Academic Work:

Structure – Citations - References

Professor Margarida Piteira (Ph. D.)

mmpiteira@[Link]
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The structure

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1. Pre-text Section
1. Cover and title page
2. Dedication
3. Epigraph
4. Acknowledgements
5. Summary/Abstract
6. Advert note
7. Table of contents
8. List of acronyms, initials, symbols and abbreviations

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2. Text Section
1. Introduction
Announce the subject
Situate it: Literature Review
Determines its relevance
Justifies its choice
Presents the elements needed to understand it
Defines the methodology adopted to develop the subject
Present the structure of the work

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2. Text Section
2. Main text/Issue development
Divided into parts, chapters and sections

3. Conclusion
Summary of work content
Critical observations and limitations
Implications/contributions
Future research directions

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3. Post-text Section
1. Bibliography / References
 Respect for the academic norm
2. Appendices
 Tables, charts, maps, illustrations, etc. that do not appear in the main of
the work (from the primary data, collected and prepared by the author)
3. Annexes (not prepared by the author, from other sources)
 Auxiliary documents necessary a better understanding of the work
4. Errata/Error List

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Graphic Editing

Spacing: 1.5
Fonts: Times New Roman, Arial (11), Garamond
Font size: 12
Margins: 3 cm (left) and 2.5 (left)
Blank page between cover and title page
Pages always numbered:
Roman numerals: up to the Introduction
Arabic numbering: from the Introduction onwards
Avoid abbreviations, except in recognised cases
Acronyms and abbreviations should be expanded when first used
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APA in-text
citations

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1. The author (date) citation system 9

The APA in-text citation system consists to

provide the surname(s) of the author(s) or the
name(s) of the group author(s) and the year of
publication (also known as the author-date
system).
system If you’re citing a specific part of a
source, you should also include a locator such
as a page number or timestamp.

For example: According Smith (2020, p. 170)...

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The author (date) citation system 10

The in-text citations means include brief

references in the running text that direct
readers to the reference entry at the end of the
work; i.e., every time the author of the work
quotes or paraphrases someone else’s ideas or
words to avoid plagiarism.

In this system, each source used in the work

has two parts: an in-text citation and a
corresponding reference list entry in the end of
the work.

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The author (date) citation system 11

APA (2020, p. 400)

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The author (date) citation system

The in-text citation appears within the body of
the paper (or in a table, figure, footnote, or
appendix) and briefly identifies the cited work
by its author and date of publication. This in-
text citation enables readers to locate the
corresponding entry in the alphabetical
reference list at the end of the paper.

APA (2020, p. 401)

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2. Parenthetical and Narrative Citations 13
In-text citations have two formats:
parenthetical and narrative.
narrative In parenthetical
citations, the author name and publication date
appear in parentheses. In narrative citations,
this information is incorporated into the text as
part of the sentence. (APA, 2020, p. 401)

Examples:

Parenthetical citation:
According to new research… (Smith,
2020).

Narrative citation:
Smith (2020) notes that...
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2. Parenthetical and Narrative Citations 14
In-text citations have two formats: parenthetical and
narrative.
narrative In parenthetical citations, the author name
and publication date appear in parentheses. In
narrative citations, this information (name of the author
source) is incorporated into the text as part of the
sentence. (APA, 2020, p. 401)
Examples:
Parenthetical citation:
According to new research… (Smith, 2020).
Koehler (2016) noted the dangers of falsely balanced
news coverage.

Narrative citation:
Smith (2020) notes that...
Falsely balanced news coverage can distort the
public’s perception of expert consensus on an issue
(Koehler, 2016). 14
3. Citing Multiple Works 15

When citing multiple works parenthetically, place the

citations in alphabetical order, separating them with
semicolons. Listing both parenthetical in-text citations
and reference list entries in alphabetical order helps
readers locate and retrieve works because they are
listed in the same order in both places.

Example:
(Adams et al., 2019; Shumway & Shulman, 2015;
Westinghouse, 2017)
APA (2020, p. 402)

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3. Citing Multiple Works 16

Arrange two or more works by the same authors by

year of publication. Place citations with no date first,
followed by works with dates in chronological order; in-
press citations appear last. Give the authors’ surnames
once; for each subsequent work, give only the date.

Example:
(Department of Veterans Affairs, n.d., 2017a, 2017b,
2019)
Zhou (n.d., 2000, 2016, in press)
APA (2020, p. 402)

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3. Citing Multiple Works 17

In the case of multiple works in which some author

names have been abbreviated to “et al.”, place the
citations in chronological order (regardless of the order
in which they appear in the reference list).

Example:
(Carraway et al., 2013, 2014, 2019)

APA (2020, p. 402)

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3. Citing Multiple Works
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To highlight the work(s) most directly relevant to your

point in a given sentence, place those citations first
within parentheses in alphabetical order and then
insert a semicolon and a phrase, such as “see also,”
before the first of the remaining citations, which should
also be in alphabetical order. This strategy allows
authors to emphasize, for example, the most recent or
most important research on a topic, which would not be
reflected by alphabetical order alone.

Example:
(Sampson & Hughes, 2020; see also Augustine, 2017;
Melara et al., 2018; Pérez, 2014)
APA (2020, p. 403) 18
3. Citing Multiple Works 19

If multiple sources are cited within the narrative of a

sentence, they can appear in any order.

Example:
As Suliman (2018), Gutiérrez (2012, 2017), and
Medina and Reyes (2019) examined .

APA (2020, p. 403)

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3. Citing Multiple Works
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Multiple authors and corporate authors The in-text citation changes
slightly when a source has multiple authors or an organization as an
author. Pay attention to punctuation and the use of the (&) symbol.

APA (2020, p. 407)

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3. Citing Multiple Works 21

Multiple authors and corporate/institutional authors The

in-text citation changes slightly when a source has
multiple authors or an organization as an author. Pay
attention to punctuation and the use of the (&) symbol.

In parenthetical citations, use an ampersand (&)

between names for a work with two authors or before
the last author when all names must be included to
avoid ambiguity. In narrative citations, spell out the
word “and.”
APA (2020, p. 407)
Example:
The literature of this topic (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 2007)...
Eifert and Yildiz (2018) have been defending...
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4. Number of Authors to Include 22

For a work with one or two authors, include the author

name(s) in every citation.
For a work with three or more authors, include the
name of only the first author plus “et al.” in every
citation, including the first citation, unless doing so
would create ambiguity

(See: Table Table 8.1 Basic In-Text Citation Styles

p. 407)

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5. Works With the Same Author and Same Date 23

When multiple references have an identical author (or

authors) and publication year, include a lowercase
letter after the year. The year–letter combination is
used in both the in-text citation and the reference list
entry. Use only the year with a letter in the in-text
citation, even if the reference list entry contains a more
specific date.

APA (2020, p. 408)

Example:
(Judge & Kammeyer-Mueller, 2012a)
Judge and Kammeyer-Mueller (2012b)
(Sifuentes, n.d.*-a, n.d.*-b)
* n.d.: no date 23
6. Paraphrases and Quotations
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6.1. Paraphrases/Indirect citations
A paraphrase restates another’s idea (or your own previously published
idea) in the authors´ own words. Paraphrasing is an effective writing
strategy because it allows authors to summarize and synthesize
information from one or more sources, focus on significant information, and
compare and contrast relevant details. Citing in paraphrase mode could
using either the narrative or parenthetical format.

Example: APA (2020, p. 412)

Avid readers of science fiction and fantasy books are more likely than
readers of other genres to believe in futuristic scenarios - for example, that
it will someday be possible to travel to other galaxies or power a car on
solar energy (Black et al., 2018).

Webster-Stratton (2016) described a case example of a 4-year-old girl who

showed an insecure attachment to her mother; in working with the family
dyad, the therapist focused on increasing the mother’s empathy for her
child (pp. 152–153).
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6. Paraphrases and Quotations
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6.2. Direct Quotation

A direct quotation reproduces words verbatim from another work. When

quoting directly, always provide the author, year, and page number of the
quotation in the in-text citation in either parenthetical or narrative format. To
indicate a single page, use the abbreviation “p.” (e.g., p. 25, p. S41, p.
e221); for multiple pages, use the abbreviation “pp.”. Instructors, programs,
editors, and publishers may establish limits on the use of direct quotations
and separate the page range with an en dash (e.g., pp. 34–36). If pages
are discontinuous, use a comma between the page numbers (e.g., pp. 67,
72). If the work does not have page numbers, provide another way for the
reader to locate the quotation.

APA (2020, p. 414)

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6. Paraphrases and Quotations 26

6.2. Direct Quotation Without Page Numbers

Textual Works: Provide a heading or section name; Provide an abbreviated

heading or section name in quotation marks to indicate the abbreviation if the
full heading or section name is too long or unwieldy to cite in full; Provide a
paragraph number (count the paragraphs manually if they are not
numbered); Provide a heading or section name in combination with a
paragraph number.
Works With Canonically Numbered Sections: To directly quote from
material with canonically numbered sections. Use the name of the book,
chapter, verse, line, and/or canto instead of a page number.
Audiovisual Works. To directly quote from an audiovisual work (e.g.,
audiobook, YouTube video, TED Talk, TV show), provide a time stamp for
the beginning of the quotation in place of a page number. Example: People
make “sweeping inferences and judgments from body language” (Cuddy,
2012, 2:12).
APA (2020, p. 418-419) 26
6. Paraphrases and Quotations
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6.2. Direct Quotation (short)
If a quotation consists of fewer than 40 words, treat it as a short quotation:
Incorporate it into the text and enclose it within double quotation marks. For
a direct quotation, always include a full citation (parenthetical or narrative)
in the same sentence as the quotation. Place a parenthetical citation either
immediately after the quotation or at the end of the sentence. For a
narrative citation, include the author and year in the sentence and then
place the page number or other location information in parentheses after
the quotation; if the quotation precedes the narrative citation, put the page
number or location information after the year and a comma.

APA (2020, p. 415)

Example:
Effective teams can be difficult to describe because “high performance
along one domain does not translate to high performance along another”
(Ervin et al., 2018, p. 470).
“Some people are hilarious, others are painfully unfunny, and most are
somewhere in between,” wrote Nusbaum et al. (2017, p. 231) in their
exploration of humor.
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6. Paraphrases and Quotations
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6.2. Block Quotations (more than 40 Words - long)

If a quotation contains 40 words or more, treat it as a block quotation. Do

not use quotation marks to enclose a block quotation. Start a block
quotation on a new line and indent the whole block 0.5 in. from the left
margin. If there are additional paragraphs within the quotation, indent the
first line of each subsequent paragraph an additional 0.5 in. Double-space
the entire block quotation; do not add extra space before or after it. Either
(a) cite the source in parentheses after the quotation’s final punctuation or
(b) cite the author and year in the narrative before the quotation and place
only the page number in parentheses after the quotation’s final punctuation.
Do not add a period after the closing parenthesis in either case.

APA (2020, pp. 416-417)

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 6. Paraphrases and Quotations
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6.2. Block Quotations (40 Words or More, long)

Example: Block quotation with parenthetical citation:

Researchers have studied how people talk to themselves:
Inner speech is a paradoxical phenomenon. It is an experience that is
central to many people’s everyday lives, and yet it presents considerable
Quotation

challenges to any effort to study it scientifically. Nevertheless, a wide

range of methodologies and approaches have combined to shed light on
the subjective experience of inner speech and its cognitive and neural
underpinnings. (Alderson-Day & Fernyhough, 2015, p. 957)
However other authors...

APA (2020, p. 417)

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 6. Paraphrases and Quotations
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6.2. Block Quotations (40 Words or More, long)

Example: Block quotation with narrative citation:

Flores et al. (2018) described how they addressed potential researcher bias
when working with an intersectional community of transgender people of
color:
Everyone on the research team belonged to a stigmatized group but also
Quotation

held privileged identities. Throughout the research process, we attended

to the ways in which our privileged and oppressed identities may have
influenced the research process, findings, and presentation of results. (p.
311)
There are others perspectives...

APA (2020, p. 417)

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 6. Paraphrases and Quotations
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6.2. Block Quotations (40 Words or More, long)

Example:
Block quotation consisting of two paragraphs:

Regarding implications for chronic biases in expectation formation,

in order to accurately estimate whether people are likely to form positive
or negative expectations on any given occasion, it is necessary to
gobeyond simply considering chronic individual differences and identify
the factors that make people more likely to form expectations in line with
Quotation

one bias or the other.

The present research sheds light on this issue by identifying a crucial
distinction in the operation of these two trait biases in expectation
formation. Specifically, people’s valence weighting biases and self-
beliefs about the future appear to shape expectations via qualitatively
distinct processes. (Niese et al., 2019, p. 210)
The framework of self-beliefs... APA (2020, p. 417)

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7. Primary and Secondary Sources
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In scholarly work, a primary source reports original content; a

secondary source refers to content first reported in another
source. Cite secondary sources sparingly—for instance, when
the original work is out of print, unavailable, or available only in
a language that you do not understand. If possible, as a matter
of good scholarly practice, find the primary source, read it, and
cite it directly rather than citing a secondary source.

When citing a secondary source, provide a reference list entry for the
secondary source that you used. In the text, identify the primary source and
then write “as cited in” the secondary source that you used. If the year of
publication of the primary source is known, also include it in the text.

APA (2020, p. 394)

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7. Primary and Secondary Sources
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Example:
For example, if you read a work by Lyon et al. (2014) in which Rabbitt
(1982) was cited, and you were unable to read Rabbitt’s work yourself, cite
Rabbitt’s work as the original source, followed by Lyon et al.’s work as the
secondary source. Only Lyon et al.’s work appears in the reference list.

(Rabbitt, 1982, as cited in Lyon et al., 2014)

If the year of the primary source is unknown, omit it from the in-
text citation.

Allport’s diary (as cited in Nicholson, 2003)

APA (2020, p. 394)

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7.1. Secondary Sources
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When quoting material that contains embedded citations,

include the citations within the quotation. Do not include these
works in the reference list unless you cite them as primary
sources elsewhere in your paper.

In the following example, Panero et al. (2016) would appear in

the reference list, but the Stanislavski citations would not:

Actors “are encouraged to become immersed in a character’s

life (Stanislavski, 1936/1948, 1950), an activity that calls for
absorption” (Panero et al., 2016, p. 234).

APA (2020, p. 422)

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8. Changes to a Quotation Requiring Explanation

Example:

APA (2020, p. 421) 35

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8. Changes to a Quotation Requiring Explanation

Example:
Omitting Material: ( … )
Use an ellipsis to indicate that you have omitted words within a quotation
(e.g., to shorten a sentence or tie two sentences together). Either type three
periods with spaces around each ( . . . ) or use the ellipsis character
created by your word-processing program when you type three periods in a
row ( … ), with a space before and after. Do not use an ellipsis at the
beginning or end of any quotation unless the original source includes an
ellipsis; start or end the quotation at the point where the source’s text
begins or ends. Use four periods - that is, a period plus an ellipsis (. … ) - to
show a sentence break within omitted material, such as when a quotation
includes the end of one sentence and the beginning of another sentence.

APA (2020, p. 421) 36

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8. Changes to a Quotation Requiring Explanation

Example:
Inserting Material: [ xau wmn ]

Use square brackets, not parentheses, to enclose material

such as an addition or explanation you have inserted in a
quotation.

APA (2020, p. 421)

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8. Changes to a Quotation Requiring Explanation

Example:
Adding Emphasis: italics

If you want to emphasize a word or words in a quotation, use

italics. Immediately after the italicized words, insert “emphasis
added” within square brackets as follows: [emphasis added].

APA (2020, p. 421)

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 The quoting sandwich

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 Types of qouting

1. Quotation (“citation”): Short (40 words) or Block

Quotation (+ 40 words)
2. Paraphrases (indirect)
3. Secondary source (Smith, 2010 cited by William,
2014)

Parenthetical citation: Narrative citation:

According to new research… Smith (2020) notes that...
(Smith, 2020).
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