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Physics : Modern Physics-II
Pre-Medical

ERNST RUTHERFORD (1871 –1937)

(1871 -1937)

British physicist who

who did
did pioneering work on radioactive radiation.
radiation. He
He
and beta-rays.
discovered alpha-rays and beta-rays. Along with Federick Soddy, he created the
modern theory of radioactivity. He
He studied the
the ‘emanation’ of thorium and
and

®
discovered a new
discovereda new noble gas, an
an isotope of radon, now
now known as
as thoron. By
By
the metal foils, he
scattering alpha-rays from themetal he discovered the atomic nucleus and
and
proposed the
the plenatery model ofthe
of the atom. He
He also estimated the approximate
the nucleus.
size of the

MARIE SKLODOWSKA CURIE (1867-1934)

(1867-1934)

in Poland. She
Born inPoland. She is recognised both asa
as a physicist and
and asa
as a chemist.
chemist. The
The
by Henri Becquerel in
discovery of radioactivity by in 1996 inspired Marie and
and her
husband Pierre Curie in
in their researches and
and analyses which ledto
led to the
the isolation
of radium and polonium elements.
elements. She
She was
was the first person to be awarded two
for Physics in 1903 and
Nobel Prizes - for and forchemistry
for chemistry in
in 1911.

140
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NUCLEI
NUCLEI
1.
1. NUCLEUS
(i) Central core of every atom.
(ii) in α-scattering
Discovered by Rutherford in experiment.
ct-scattering experiment.
(iii) The order of nuclear size =
The 10 "–15 mm or
= 10 or fm
fm while the order of atomic size =
= 10 –10
10*" mm orAÅ
(iv) and neutrons, together referred as nucleons.
Protons and nucleons.
AA
(v) A A nuclide is represented by
by UXZX

ZZ =
= atomic number =
=pp (no. of protons)
AA =
= mass number = total no.
no. of
of nucleons = n +pp
= n+
(vi) Atomic masses are
are generally represented by
by atomic mass unit (u)
12
12
mass of
ofCC atom =
$ - mass
11u = - 1.66 10•2
1.66.× 10 –27
kg
kg

®
12
12
mp =
m, = 1.6726 10•2
1.6726x× 10 –27
kg =
kg = 1.00727
1.00727uu
mn = 1.6749
m, 1.6749x× 10 •2
–27
10 kg kg =
= 1.00866
1.00866uu
–31
mee =
= 9.1
1 x× 10
3
m 9. kg =
10* ' kg = 0.00055
0.00055uu
1.1
1. of Nuclei
1 Types of
(i) Isotope : sameZ
Isotope: same Z
(ii) Isobar : sameA
Isobar: same A
(iii) Isotone : same (A—
Isotone: (A – Z)
Z)
1.2
1.2 Properties of Nuclei
Size of
Size of Nucleus:
Nucleus : (Order is fermi)
As the
As the number of
of nucleons inin nucleus increases its size also increases and
and relation between its radius and
and
mass number is R R ∝ A
m A"1/3
3

1/3
RR = 0A
=RRA" 3

R0 is
Here Rd isa a constant and R0 ≈1.2 fm.
and its value Rd=1.2 fm.

Volume ofNucleus
Volume of Nucleus

Volume ∝ (But R ∝
«RR33 (ButR A1/3))
m A" 3
or
or volume ∝
«AA

Mass ofNucleus
Mass of Nucleus

Its mass is quite small compare to

to gm
gm or
or [Link]
kg. Therefore it is measured in
in another unit - amu
amu (Atomic Mass
Unit)

Mass ofan
of an nucleus of mass numberAA is ~ Amp ~A A amu
- Am, amu of an nucleus, mm ∝
or mass ofan
or m AA

Density of
Density of Nucleus
Nucleus (ρ)
(p)

mass Am p
Amp Am p
Amp 3m
3m,p
pρ = ≅= = x 10'177 kg/ m33
33  2.3 × 10 kg / m
— 2.3
Vvolume 4 33 4 33 44 π
uRR
u
πiR
R πR AA
-xR o0
‘’ ‘e 33f 33 0
density ρ is independent of A. Density of nuclei of all types of element is same and
Nuclear densityp 10” 17
and its order is 10
m 3 or10"
kg/m or 1014g/cm
g/cm3
3 3
kg

141
®
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Physics : Modern Physics-II
Pre-Medical
Illustrations
Illustration 1.
1.
2*
Calculate mass [Link] Ge72.
no. of that nucleus whose radius is half of Ge
Solution.
rr ∝
1/3
A
3
m A"
r 1/3
3
2  A *‘ 11 A A
=   ⇒ = ⇒AA =
=99
r r  72
72  8 8 72
72
Illustration 2.
2.
12
Find the
the density of 66' CC
density of
2
Find
Solution.
of nucleus ≈ 12m
Mass ofnucleus 12m,P = 12
12x× 1.66 × 10•2
x 10 –27
kg
kg {m
{m,P = of proton}
= mass ofproton|

®
M
M 12x× 1.66
12 1.66x× 1010 –27 kg
ρ= =
—— 2.4 10" 17 kg
2.4 x × 10 m–3
kg m*
3
=
44 44
π [[1.2x /3/] m3
5 3
3 πRR33 1.2 × 10 –15
10—* (12)11/3
(12) m3
3 33
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

1.3 the nucleus

1.3 Forces acting inside the
are three forces interacting between nucleons, these are
There arethree
(i) Gravitational force - weakest force of nature
(ii) → only works between proton proton. This is stronger than
Electrostatic repulsive (coulombian) force —r
gravitational force.
(iii) Nuclear force →
—› strongest intraction that holds nucleons together to form nuclei and
and it is powerful enough to
to
the electric repulsion of proton and
overcome theelectric and proton.
1.4
1.4 Features of Nuclear Force (F
(F,)
n
) :–
:-
1. The strongest force in the
The the universe.
2. the nucleons.
Works only between the nucleons.
3. Very short
Very short range:
range : only upto size of nucleus (3 or4
or 4 fermi).
fermi). More than this distance, nuclear force is almost
zero.
4. Very much
Very much depends
depends uponupon distance
distance :– Small variation in distance may
:-Small may cause of large change in
in nuclear
force while electrostatic force remains almost unaffected.
unaffected.
5. Independent of
Independent of charge
charge :– Interacts between n—n
:-Interacts n–n as
as well as between p—p
p–p and also between n—p.
n–p.
6. Spin dependent
Spin dependent :–
:- It is stronger between nucleons having same sense of spin than between nucleons
having opposite sense of spin.
7. It is
It is not
not aa central
central force
force :– (Fc) : Whose line of
:- Definition of central force (F,): of action always passes througha
through a
and its magnitude depends only on
fixed point and on distance, if medium is same.

→
K
Fc = K
F, (± r̂) ) is central force.
(+r
rn

and gravitational forces are central forces.

Electrostatic and forces.

8. Nature :–
:- (i)
(i) Attractive -– If distance is greater than 0.8 fm
fm or above. (ii) Repulsive -– If distance is
lesser than 0.8 fm.

142
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Modern Physics-II
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2.
2. EINSTEIN'S MASS ENERGY EQUIVALENCE
and energy into mass. This relation is given by -
According to Einstein, mass can be converted into energy and
22
EE =
= mc
mc

EE = total energy associated with mass m

m;; cc2 = used asa
as a conversion coefficient
2
Here

2.1
2.1 Mass defect
(i)
(i) Mass of
ofaa nucleus is always less than the sum
sum of
of masses of
of its constituent nucleons. This difference is called
defect.
mass defect.
AA
(ii)
(ii) If observed
If observed mass
mass ofnucleus ZX be
of nucleus ,X be M, mass ofproton
M, mass of proton is Mp and
is M, and mass
mass ofneutron
of neutron is Mn then
is M, then

mass defect = ∆m =
= Am ZM, p++ (A —– Z)M,j
= [ZM Z)Mn] —– M.
M.
A
(iii) If M
M is taken as mass ofatom of ZXA instead of mass ofnucleus
of atom of,X of nucleus then

®
∆m = [Z(Mp + Me) + (A – Z)Mn] – Matom

2.2 Binding energy

2.2 Binding energy (E
(Ebb))

(i) Binding energy ofaa nucleus is the

the energy required to split it into its nucleons (free).
(free).

(ii)
(j j) ∆Eb = ∆m.c2

(iii)
(iii) It is always positive and
and numerically equal to the energy equivalent of mass defect (or equal to the energy
liberated when it was
was formed)

∆Ε 
 AE
2.3 Binding Energy
2.3 Binding Energy yer
per Nucleon
Nucleon  bb 
 AA 

10 32 56 100
Mo
32
Fe
Binding energy per nucleon (MeV)

16
S 127
I
C O
12 197
An
8 4He 18
14 OO 184
W 38
238
uU
N
O 66 66
Li
Li
c 44 3
H
'H
22
2
H
'H
0
00 100
10050
50 150
150 200
200 250
250
Mass number (A)
(A)
FIGURE : Thebinding
FIGURE: The binding energy per nucleon as
aa function of mass number.

(i) The value of binding energy per nucleon decides the stability ofa
The of a nucleus. It is obtained by
by dividing binding
of given nucleus.
energy by the mass number ofgiven nucleus.
(ii) The following figure shows the
The the binding energy per nucleon plotted against the
the mass number of
of various
atoms nuclei
Greater the binding energy per nucleon, the more stable the
the nucleus.
nucleus.

(iii)
(iii) It is maximum for iron( (56
for isotope of iron 56
Fe ) and is 8.8
26 Fe)and MeV/nucleon. It is the
8.8 MeV/nucleon. the most stable nucleus.
nucleus.
(iv) For Uranium, binding energy per nucleon is about 7.7
For 7.7 MeV/nucleon and it is unstable.
(v) The medium size nuclei are
The are more stable than light or
or heavy nuclei.

*’ 143
143
®
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Physics : Modern Physics-II
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3.
3. NUCLEAR REACTIONS
• can be
It can be written as X X (a, b)Y
b) Y i. e. X+ +a a —rY
i. e.X → Y+ +b b

• All nuclear reactions follow conservation of

All

(i) of nucleons or mass number or

number ofnucleons orAA
(ii) orZZ
charge or atomic number or
(iii) and angular momentum
linear and
(iv) energy + mass
energy+

• Energy associated with the nuclear reaction is also called disintegration energy or "Q-value"
”Q-value” of the
reaction.
reaction.

• energy + mass conservation in

Using energy+ inaa nuclear reaction,
reaction, we
we inferred that

®
Q-value =
= [(total mass of
of reactants) —– (total mass ofproducts)] xcc22
of products)] ×

Q-value =
= (total binding energy of products) —– (total binding energy of
of reactants)

• In a certain nuclear reaction,

Ina reaction, if mass decreases then energy is released (+ Q-value)

if mass increases then energy is absorbed (—Q-value)

(– Q-value)

• of nuclear reaction are fission and

Most common examples of and fusion.
fusion.

4.
4. NUCLEAR FISSION
of a heavy nucleus (A>
Splitting ofa (A > 230) into two
two or
or more lighter nuclei when struck by
byaa neutron.
neutron.

in the form ofenergy

In this process certain mass disapears which is obtained in of energy (enormous amount)

→ excited nucleus →
AA++ n —r —rBB++CC++QQ
235)*
and Strassmann done thefirst
Hahn andStrassmann the first fission (fission of of U235).
of nucleus ofU
23'
235
When U is bombarded bya
WhenU by a neutron it splits into two two fragments andand 22 or3
or 3 secondary neutrons and
and
releases about 200 MeV energy per fission (or from single nucleus)
200 MeV
are uncertain but each time energy released is almost same.
Fragments are
Possible reactions are -
23'+
UU235 + in'
0n
1
→ Ba
—r Ba++ Kr
Kr++ 3 1
0n + 200 MeV
3,n'+ 200 MeV
or UU23235
"++ in'
0n
1
→ Xe
—r Xe++ Sr+ n1 + 200
Sr +2 20n'+ MeV
200 MeV
and many other reactions are possible.
and possible.
(i) The average number ofsecondary
The of secondary neutrons is 2.5.

(ii) can be
Nuclear fission can be explained by
by using”
using " liquid drop model”
model" also.

(iii) The ∆m is about 0.1% ofmass

The mass defect Am of mass offissioned
of fissioned nucleus

(iv) About 93% of released energy (Q)

93% of (Q) is appear inthe
in the form of
of kinetic energies of products and
and about 7%
7% part in
ofyγ - rays.
the form of
the
(v) The source of energy in nuclear reactor, which produces electricity,
The electricity, is nuclear fission.
fission.

(vi) In atom born,

In bom, uncontrolled nuclear Mission
fission produces enormous energy.
energy.

144

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s.
5. NUCLEAR FUSION
It is the
the phenomenon offusing of fusing two two or more lighter nuclei to forma
form a single heavy nucleus.
nucleus.
A A++BB —rC → C++QQ (Fusion)
The product (C)
The is more stable then reactants (A and
(C)is and B).
and m
and m c< < (m,+
(ma + m,)
mb)
and mass defect Am
and ∆m = = [(m
[(m,+a + m,)-
mb)- m,]
mc] amu
amu
Energy released
Energy released isE
is E = ∆mx × 931
= Am MeV/amu
931 MeV/amu
The total binding energy and
Thetotal and binding energy per nucleonC nucleon C both are more than of
ofAA and
and B.
∆E =
AE = E,Ec —– (E
(E,+a + @)
Eb)
Fusion of four hydrogen atom into helium atom -
→ [[22He’
1 – 4
[4( H )+ + 4e
4( 1H') 4e] ] —r 2e]–]++ 2ν
He ++ 2e 2v++ 6γ
6y++ 26.7 MeV
MeV
(i)
(i) Energy released
Energy per fission
released per fission >> Energy released
>> Energy released per
per fusion
fusion

 200
200 —   26 
(ii) =
in fission
Energy per nucleon in − 0.85MeV  << energy per nucleon in
in fusion  ≈ 4 —− 6.5MeV 

®
 235
235   

5.1 Required condition

5.1 Required condition forfor nuclear
nuclear fusion
fusion
(a)
(a) High Temperature
the repulsive electrostatic force between them.
Which provide kinetic energy to nuclei to overcome therepulsive
(b) High Pressure
(b) High Pressure (or density)
(ordensity)
Which ensure
Which ensure frequent
frequent collision
collision and
and increases the probability
increases the probability of
of fusion.
fusion.
These condition
These condition exist
exist in the sun
in the sun and
and in
in many
many other
other stars.
stars. The
The source
source of
of energy
energy in
in the
the sun
sun is
is nuclear
nuclear
fusion, where
fusion, where hydrogen
hydrogen is
is in plasma state
in plasma state and
and protons
protons fuse
fuse to
to form
form helium
helium nuclei.
nuclei.

6. AND PAIR ANNIHILATION

PAIR PRODUCTION AND

PAIR PRODUCTION PAIR ANNIHILATION

γ-photon of energy more than>

AA y-photon When electron
than > 1.02 MeV, When electron and
and positron
positron combines
combines they
they
when interact with aa nucleus produces pair of annihilates to
annihilates to each
each other
other and
and only
only energy
energy is
is
electron (e) –
(e ) and
and positron (e*).
(e ).
+
released
released in the form
in the form oftwo
of two gama
gama photons.
photons.
–
The energy equivalent to rest mass ofe
The of e (or
(or
e+)=0.51 MeV.
e*)=0.51
of pair
The energy equivalent to rest mass ofpair
– +
(e + + e*)
e)= = 1.02 MeV.
For pair production Energy of
For of photon1.02 MeV.

If energy of photon is more than 1.02 MeV, the

the

extra energy (E-1.02) MeV

MeV devides
approximately
approximately

in to each particle as
in equal amount to as the
the kinetic

E h − 1.02
EpPh 1•02 
energy. (K.E.)
energy. (K•E‘ −
oree + '
)ee or =   MeV
 22 

If E< < 1.02 MeV, pair will not

IfE not produce.

145

® Physics : Modern Physics-II
Pre-Medical
GOLDEN KEY POINTS
• The density of nuclear matter is independent of
The of the size of the
the nucleus.
nucleus. The
The mass density of the
the atom does
rule.
not follow this rule.
• The radius of aa nucleus determined by electron scattering is found to be slightly different from that
The
scattering. This is because electron scattering senses the charge distribution of
determined by alpha-particle scattering.
the nucleus, whereas alpha and
the and similar particles sense the nuclear matter.
matter.

• The nature of the binding energy (per nucleon) curve shows that exothermic nuclear reactions are possible,
The possible,
two light nuclei fuse or whena
when two when a heavy nucleus undergoes fission into nuclei with intermediate mass.

• the light nuclei must have sufficient initial energy to

For fusion, the to overcome the
the coulomb potential barrier.
barrier.
why fusion requires very high temperatures.
That is why temperatures.

• varying, it shows peaks at

Although the binding energy (per nucleon) curve is smooth and slowly varying, nuclides like
atnuclides
4
He, 160O etc.
6
’He,' etc. This is considered as evidence of atom-like shell structure in nuclei.
nuclei.

®
• A A free neutron is unstable (n → e– + vv ). But
—›pp++ e*+ Buta a similar free proton decay is not
not possible, sincea
since a proton is
than a neutron.
(slightly) lighter thana neutron.
• Gamma emission usually follows alpha or beta emission.A
emission. A nucleus in
in an
an excited (higher) state goes toa
to a
by emittinga
lower state by emitting a gamma photon.A
photon. A nucleus may
may be
be left in
in an
an excited state after alpha or beta
emission. Successive emission of gamma rays from the
emission. the same nucleus isa
is a clear proof that nuclei also have
as do
discrete energy levels as do the
the atoms.

• on fusion.
Hydrogen bomb is based on fusion.

Illustrations
Illustration 3.
Illustration 3.
The mass defect ina
The in a nuclear fusion reaction is 0.05%. What amount of
of energy will be
be liberated in one
one kg
kg
fusion reaction?
fusion reaction ?

Solution.

0.05
Mass defect = ∆m =
= Am = 0.05% of
of11 kg
kg = kg =
kg 10 –4 kg
=55x× 10 kg
100
100
2* 10J2
12J
Energy liberated = (∆m)c2 = (5x
= (Am)c 10 –4’)) (9
(5 × 10 10'166)J
(9x × 10 )J = 45x× 10
= 45 J
Illustration 4.
4.
What is energy released by 235
235 *
by fission of1 gmUU ?
of 1 gm
Solution.

235
235* NN
of atom in
Number ofatom in11 gm ofUU = AA
gm of
235
235

NNAA 6.023 × 10 23*

x 10 2
Energy released =
= x× 200 MeV =
200MeV= x× 200 MeV =
200 MeV 102323 MeV
=55x× 10 MeV
235
235 235
235
23)
23
10—'–133 J) = 10“10J J
=
= (5 10 ) (1.6x
(5x× 10 (1.6 × 10 = 8 8x× 10

88x× 10 10
10
10
= kWH = 2.22
kWH 10’4 kWH
2.22x× 10 kWH
1066
3.6x× 10

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Illustration 5.
Illustration 5.
235
What is the
the power output of 235
92
92 UU reactor if it takes 30 up 2 kg of
30 days to use up2 of fuel and
and if each fission gives
185 MeV of
185 MeV of usable
usable energy?
energy ?
Solution.
23
10 23x×22x× 10
6.02x× 10
6.02 235 1033
of atoms in
Number ofatoms in2 2 kg
kg of
of 23
92UU =
5
= 5.12 10224’
5.12x× 10
235
235
Therefore, energy released in 30 day =
30 day = 5.12 × 102’
x 10 24
x× 185 MeV =
185 MeV = 1.51
1.51x× 10 14
10"J J
11 ⋅ 51
51x× 10
10 4
14
∴ Energy released per
per second == =
= 58.4 MW
MW
30 ×x 24
30 24x× 60
60x× 60
60
Illustration 6.
Illustration 6.
Obtain the binding energy of 4
ofaa nitrogen nucleus 714
7 N
N) in MeV from the
inMeV ( )
the following data.
data.

mHH =
=11·00783u, mnn =
=11·00867 mNN = 14·00307
14 00307uu

®
m 00783u, m 00867 u, m
Solution.
∆m =
Mass defect Am = 7m
7mg p++ 7m –m
7mnn — mNN =
=77x×11·00783
00783++77 ×
x11·00867 – 14·00307
00867 — 14 00307 =
=00·11243
11243 amu
Binding energy = ∆mx× 931
= Am MeV =
931 MeV =00·11243
11243 ×
x 931 MeV
MeV = 104·67 MeV
104-67 MeV
Illustration 7.
7.

Explain nuclear
Explain nuclear fission&
fission & fusion
fusion on
on the
the basis
basis of
of binding
binding energy
energy of
of nucleus.
nucleus. [AIPMT 2004]

Solution.
Binding energy per nucleon

C
A

Q
P

Mass number

In fission:
In fission : nucleusA
nucleus A breaks intoB
into B&&CC UV
fussion : P&&QQ fuse to result in nucleusR
In fussion:P nucleus R W
In both
In both cases
cases the
the net
net B.E.
B.E. increases
increases resulting
resulting in energy release.
in energy release.
Illustration 8.
Illustration 8.
238 238 237
the nucleus
Show that the 238
U emittinga
92 U
92 emitting a proton
proton through
through the
the decay
decay process
process 238
92
92 U
U+ → 237
91
Pa++l11HH cannot
Pa can not
proceed spontaneously . [AIPMT 2006]

Mass ofuranium
of uranium =
= 238.05079 a.m.u.
Mass ofpaladium
of paladium =
= 237.05121 a.m.u.
Mass ofproton
of proton =
= 1.00783 a.m.u.
Solution.
Here Q = (238.05079 —– 237.05121
HereQ 2*
2
(– 0.00825u)c22
– 1.00783)c = (—0.00825u)c
237.05121 —1.00783)c
As the
As theQQ forthis
for this process
process is
is negative,
negative, the
the decay
decay can
can not
not proceed
proceed spontaneously
spontaneously

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Illustration 9.
9.
Write three characteristic features which distinguish nuclear force from coulomb force. [AIPMT 2007]

Solution.
Nuclear force
Nuclear force Coulomb force
Coulomb force (Write any
any three)

(i) Short range Long range

(ii) Nota a central force

Not Central force

(iii) Spin dependent Spin independent

(iv)
(iv) Charge
Charge independent
independent Charge dependent

(v) Strong force Comparitively weak force

Illustration 11.
11.

®
Calculate the percent increase in mass ofan
of an electron accelerated bya
by a potential difference of 500 kV.
500 kV.
[AIPMT 2004]

Solution.
of electron =
Kinetic energy of = 500 keV&& Rest mass energy of electron =
500 keV = 511 keV
511 keV
2
Total energy = m0c2++ KE
mc = m,c
2 2
= mc KE = (511 + 500) keV
= (511+ keV
mm —− md
m0 500 g
Percent increase in mass = x× 100 =
- × 100
100 =
= 97.8
97.8%%
m
’0 0 511

BOX-1
BEGINNER'S BOX-1

1.
1. The Q value ofa
TheQ of a nuclear reactionA → C++d d is defined by
reaction A++b b —rC by
Q = [ mA + mb – mC – md]c2
the masses refer to the
where themasses the respective nuclei.
nuclei. Determine from the
the given data the Q-value of the following

reactions and
and state whether the
the reactions are exothermic or endothermic.
endothermic.

11 33 22 22
(i), H1 H +,+1H H →i 1H H +,+1H H
(i)

(ii) 6 12
6 C+
12 12
’6 6 C C —›
t2 20
→2010 Ne +424 He
Ne ”2 He
are given to be
Atomic masses are be
m (111H)
m$ H ) = 1.007825
1.007825uu

m (212H)
m( H) =
—— 2.014102
2.014102uu

m (313H)
m$ H ) = 3.016049
3.016049uu

(
m(612
2
C =
6 c) )
- 12.000000
12.000000uu

m (20
m$ 20
Ne ) = 19.992439
10 Ne)= 19.992439uu

of He atom is 4.0015 amu

mass ofHe amu

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2.
335 335
2. Calculate the binding energy of17 Cl ' if mass of
17Cl of 17 Cl ' nucleus is 34.98
17Cl of neutron is 1.008665
34. 98 amu, mass of

and mass ofproton

amu andmass of proton is 1.007277 amu.

2235
3. by the fission of
of2 2g g ofg
of 92U " in kWh. Given that the
3
Calculate the energy released by 2U the energy released per
per

fission is 200
200 MeV.

4.
4. the energy released in the
If the the fission of one
one nucleus is3
is 3·2 10 –11
2 x × 10 “J,J, then find number of
of nuclei required per
per

second in
ina a power plant of 16 kW.
16 kW.

5.
23
5. of Uranium required per
Find out the mass ofUranium per day
day to generate 10 MW power from thefission
10 MW the fission ofg
of 92U235.
2U

6.
6. The mass defect ina
Themass in a nuclear fusion reaction is 0.3 percent. What amount ofenergy
0.3 percent. of energy will be
be liberated in one
one

®
kg fusion reaction
kg reaction??

7.
7. Two nuclei have their mass numbers in ratio
Two ratio11: : 3. What is the
the ratio of
of nuclear densities?
densities ? [AiPMT 2006]
[AIPMT 2006]

7. RADIOACTIVITY :
(i) the nucleus is known as
Spontaneous emission of radiations from the as radioactivity and
and substances showing
this property are called radioactive substances.

(ii) Only unstable nuclei exhibit this property.

property.

(iii) A A particular nuclide (element) can

can radiate onlya
only a particular type of radiations ata
at a time, according to its
requirement of stability.
stability.

(iv) This phenomenon (Radioactivity) was by Becquerel

was discovered by are also
Becqueref therefore the radioactive radiations are
called Becquerel radiations.
radiations.
(v) on Curie couple (Merie Curie and
Later on and Pierre Curie) discovered many other radioactive substances.
substances.

8.
8. NATURE OF RADIOACTIVE RADIATIONS :
8.1 Rutherford's Enyeriment
8.1 Rutherford's Experiment :–
:-
γ-rays
– +
– α- β-rays +
rays
– +
– +
– +
radium

Pb box
box (best absorber of
of
nuclear radiations)

He puta
He put a sample of
of radioactive substance ina
in a lead box
box and
and allow the emission of radiations througha
through a small
the radiation enter into the
hole only. When the the external electric field, they split into three parts.

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are called α–rays.
Radiations which deflect towards negative plate are ct—rays.

Radiations which deflect towards positive plate are called β–rays.

b—rays.

are undeflected,
Radiations which are γ–rays.
undeflected, called y—rays.

(i)
(i) Alpha rays
Alpha rays :– These arestream
:-These are stream of
of positive
positive charged
charged particles
particles i.e.
i.e. particle
particle nature.
nature.

(ii) Beta rays

Beta rays :– These arestream
:-These are stream of
of negative charged particles i.e.
i.e. particle nature.
nature.
(iii) Gamma rays :–
Gamma rays These areelectromagnetic
:-These are electromagnetic waves.

8.2
8.2 Properties of α, andyγ rays :–
a,§β and :-
Features
Features α–particles
ct-particles β–particles
§-particles γ–rays
y-rays

1.
1. Identity
Identity Helium nucleus
Helium nucleus or
or Fast moving electrons Electromagnetic wave

®
–β or β )
doubly ionised helium (( .§' 0
or §") –
(j(photons)
hotons)
4
ion
ion(( 2He’)
He )

2. Charge of proton (+ 2e)

Twice of 2e) (– e)
Electronic (— Neutral
3.
3. Mass
Pass ≈ 4m,,
4mp , of β)
(rest mass ofb) rest mass =
=00
mp–mass ofproton
m,—mass of proton = (rest mass ofele.)
of ele.)
4. Ionization power γ-rays
10,000 times of y-rays 100 γ-rays
100 times of y—rays 11
(α>β>γ)
(°>fi>7) 1 11
(or
(or times of α)
times of ct) (or
(or times of β)
§)
1100 100

5. Penetration power 11 11 11
γ-rays
times of y—rays times of
times γ-rays
of y—rays
((γ>β>α)
>y> ) 10000 100
100 (100 times of β)
§)
(100 times of α)
a)
6. Effect of electric Deflection Deflection No deflection
No
or magnetic field (More than α)
ct)

Illustrations
Illustration 1.
1.
β0 230
90Th
„Th
234
234 α
 Xb 
→ ax‘ −
→ cYd 
(p)
→,90Th
Th230
Find a,
Find a, b,c
b, c and
andd d and
and identify particle p
identify particlep
Solution.
0 0
−β P=
(− β )
Th23’
gg Th
90
234 α
 → 88 X
gg
230
3
’  →gQY
89 Y
0
2230
 Th230
’ → g90 Th
230

Illustration 2.
2.
23 0 2
Th234' →
,90Th nα , n ' β
‘° " › 83
−
Bi214
83Bi ",, Find n and
and n'

Solution.
234 —214
234 20
− 214 20
of α particle,
Number ofo particle, nn =
= N N=
α = ==55
44 44
of –β particle, n’
Number of_bparticle, n′ == N_
N–β = Zf —– [Zi —2
= Z, – 2x× No. of α]
No. of ccl =
= 83
83 —– (90
(90 —–2 2x × 5)
5) =
= 83
83 —– 80
80 =
= 33

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BEGINNER'S BOX-2
0
1. α
238 +β
b
1. ,92zUU
z38
→  aX , finda
*’ →›,X‘, find a& & b.

0 qα 215 0
2.
2. b
,X‘ −β
aX  → 
215
→ CY −β
→ 110
d
Y Find a, b,c
„BY‘Find b, c and
and d.

238 * ,n '_ β0 206*

3.
3. z92UU
238 nα
 ” → 8 82 Pb
b
206
. Find
Find n&
n & n'
n'

32
4.
4. Thorium isotope Th emits some α–particles
isotopeg90Th 232
and some β–particles
ct—particles and and gets transformed into lead isotope
b—particles and

of α and
andb β particles
2200
Pb "..
82Pb Find the
Find the number
number ofct particles emitted.
emitted.

5.
5. AA radioactive nucleus undergoesa
undergoes a series of decays according to the following scheme:
scheme :

−
α
A A  →AAi1 —
-•
β
 α
→ AA22  γ
→AA33  A4
→ Ay

®
the mass number and atomic number of
If the ofAA are180
are 180 and
and 72 respectively,
respectively, what arethese for A4?
are these numbers forAq?

ANSWERS KEY
ANSWERS KEY
BEGINNER
BEGIHHER BOX-1
BO2t•4
BEGINNER
BEGINNER BOX-2
BOX-2
1. –4.031 MeV, endothermic
1. (i) —4.031 1.
[Link] =
= 89,
bb =
89, = 234
234
(ii) 5.64 MeV, exothermic
2.
[Link] =
= 110,
110,bb =
= 219,
219,cc =
= 109,
109,dd =
= 215
215
2. 278.92 MeV
MeV
3.
3. n =
= 8, n' =
= 66
3. 4.55x
4
4.55 × 10
10’ kWh.
4. Nα =
4. Nq = 8,
8,N Nβ =
=8 8
4.
4.55x× 10
10“ 14

5.
5. Mass number = 172 and Atomic number = 69
5.
5. 10.5
10.5gg
6. 2.7
2.7x× 1014
10“J J 7.
7.11::11

151