Unit I-
Measurement and
its TYpes
What is a Transducer?
► A transducer is an electronic device that converts energy from
one form to another.
► The process of converting energy from one form to another is
known as transduction
► Some common examples of transducers include
loudspeakers, microphones, thermometers and LEDs.
► Parts of Transducer
► A transducer consists of the following two important parts:
Sensing element
Transduction element
Transducers have other vital parts such as signal processing equipment,
amplifiers and power supplies.
❑ Sensing Element
► It is the part of a transducer that responds to the physical sensation.
► The response of the sensing element depends on the physical
phenomenon.
❑ Transduction Element
► The transduction element of the transducer converts the output of the
sensing element into an electrical signal.
► The transduction element is also called the secondary transducer.
► Characteristics of Transducer:
► Repeatability: The output of the transducer must be exactly the same, under same
environmental conditions, when the same quantity is applied at the input repeatedly.
► Accuracy: It is defined as the closeness with which the reading approaches an
accepted standard value or ideal value or true value, of the variable being measured.
► Speed of Response: It is the rapidity with which the transducer responds to changes in
the measured quantity. The speed of response of the transducer should be as high as
practicable.
► Linearity: The output of the transducer should be linearly proportional to the input
quantity under measurement. It should have linear input - output characteristic. -
► Sensitivity: The sensitivity of the electrical transducer is defined as the electrical
output obtained per unit change in the physical parameter of the input quantity. A high
sensitivity is always desirable for a given transducer.
► Applications of Transducer:
• Transducers are used in an ultrasound machine.
• The transducers in a speaker convert electrical signals into acoustic sound.
• A transducer is used in the antenna to convert electromagnetic waves into an
electrical signal.
Classification of Transducers
Resistive Transducers
❖ A resistive transducer is an electronic device that is capable of measuring
various physical quantities like temperature, pressure, vibration, force, etc.
These physical quantities are otherwise extremely difficult to measure as they
can change easily.
► Working Principle of Resistive Transducer
❖ The resistive transducer element works on the principle that the resistance of the
element is directly proportional to the length of the conductor and inversely
proportional to the area of the conductor.
► Advantages of Resistive Transducer
1. Both the AC and DC, current or voltage is appropriate for the measurement of variable
resistance.
2. The resistive transducer gives the fast response.
3. It is available in various sizes and having a high range of resistance.
► Applications of Resistive Transducer
[Link] 3. Strain gauges.
[Link] Thermometer [Link]
Inductive Transducers
► A transducer that works on the principle of electromagnetic induction or
transduction mechanism is called an inductive transducer.
► Types of the Inductive Transducer:
❑ Simple Inductance Type:
► In this type of transducer, a single coil is used to measure the required
parameter.
► The change in displacement changes the permeability of the flux produced
in the circuit results in a change in the inductance of the coil and the output.
► Mutual Inductance Transducers (two coils)
► In this type, two coils are used for mutual induction. One for generating
excitation and another for output.
Change in Self-inductance
Consider the self-inductance of the coil be,
L = N2/R
The expression for the reluctance of the coil is,
R = l/µA
L = N2µA/l
L = N2µG
Where ‘N’ represents [Link] turns
‘R’ represents the magnetic circuit’s reluctance
‘μ’ represents permeability of the coil (medium in and around the coil)
G= A/l = geometric form factor
‘A’ represents a cross-section area of the coil
‘l’ represents the length of the coil
► Applications of the Inductive Transducer
► Proximity sensors to measure position, dynamic motion, touchpads.
► Detection of metals and missing parts
► Accelerometers
► Linear and Rotary Motor
► Galvanometers
Capacitance Transducers
► The capacitive transducer is used for measuring the displacement, pressure and other physical
quantities.
► It is a passive transducer that means it requires external power for operation.
❑ Principle of Operation:
The equations below express the capacitance between the plates of capacitor
Where A – overlapping area of plates in m 2
d – the distance between two plates in meter
ε – permittivity of the medium in F/m
ε – relative permittivity
r
ε – the permittivity of free space
0
► The capacitive transducer uses the following three effects.
1. Variation in capacitance of transducer is because of the overlapping of capacitor plates.
2. The change in capacitance is because of the change in distances between the plates.
3. The capacitance changes because of dielectric constant.
Potentiometer
► The potentiometer is basically a long piece of uniform wire across which a
standard cell is connected. Also called POT.
► Working Principle of Potentiometer
► The basic principle of the potentiometer is that the potential drop across any
section of the wire will be directly proportional to the length of the wire,
provided the wire is of the uniform cross-sectional area and a uniform current
flows through the wire.
► Following is the derivation used to explain the potentiometer
working principle:
► The galvanometer G has null detection as the potential
difference is equal to zero and there is no flow of current.
❖ Potentiometer Types:
❑ Rotary Potentiometers
► The rotary type potentiometers are used mainly for obtaining adjustable
supply voltage to a part of electronic circuits and electrical circuits.
❑ Linear Potentiometers
► The linear potentiometer is basically the same but the only difference is
that here instead of rotary movement the sliding contact gets moved on
the resistor linearly. Here two ends of a straight resistor are connected
across the source voltage.
► Mechanical Potentiometer
► mechanical potentiometers suffer from some serious disadvantages
which make it unsuitable for applications where precision is required.
Size, wiper contamination, mechanical wear, resistance drift, sensitivity
to vibration, humidity, etc. are some of the main disadvantages of a
mechanical potentiometer.
► Digital Potentiometers
► Digital potentiometers are three-terminal devices, two fixed end
terminals and one wiper terminal which is used to vary the output
voltage.
► Digital potentiometers have various applications, including calibrating a
system, adjusting offset voltage, tuning filters, controlling screen
brightness, and controlling sound volume.
Piezoresistive
► Piezoresistive strain gauges are among the most common types of pressure
sensors. They use the change in electrical resistance of a material when
stretched to measure the pressure.
► Working principle:
► The basic principle of the piezoresistive pressure sensor is to use a strain
gauge made from a conductive material that changes its electrical
resistance when it is stretched.
► The strain gauge can be attached to a diaphragm that recognises a change
in resistance when the sensor element is deformed.
► The change in resistance is converted to an output signal.
► There are three separate effects that contribute to the change in resistance
of a conductor. These are:
❖ The resistance of a conductor is proportional to its length so stretching
increases the resistance
❖ As the conductor is stretched, its cross-sectional area is reduced, which also
increases the resistance
❖ The inherent resistivity of some materials increases when it is stretched
❖ The last of these, the piezoresistive effect, varies greatly between materials.
► The sensitivity is specified by the gauge factor, which is defined as the relative
resistance change divided by the strain:
► Where strain is defined as the relative change in length:
► Pressure sensing elements:
► Strain gauge elements can be made of metal or a semiconducting material.
❑ Function:
► Piezoresistive strain gauge measurements are made using a Wheatstone
bridge circuit
► An excitation voltage needs to be provided to the bridge. When there is no
strain and all the resistors in the bridge are balanced then the output will
be zero volts.
► A change in pressure will cause a change in resistances in the bridge
resulting in a corresponding output voltage or current. How this is
calculated is shown in the formula below.
❑ Advantages:
► Robust
► Stable
► Simple Construction and Durability
❑ Disadvantages:
► consume more power
► not suitable for battery powered or portable systems.