],

¶ 2v ¶i ¶ 2I
= -r.-l. [33]
¶t.¶x ¶t .¶2 t

¶ 2i ¶v ¶ 2v
-g.-c. [34]
¶x.¶t ¶t ¶ 2t

Finally, substituting equations [29], [30], [33], and [34] into the equations
From [31] and [32], it is obtained:

¶ 2v é ¶v ù é ¶v ¶v2 ù
=-r.-gv-c
êë ú -l.-g.-c
ê ú 35
¶ x
2
¶t û ë ¶t ¶ 2t û

¶ 2i é ¶i ù é ¶i ¶i2 ù
= - -[Link]
êë l- ú - c.r.ê- -l 2 ú [36]
¶ x
2
¶t û ë ¶t ¶ tû

Rearranging the equations [35] and [36],

¶ 2v
(cr+lg ) ¶v +lc ¶ 2v
2
=r.g.v+ [37]
¶ 2x ¶t ¶ t

¶ 2I
=r.g.i+ (cr+lg ) i +lc
¶ 2i
38
¶ 2x ¶t ¶ 2t

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 Chapter 7 - Transmission Line Modeling

Equations [37] and [38] form a system of differential equations.

that allow, when solved, to obtain the voltage and the current at any
point of the line and at any instant of time t.
For the purposes of this text, we are only interested in studying
the cases in which the voltages and currents along the transmission line
in a steady sinusoidal regime. In this situation, it is possible to apply the mé-
all phasorial, which allows representing the voltages and currents in steady state
remaining through phasors that vary with the point x of the line. Assuming the line of

transmission operating under steady state sinusoidal voltage

v(t)=[Link](wt) and the current i(t)=[Link](wt-f) can be represented by
phasors V and I, as well as their derivatives.

Applying the phasor method to the differential equations [37] and [38], obtain
mos:
¶ 2V
=z.y.V [39]
¶ 2x

¶ 2I
=z.y.I 40
¶ 2x

whose solutions are:

V=Aegx+Be- gx [41]

A gx B - gx
I= - e + e 42
Zc Zc

where it is called propagation constant and ZCthe characteristic impedance

tica of a given transmission line, by the following equations:
g=z.y=a+jb [43]

Z
Zc = [44]
y

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 Chapter 7 - Transmission Line Modeling

The propagation constant is related to the way the faso-

voltage and current vary along the line, the variation of the magnitudes with the
attenuation constant and the variations of the phases of the voltages with the cons-

Aunt of phaseb.
Analyzing equations [41] and [42], it can be seen that the voltage phasor and

the current phasor consists both of the sum of its modulated sinusoids
measures that propagate along the axis "x" through the exponentials:

e ±g =e±ax e ± jbx .
Each sine wave "suffers":
x
a) a damping caused by the term eawhich depending on the signal of
exponent is positive or negative, this can increase the amplitude of the se-
nodes as the distance x varies or reduces the amplitudes of the se-
nodes, if it is positive or negative respectively.
b) At the same time, there is a progress of ebinxthe wave phase to which it is applied

I fell.
Thus we conclude that 'g' commands the way in which tensions and cor-
rents propagate along the line, hence the designation of pro- function
propagation constant or propagation constant.

The determination of the tensions and currents along a line of

length l transmission0in a permanent sinusoidal regime is obtained by
from the expressions [41] and [42]. In the vast majority of practical situations not
are you interested in calculating the tension at any given point x on the line
and at specific points such as the beginning of the transmission line (x=0) and the end
( x = l0At x=0 the voltage phasor is V1and the current phasor is I1, in x = l0and the phasor
tension is V2and the current phasor is I2, thus::

V(0)=V1, I(0) = I1V ( l 0 ) = V a n d I ( l 0 ) = I 2

2 [45]

From the known values of voltage and current at the beginning and
At the end of the transmission line, expressions for the constants A and can be obtained.

B of equations [41] and [42]:

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 Chapter 7 - Transmission Line Modeling

(V2-ZcI 2 )
A= e - g1 [46]
2

æV-Z I c 2ö g1
B= ç 2 ÷e [47]
è 2 ø

Using equations [41] and [42] to obtain the values of the phasor ten-
are and the current phasor at x=0, substituting the values of A and B into the equations
from equations [46] and [47], we obtain:

y2 -y2 y1 -y1
æe+e ö æe-e ö
ç
V1=V2 ç ÷
÷ +ZcI 2 çç ÷
÷
2 2 [48]
è ø è ø

y2 -y2 y1 -y1
æe+e ö V2 æe-e ö
I 1I=2 çç ÷ +
÷ Z ç ç ÷
÷ [49]
è 2 ø c è 2 ø

e y1+e- y1 e y1-e- y1
how coshg1= e senhg1= finally we obtain a
2 2
general equation that allows obtaining the voltage and current at the beginning of a line

of transmission in steady state when the voltage and current at the end
the transmission line is known, then:

V=V
1 2 cosh(g.l0)+Zc I 2senh(g.l0 ) 50

V2
I1I2cosh(g.l0) + sinh(g.l0 ) [51]
Zc

8. SHORT LINES:
They are the transmission lines that we can entirely disregard.
mind the effects of capacitance and dispersion conductance. They are lines
whose performance in steady state can be determined by substituting

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 Chapter 7 - Transmission Line Modeling

in equations [50] and [51], the hyperbolic terms (hyperbolic cosine and sine
hyperbolic) by the first terms of the power series, without incurring errors
greater than 1%. So, doing: sin(h.g.l0)@g.l0ecosh(g.l0)@1, is located:

V=V
1 2+Zc I 2 g.l0 [52]

I1@I2 [53]

The equation [52] can be developed using the definitions of im-

z
characteristic impedance and propagation constant, Zc.g= .zy z=, of
y

so that:
V=V
1 2+z.l0.I2=V2+ZLT.I2 [54]

Where ZLTis the concentrated impedance of the transmission line, obtained

based on the resistance of the cable and the reactance of the line in ohms per kilometer

multiplied by the length l0From equation [54] we can conclude

that to model short lines we must adopt the model presented in the figu-
ra.

R X
LT LT

V V
1 2

Figure 6 - Short Line Model

From a practical point of view, short lines are those that fit within the se-
following conditions:
They are lines up to 150kV, with maximum lengths of 80km

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 Chapter 7 - Transmission Line Modeling

They are lines with voltages greater than or equal to 150kV, but less than

that 400kV with maximum lengths of 40km.

These are lines with voltages greater than or equal to 500kV in length
maximum of 20km.

9. AVERAGE LINES
They are transmission lines whose performance in steady state
can be determined by substituting into equations [50] and [51], the hyper- terms
hyperbolic (hyperbolic cosine and hyperbolic sine) by the first two terms of
power series, without incurring errors greater than 1%.
They are lines that can be characterized by:
a) have a length of 200km with nominal voltages
above 150kV and below 400kV.
b) They have a maximum length of 100km with nominal voltages
nice above 400kV.
The capacitance is included in the calculation of medium lines and the terms hi-

parabolics are replaced using the following equations:

senh(g.l0)@(g.l0)+
(g.l0 )3 e cosh(g.l0)@1+
(g.l0)2
3! 2!
Substituting them into the general equations of performance analysis in
permanent regime of the transmission line (equations [41] and [42]) is found
se:
æ ZLTYLTö é ZLTYLT ù
V1 = V2ç .+ 1 ÷ + I 2.Z LT. ê1 + [55]
è 2 ø ë 6 úû

æ [Link]
ö é [Link]
ù
I=I1+2ç ÷ +V2.Y1+LT ê [56]
6 úû
1
è 2 ø ë

Although equations [55] and [56] can be used directly,

to study the average lines in steady state, it is also convenient
make some additional simplifications that will not affect the definition itself
average line deviation, that is incurring errors greater than 1%.

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 Chapter 7 - Modeling of Transmission Lines

Zp

Yp Yp
2 2

Figure 7 - Pi Circuit

For the pi circuit shown in Figure 7, the following can be obtained

equations:
æ Zð Yð ö
V=V1+
1 2ç ÷+Z Ið 2 [57]
è 2 ø

æ Z Y ö æ Z Y ö
I1I= 12ç + ð ð ÷ + V2 Yð 1ç + ð ð ÷ [58]
è 2 ø è 4 ø

Ao se comparar as equações [57] e [58] com as equações [55] e [56]

It is verified that the differences are only in the last terms, which are for lines
media has relatively small values. In light of this fact, and the ease
the visualization that an equivalent circuit adds to a model is very
It is usual to represent the average lines by the nominal pi circuit as it can be.
seen in Figure 8.

ZLT

YLT YLT
2 2

Figure 8 - Nominal pi model of medium lines

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 Chapter 7 - Transmission Line Modeling

Another way to present the model of a transmission line

the average is the nominal T circuit (Figure 9), which, although it is much less
It is true that the pi model, in some cases, simplifies problem-solving.

ZLT/2 ZLT/2

YLT

Figure 9 - Nominal T model for medium lines

In both equivalent circuits ZLTe YLT they are the concentration parameters
trados of the transmission line, so that, even in the medium lines the
the effect of the parameter distribution does not have a considerable influence on the analysis

the behavior of these transmission lines in steady state.

10. LONG LINES

These are those in which the calculation of voltages and currents in steady state

it is necessary to use the complete equations [50] and [51], in the form ex-
exponential or in hyperbolic form.
For the modeling of these transmission lines in steady state
The equivalent pi and T circuits are usually used, whose parameters
are obtained by comparing the coefficients of the hyperbolic terms of the equations
and with the equations of the pi circuit. From this comparison, it can-
it is obtained that:

Zp=Zc senh(g.l0 )

multiplying and dividing the second term by g.l.0one obtains:

[Link] senh(g.l0) Z LT senh(g.l0)

Zp= =
g.l0 g.l0

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 Chapter 7 - Transmission Line Modeling

finally
senh(g.l0)
ZpZ=LT = Z [Link] [59]
g.l0

The term FCI is the so-called impedance correction factor, it is a

factor that applied to the concentrated impedance of the transmission line allows
represent through the pi and T circuits the effect of the distribution of the parameters.

Proceeding similarly by comparing the coefficients of V2 in the

equations [57] and [58] with the same coefficient in equations [55] and [56], can-
it is obtained that:

Zð Yð
cosh(g.l0)=1+
2
you
Yð cosh(g.l0) -1
=
2 Zð

likeZp=Zc senh(g.l0):

Yð cosh(g.l0)-1 1 æg.l0ö
= = .tanh ç ÷
2 Z [Link]( g.l )0 Z C è 2 ø

multiplying and dividing the second term by (g.l0) / 2 is obtained:

æg.l0ö æg.l0ö æg.l0 ö

ç ÷ tanh ç ÷ tanh ç ÷
Yð è 2 ø è 2 ø YLT è 2 ø
= . = .
2 ZC æg.l0 ö 2 æg.l0 ö
ç ÷ ç ÷
è 2 ø è 2 ø
and finally:

Yð YLT
= .FCA 60
2 2

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 Chapter 7 - Transmission Line Modeling

The admittance correction factor FCA is the factor applied to

concentrated admittance of the transmission line allows representation through
two pi and T circuits or the effect of parameter distribution.
In transmission lines, the capacitance parameter cannot be
considered contemptible, the identification that it is a middle line or
the long one is carried out after calculating the FCI and the FCA. On average, the factor of

impedance and admittance correction are approximately equal to the unit-

of.

11. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Weedy, B.M. – Power Electrical Systems;
Stevenson, W. D. – Elements of Power System Analysis;
Fuchs, Rubens D. – Transmission of Electric Energy;
Elgerd, Olle - Introduction to Electric Power System Theory;
Beeman - Industrial Power Systems Handbook
Stagg - Applied Computing to Electric Power Systems;
Neuenswander - Modern Power System;
Celso Camargo – Transmission of Electric Energy
[9] Zaborsky, J and Rittenhouse, J. W. – Electric Power Transmission
[10] EHV Project, Transmission Line Reference Book

VII - 26