Internship Report

On
PCB DESIGNING
Submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

Bachelor of Technology
in
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Submitted by

R REDDY AKSHITH 234E1A04D9

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SIDDARTHA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

(AUTONOMOUS)
(Approved by A.I.C.T.E., New Delhi Affiliated to J.N.T.U. Anantapur, Ananthapuramu.)
(Accredited by NBA (EEE, ME, ECE & CSE) & NAAC with ‘A’ Grade)
Siddharth Nagar, Narayanavanam Road, Puttur– 517 583, Tirupati District.

(2024-2025)
 SIDDARTHA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
(AUTONOMOUS)
(Approved by A.I.C.T.E., New Delhi Affiliated to J.N.T.U. Anantapur, Ananthapuramu.)
(Accredited by NBA (EEE, ME, ECE & CSE) & NAAC with ‘A’ Grade)
Siddharth Nagar, Narayanavanam Road, Puttur-517583, Tirupati District.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Mr/Ms. R REDDY AKSHITH bearing roll no
234E1A04D9 of II-Year II semester in the department of ELECTRONICS AND
COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING has completed his/her INTERNSHIP from 12-05-
2025 to 12-07-2025 in the topic of PCB DESIGNING at BLUE OCEAN PERSONNEL &
ALLIED SERVICES PVT [Link] the academic year 2024-25.

Submitted for the University Examination held on _______________

INTERNSHIP COORDINATOR HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

ABSTRACT

The printed circuit board is the platform upon which microelectronic components such as semiconductor chips
and capacitors are mounted. It provides the electrical interconnections between components and is found in
virtually all electronics products. Once considered low technology, the printed circuit board is evolving into a
high-technology product. Printed circuit board manufacturing is highly complicated, requiring large
equipment investments and over 50 process steps. Many of the high-speed, miniaturized printed circuit boards
are now manufactured in clean rooms with the same health and safety problems posed by other
microelectronics manufacturing. Asia produces three-fourths of the world's printed circuit boards. In Asian
countries, glycol ethers are the major solvents used in the printed circuit board industry. Large quantities of
hazardous chemicals such as formaldehyde, dimethylformamide, and lead are used by the printed circuit board
industry. For decades, chemically intensive and often sloppy manufacturing processes exposed tens of
thousands of workers to a large number of chemicals that are now known to be reproductive toxicants and
carcinogens. The printed circuit board industry has exposed workers to high doses of toxic metals, solvents,
acids, and photolithographic chemicals. Only recently has there been any serious effort to diminish the
quantity of lead distributed worldwide by the printed circuit board industry. Billions of electronics products
have been discarded in every region of the world. This paper summarizes recent regulatory and enforcement
efforts.
 LEARNING OUTCOME

After completing this program-

 Students can explore different aspect of Printed Circuit Board Design and fabrication.
 Students can learn various types of PCBs. Schematic Design. ...
 Placement Rules, Routing Techniques for Single Sided Board.
 Post Processing of design and Fabrication documents.
 INDEX

[Link]. CONTENTS Page no

1. Introduction............................................................................................................1
PCB BASICS
2 Design Spark PCB Tool Demonstration
3 Post Software Steps
4 Circuit Explanation
4.1 Regulated Power Supply
4.2 DTMF Module
4.3 12V Relay
4.4 Seven Segment Display
4.5 IR Sensor
4.6 Motor Driver
4.7 Number Game Circuit
4.8 Parity Generator and Parity Check
4.9 Magnetic Switch
4.10 IC 555 Multivibrator Circuits
4.11 Clap Switch
4.12 Audio Amplifier Circuit using LM386
4.13 Light Detection Circuit
4.14 Temperature and Sensor
4.15 Mux and Demux
4.16 Modules Integration Examples
 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION

PCB Basics
One of the key concepts in electronics is the printed circuit board or PCB. It’s so
fundamental that people often forget to explain what a PCB? This tutorial will breakdown what
makes up a PCB and some of the common terms used in the PCB world?
What's a PCB?
Printed circuit board is the most common name but may also be called “printed wiring boards”
or “printed wiring cards”. Before the advent of the PCB, circuits were constructed through a
laborious process of point-to-point wiring. This led to frequent failures at wire junctions and short
circuits when wire insulation began to age and crack.

PCB is an acronym for printed circuit board. It is a board that has lines and pads that connect various
points together. In the picture above, there are traces that electrically connect the various connectors
and components to each other.
A PCB allows signals and power to be routed between physical devices. Solder is the metal that
makes the electrical connections between the surface of the PCB and the electronic components.
Being metal, solder also serves as a strong mechanical adhesive.
 Page No :7

CHAPTER-2

PCB Basics
One of the key concepts in electronics is the printed circuit board or PCB. It’s so
fundamental that people often forget to explain what a PCB? This tutorial will breakdown what
makes up a PCB and some of the common terms used in the PCB world?

What's a PCB?
Printed circuit board is the most common name but may also be called “printed wiring boards”
or “printed wiring cards”. Before the advent of the PCB, circuits were constructed through a
laborious process of point-to-point wiring. This led to frequent failures at wire junctions and short
circuits when wire insulation began to age and crack.

As electronics moved from vacuum

tubes and relays to silicon and integrated
circuits, the size and cost of electronic
components began to decrease. Electronics
became more prevalent in consumer goods,
and the pressure to reduce the size and
manufacturing costs of electronic products
drove manufacturers to look for better
solutions. Thus was born the PCB.

PCB is an acronym for printed circuit

board. It is a board that has lines and pads that connect various points together. In the picture above,
there are traces that electrically connect the various connectors and components to each other.
.
 Page No :8

Composition
A PCB is sort of like a layer cake or lasagna- there are alternating layers of different materials
which are laminated together with heat and adhesive such that the result is a single object.

FR4
The base material, or substrate, is usually fiberglass. Historically, the most common designator
for this fiberglass is “FR4”. This solid core gives the PCB its rigidity and thickness. There are also
flexible PCBs built on flexible high-temperature plastic (Kapton or the equivalent).
You will find many different thickness PCBs; the most common thickness for products are
1.6mm (0.063"). Other products like LilyPad boards and Arudino Pro Micro boards use a 0.8mm
thick board.
Copper
In figure, PCB with copper exposed, no solder mask or silkscreen.
The next layer is a thin copper foil, which is laminated to the board
with heat and adhesive. On common, double sided PCBs, copper is
applied to both sides of the substrate. In lower cost electronic gadgets the
PCB may have copper on only one side. When we refer to a double sided
or 2-layer board we are referring to the number of copper layers (2) in
our lasagna. This can be as few as 1 layer or as many as 16 layers or
more.
The copper thickness can vary and is specified by weight, in ounces
per square foot. The vast majority of PCBs have 1 ounce of copper per
square foot but some PCBs that handle very high power may use 2 or 3
ounce copper. Each ounce per square translates to about 35 micrometers
or 1.4 thousandths of an inch of thickness of copper.
Solder mask
The layer on top of the copper foil is called the solder mask layer. This layer gives the PCB its
green (or Red,Black) color. It is overlaid onto the copper layer to insulate the
copper traces from accidental contact with other metal, solder, or conductive bits.
This layer helps the user to solder to the correct places and prevent solder
[Link] the figure, green solder mask is applied to the majority of the PCB,
covering up the small traces but leaving the the silver rings and SMD pads
exposed so they can be soldered to.
Solder mask is most commonly green in color but nearly any color is possible.
 Page No :9

Silkscreen
The white silkscreen layer is applied on top of the solder mask
layer. The silkscreen adds letters, numbers, and symbols to the
PCB that allow for easier assembly and indicators for humans to
better understand the board. Often silkscreen labels is used to
indicate what is the function of each pin or LED. Silkscreen is
most commonly white but any ink color can be used. Black, gray,
red, and even yellow silkscreen colors are widely available; it is,
however, uncommon to see more than one color on a single board.

Terminology
Now that you’ve got an idea of what a PCB structure is, let’s define some terms that you
may hear when dealing with PCB.

DRC (design rule check) - A software check of your design to make sure the design does
not contain errors such as traces that incorrectly touch, traces too skinny, or drill holes that are too
small.

Drill hit - places on a design where a hole should be drilled, or where they actually were
drilled on the board. Inaccurate drill hits caused by dull bits are a common manufacturing issue.
Not so accurate, but functional drill hits.
Finger - exposed metal pads along the edge of a board, used to create a
connection between two circuit boards.

Pad - a portion of exposed metal on the surface of a board to which a component is soldered.

PTH (plated through-hole) pads, SMD (surface mount device) pads.

Pick-and-place - The machine or process by which components are placed on a circuit board.
 Page No :10

Plated through hole – A hole on a board which has an ring and which is plated all the way
through the board. May be a connection point for a through hole component, a via to pass a signal
through, or a mounting hole.
Plated through hole resistor
A PTH resistor inserted into the PCB, ready to
be soldered. The legs of the resistor go through the
holes.

Silkscreen

The letters, number, symbols and imagery on a circuit board.

Usually only one color is available.

Silkscreen identifying this LED as the power LED.

Solder mask

A layer of protective material lay over the metal

to prevent short circuits, corrosion, and other
problems. Frequently green, although other colors are
possible. Occasionally referred to as “resist”.

Solder mask covers up the signal traces but leaves

the pads to solder to.

Solder jumper - a small, unwanted blob of solder connecting two adjacent pins on a
component on a circuit board.

Surface mount - construction method which allows components to be simply set on a board, not
requiring that leads pass through holes in the board. This is the dominant method of assembly in use
today, and allows boards to be populated quickly and easily.
 Page No :11

Trace - a continuous path of copper on a circuit board.

A small trace connecting the Reset pad to elsewhere on the

board. A larger, thicker trace connects to the 5V power pin.

Via - a hole in a board used to pass a signal from one layer to another. Tented vias are covered
by solder mask to protect them from being soldered to. Vias where connectors and components are to
be attached are often untented (uncovered) so that they can be easily soldered.

Front and back of the same PCB showing a tented via. This via brings the signal from the front
side of the PCB, through the middle of the board, to the back side.

Wave solder - a method of soldering used on boards with through-hole components where the
board is passed over a standing wave of molten solder, which adheres to exposed pads and
component leads.
 Page No :12

DesignSpark PCB TOOL

 Register your DesignSpark software by creating an account in DesignSpark PCB website or directly
through DS PCB tool. Once your account registered, DesignSpark PCB software will be activated, then
you can save your designs.
I. Steps to Create Schematic Design:
1. To Enable the Libraries:
 Go to library option [icon below the settings] or press (Control + L).
 Go to folder tab, observe the shaded color folders, select and click on the folder
enable.

 To add new library folders, click on Add--> Browse (go to location of saved folders)
Open the folder, double-click on the first component --> click Ok-->Apply and close.

2. To Create Project:
 Go to File-->New, Select Project -->Ok. Save the project with the given circuit name.
 Page No :13

3. Steps to Create Schematic Design:

 Go to File -New, Select Schematic design. ‘Add to open project’ option must be
enabled,-->OK and save the circuit with the same name as project name without
‘.prj’ extension.

4. To add Components:
 Click on Add component or press F3.
 Enable the preview button.
 Select ‘All libraries’ in the library row.

->Type
the
 Page No :14

component name, next to Component option to search the component from All
Libraries or click on Find button, select Contains option from the drop down next to
Name label and type the component name in the component window and click on Find.
 Criteria to Select the Component:
1 Components should have both Schematic symbol and Footprint Symbol.
2 Component should to be a Through hole-component.(For Workshop only)

Figure shows the preview of the component. Component can be selected as it satisfies both the criteria.

Figure shows the preview of the component. Component cannot be used as it doesn’t satisfy criteria-1.

Figure shows the preview of the component. Component cannot be used as it doesn’t
 Page No :15

 To edit the properties of the component:

 Select the component, right click and go to properties or double click on the component.
 Here you can change the name of the component [give the names without space and any
special characters].
 To change the value of the component, select value tab and select value option, click on Edit
and change the value.
Note: if value property is not listed, click on Add, type in name, give the value of the
component, click ok, and click again ok.
5. To add Schematic connections:
 Select Add schematic connection option [below add component].
 Click on the cross mark and connect it to the other component as per circuit diagram.
6. To add text:
 Add the circuit name and other information to the schematic by selecting Add text.

 Save the design after every step.

II. Steps to Convert Schematic to PCB:

 Go to Tools, select Translate to PCB.
 Accept the conditions when using first time in Start. Click Next.
 In Technology, ‘Choose technology file has to be default’ (in the drop down). Select units as
centimeter(cm). Click Next.
 In Layers, select ‘Define Layers’ --> ‘Single sided board’. Click on Next.
 In Board, do not make any changes. Click on Next.
 In Place and Route, ‘component placement’ click ‘arrange outside the box’. Click Next.
 In Finish, Click on Finish.
 Select all the components and drag it inside the box and arrange in a smart, small and
systematic
manner. [ Ex: Input and Output ports at the edges of the board, IC’s in the center of the board, etc.]
 Once the components are arranged(placed), to do routing (connections select ‘Add track’ or
double click on the virtual yellow lines.
Note: Make sure you should not get any below errors during the design.
 CM to CM indicates two components are placed too close.
 Page No :16

 P_B indicates pad of the component is near to the board edge.

 T_P track to pad error indicates the track is near to the other pad of components.
 T_T track to track error indicates two tracks are getting shorted.
 Add information using Add text, [information has to be in Layer-->Top Silk screen].
After completion of routing save the design. Go to Tools, design rule check, Check. Observe no
error found in the report.

III. Steps to generate Gerber File:

 Go to Outputs - Manufacturing plots.
 In ‘Output tab’ select ‘Gerber’ and click ‘Run’.
 To view in PDF format, select ‘PDF’ in ‘Output Tab’ and ‘Run’.
 Page No :17

POST Software Steps:

1. Sanding: Use Sand paper to remove the dust on copper clad in order to achieve proper toner
transfer.
2. Pre-Heating: Slightly heat the copper clad for better toner transfer.
3. Toner Transfer: Process of transferring the PCB foot print on to the copper clad by Heat-transfer
method.
4. Etching: Chemical etching is done to remove the exposed copper on the clad. In the process Ferric
Chloride and Hot water are used in 4:1 ratio, where hot water acts as catalyst. HCL and Hydrogen
peroxide increases the speed of chemical reaction, as hydrogen peroxide increases the oxygen
molecules.
5. Toner removal: Use Thinner to remove the toner using cloth.
6. Drilling: Using hand driller with 1mm driller bit.
7. Information layer placement: Paste information layer[top Silkscreen] on the clad.
8. Taping: clear tape is placed on the information layer to avoid destruction of information layer.
9. Component placement: Place the components on the board.
10. Soldering
11. Testing
 Page No :18

Regulated Power Supply

Regulated power supply is an electronic circuit that is designed to provide a constant DC voltage
of predetermined value across load terminals irrespective of AC mains fluctuations or load
variations.

A regulated power supply essentially consists of an ordinary power supply(Main supply) and a
voltage regulating device, as illustrated in the figure. The output from an ordinary power supply is
fed to the voltage regulating device that provides the final output. The output voltage remains
constant irrespective of variations in the ac input voltage or variations in output (or load) current.

This is a simple approach to obtain a 12V and 5V DC power supply using a single circuit. The
circuit uses two ICs 7812(IC1) and 7805 (IC2) for obtaining the required voltages. The AC mains
voltage will be stepped down by the transformer T1, rectified by bridge B1 and filtered by capacitor
C1 to obtain a steady DC level. The IC1 regulates this voltage to obtain a steady 12V DC. The output
of the IC1 will be regulated by the IC2 to obtain a steady 5V DC at its output. In this way both 12V
and 5V DC are obtained. Such a circuit is very useful in cases when we need two DC voltages for the
operation of a circuit.

By varying the type number of the IC1 and IC2, various combinations of output voltages an be
obtained. If 7806 is used for IC2, we will get 6V instead of 5V. Same way if 7809 is used for IC1 we
get 9V instead of 12V.
 Page No :19

DTMF Module

Dual-Tone Multi-Frequency signaling (DTMF) is an in-band telecommunication signaling

system using the voice-frequency band over telephone lines between telephone equipment and other
communications devices and switching centers.

The working procedure of DTMF is like dialing a customer care number followed by automatic
voice recorded instructions. It will ask to press 1,2 or any other number, when you press number in
your mobile one particular procedure is happening, this is called a DTMF technology. If any button
is pressed on the mobile phone keypad, then it will generate two frequencies. These tones are called
row are column frequencies. Normally row frequencies are low frequencies and column frequencies
are high frequencies. DTMF keypad is placed out on a 4 cross 4 matrices, in which each row
represents low frequency, each column represents high
frequency, with DTMF, each key passed on a phone
generates two tones of the specific frequencies one tone
is generated from a high frequency tones and low
frequency tone. These tones are converted to digital
form using DTMF decoder circuit. These codes are the
address of the destination which is read and preceded by
the computer that connects the caller to the destination.

The main objective is to control the Relay and display in 7 segment display by using DTMF
techniques. DTMF encoder is present in mobile and the DTMF decoder circuit is present on PCB
board. The mobile is connected at one end of the circuit with the help of the mobile phone jack. The
mobile jack is consisting of two wires. The red wire is connected to the decoder IC and Black is
grounded. When a button is pressed from mobile it generates a tone which is decoded by the decoder
IC and it gives BCD output , this BCB output is given to Relay and 7 segment display.
 Page No :20

12 Volt Relay

Structure and Principle of Relay

A Relay is an electrically operated switch. We know

that most of the high end industrial application devices have
relays for their effective working. Relays are simple
switches which are operated both electrically and
mechanically. Relays consist of an electromagnet and a set
of contacts. The switching mechanism is carried out with
the help of the electromagnet. There are also other
operating principles for its working. But they differ
according to their applications. Most of the devices have the
application of relays. A relay consists of an electromagnet
that receives an electric signal and converts it to a
mechanical action.

Schematic Diagram Showing the Principle of Relays

Principle of Operation
In this example, we will turn ON a lamp using switch S1 and a relay.
1.
Press S1 to turn it ON.
2.
Current i flows to the operating coil and magnetizes the core.
3.
The armature is drawn to the core by the electromagnetic force.
4.
When the armature reaches the core, the moving and fixed contacts make contact and the lamp
lights.
5.
When S1 is released to turn it OFF, current no longer flows to the operating coil, the
electromagnetic force no longer exists, and the armature returns to its original position by the
force of the release spring.
6.
When the armature has returned to its original state, the contacts become separated and the lamp
turns OFF.
 Page No :21

Seven Segment Display

A seven segment display is the most basic electronic display device that can
display digits from 0-9. They find wide application in devices that display
numeric information like digital clocks, radio, microwave ovens, electronic
meters etc. The most common configuration has an array of eight LEDs arranged
in a special pattern to display these digits. They are laid out as a squared-off
figure ‘8’. Every LED is assigned a name from 'a' to 'h' and is identified by its
name. Seven LEDs 'a' to 'g' are used to display the numerals while eighth LED 'h'
is used to display the dot/decimal.

A seven segment is generally available in ten pin package. While eight pins correspond
to the eight LEDs, the remaining two pins (at middle) are common and internally shorted.
These segments come in two configurations, namely, Common cathode (CC) and Common
anode (CA). In CC configuration, the negative terminals of all LEDs are connected to the
common pins. The common is connected to ground and a particular LED glows when its
corresponding pin is given high. In CA arrangement, the common pin is given a high logic
and the LED pins are given low to display a number.

The 7447 chip is used to drive 7 segment display. You must use the IC 7447 with a common
anode 7-segment display. The input to the 7447 is a binary number DCBA where D is 8s, C is 4s, B
is 2s and A is 1s. The inputs DCBA often come from a binary counter.

The display is only sensible if the binary number is between DCBA=0000 (0) and DCBA=1001
(9); this is called Binary Coded Decimal or BCD for short. If the number is larger than 9 you get a
strange output on the display.

The inputs BI,RBI and LT are usually connected to 5v. Check out the uses of these pins.
 Page No :22

IR Sensor

An infrared sensor circuit is one of the basic and popular

sensor module in an electronic device. This sensor is analogous to
human’s visionary senses, which can be used to detect obstacles
and it is one of the common applications in real time.

IR Sensors work by using a specific light sensor to detect

a select light wavelength in the Infra-Red (IR) spectrum. By using
an LED which produces light at the same wavelength as what the
sensor is looking for, you can look at the intensity of the received
light. When an object is close to the sensor, the light from the LED
bounces off the object and into the light sensor.

Detecting Brightness
Since the sensor works by looking for reflected light, it is
possible to have a sensor that can return the value of the reflected
light. This type of sensor can then be used to measure how "bright" the
object is. This is useful for tasks like line tracking.

The circuit consists of an IR LED, a photodiode, a potentiometer, an IC Operational amplifier and

an LED. IR LED emits infrared light. The Photodiode detects the infrared light. An IC Op – Amp is
used as a voltage comparator. The potentiometer is used to calibrate the output of the sensor
according to the [Link] the light emitted by the IR LED is incident on the photodiode
after hitting an object, the resistance of the photodiode falls down from a huge value. One of the
input of the op – amp is at threshold value set by the potentiometer. The other input to the op-amp is
from the photodiode’s series resistor. When the incident radiation is more on the photodiode, the
voltage drop across the series resistor will be high.

In the IC, both the threshold voltage and the voltage across the series resistor are compared. If the
voltage across the resistor series to photodiode is greater than that of the threshold voltage, the
output of the IC Op – Amp is high. As the output of the IC is connected to an LED, it lightens up.
The threshold voltage can be adjusted by adjusting the potentiometer depending on the
environmental conditions.
 Page No :23

Motor Driver
L293D IC Description

L293D is a typical Motor driver or Motor Driver IC which allows DC motor to drive on either
direction. L293D is a 16-pin IC which can control a set of two DC motors simultaneously in any
direction. It means that you can control two DC motor with a single L293D IC.

Concept
It works on the concept of H-bridge. H-bridge is a circuit which allows the voltage to be flown in
either direction. As you know voltage need to change its direction for being able to rotate the motor
in clockwise or anticlockwise direction, Hence H-bridge IC are ideal for driving a DC motor.
In a single L293D chip there are two h-Bridge circuit inside the IC which can rotate two dc motor
independently. Due its size it is very much used in robotic application for controlling DC motors.
Given below is the pin diagram of a L293D motor controller.
There are two Enable pins on l293d. Pin 1 and pin 9, for being able to drive the motor, the pin 1 and
9 need to be high. For driving the motor with left H-bridge you need to enable pin 1 to high. And for
right H-Bridge you need to make the pin 9 to high. If anyone of the either pin1 or pin9 goes low
then the motor in the corresponding section will suspend working. It’s like a switch

H-Bridge

TIP: you can simply connect the pin16 VCC (5v) to pin 1 and pin 9 to make them high.

L293D Pin Diagram

Working of L293D
There are 4 input pins for l293d, pin 2,7 on the left and
pin 15 ,10 on the right as shown on the pin diagram.
Left input pins will regulate the rotation of motor
connected across left side and right input for motor on
the right hand side. The motors are rotated on the basis
of the inputs provided across the input pins as LOGIC
0 or LOGIC 1.

In simple you need to provide Logic 0 or 1 across the

input pins for rotating the motor.
 Page No :24

NUMBER GAME CIRCUIT

This number guessing game or number game circuit is quite simple. In this game the player thinks
of any number between 1 and 99. Then he scans the eight groups of numbers given in the eight
boxes in the table. Each group corresponds to a specific switch from S1 to S8. The person scans the
numbers in each box and presses the switch corresponding to a box where he finds his number
in that box. After having scanned all the eight boxes and pressing the relevant switches the number
thought of by the person is displayed on the 7-segment displays. The circuit comprises two BCD
to- 7-segment decoder/driver 7447 ICs (IC1 and IC2). IC1 generates the number for tens position
and IC2 generates the number for units position. The common anode terminals of both the displays
are connected to +5V.
Suppose you want to display 47. For this, 4 is to be displayed in tens position and 7 in units position.
In order to generate 4 (binary 100) on the display , switch S2 is to be turned on. To display 7 (binary
111) on the display , switches S6, S7, and S8 are to be turned on. Thus to generate 47, switches S2,
S6, S7, and S8 are to be turned on. The number 47 is placed in groups 6, 7, 8, and 2. So when you
spot 47 in these groups, switch on the same combination of switches. Other numbers can be
generated using the same procedure.
 Page No :25

Parity Generator and Parity Check

What is Parity Bit?

The parity generating technique is one of the most widely used error detection techniques for
the data transmission. In digital systems, when binary data is transmitted and processed , data may
be subjected to noise so that such noise can alter 0s (of data bits) to 1s and 1s to 0s.
Hence, parity bit is added to the word containing data in order to make number of 1s either even
or [Link] it is used to detect errors , during the transmission of binary data .The message
containing the data bits along with parity bit is transmitted from transmitter node to receiver node.
At the receiving end, the number of 1s in the message is counted and if it doesn’t match with the
transmitted one, then it means there is an error in the data.

Parity generator and checker

A parity generator is a combinational
logic circuit that generates the parity
bit in the transmitter. On the other
hand, a circuit that checks the parity
in the receiver is called parity checker.
A combined circuit or devices of
parity generators and parity checkers are commonly used in digital systems to detect the single bit
errors in the transmitted data word.
The sum of the data bits and parity bits can be even or odd . In even parity, the added parity bit
will make the total number of 1s an even amount whereas in odd parity the added parity bit will
make the total number of 1s odd amount.
The basic principle involved in the implementation of parity circuits is that sum of odd number
of 1s is always 1 and sum of even number of 1s is always zero. Such error detecting and correction
can be implemented by using Ex-OR gates (since Ex-OR gate produce zero output when there are
even number of inputs).
To produce two bits sum, one Ex-OR gate is sufficient whereas for adding three bits two Ex-OR
gates are required as shown in below figure.

Parity Generator
It is combinational circuit that accepts an n-1 bit stream data and generates the additional bit that
is to be transmitted with the bit stream. This additional or extra bit is termed as a parity bit.
In even parity bit scheme, the parity bit is ‘0’ if there are even number of 1s in the data stream
and the parity bit is ‘1’ if there are odd number of 1s in the data stream.
In odd parity bit scheme, the parity bit is ‘1’ if there are even number of 1s in the data stream and
the parity bit is ‘0’ if there are odd number of 1s in the data stream. Let us discuss both even and
odd parity generators.
 Page No :26

Even Parity Generator

Let us assume that a 3-bit message is to be transmitted with an even parity bit. Let the three inputs A,
B and C are applied to the circuits and output bit is the parity bit
P. The total number of 1s must be even, to generate the even parity bit P.
The figure below shows the truth table of even parity generator in which 1 is placed as parity bit in order
to make all 1s as even when the number of 1s in the truth table is odd.
To generate the even parity bit for a 4-bit data, three Ex-OR gates are required to add the 4-bits and their
sum will be the parity bit.

Parity Check
It is a logic circuit that checks for possible errors in the transmission. This circuit can be an even
parity checker or odd parity checker depending on the type of parity generated at the transmission
end. When this circuit is used as even parity checker, the number of input bits must always be even.
When a parity error occurs, the ‘sum even’ output goes low and ‘sum odd’ output goes high. If this
logic circuit is used as an odd parity checker, the number of input bits should be odd, but if an error
occurs the ‘sum odd’ output goes low and ‘sum even’ output goes high.

Even Parity Checker

Consider that three input message along with even parity bit is generated at the transmitting end.
These 4 bits are applied as input to the parity checker circuit which checks the possibility of error on
the data. Since the data is transmitted with even parity, four bits received at circuit must have an
even number of 1s.
If any error occurs, the received message consists of odd number of 1s. The output of the parity
checker is denoted by PEC (parity error check).
The below table shows the truth table for the even parity checker in which PEC = 1 if the error
occurs, i.e., the four bits received have odd number of 1s and PEC = 0 if no error occurs, i.e., if the
4-bit message has even number of 1s
 Page No :27

Magnetic Switch:
In a typical reed switch, the two
contacts are made from
a ferromagnetic material and sealed
inside a thin glass envelope filled
with an unreactive gas (typically
nitrogen) to keep them free of dust
and dirt. Typically, the contacts are
made from a nickel-iron alloy that's
easy to magnetize.

Working:
As you bring a magnet up to the reed switch, the entire
switch effectively becomes a part of a "magnetic circuit"
that includes the magnet. The two contacts of the reed
switch become opposite magnetic poles, which is why they
attract and snap together. It doesn't matter which end of the
magnet approaches first: the contacts still polarize in
opposite ways and attract one another. A reed switch like
this is normally open (NO) (normally off), unless a magnet
is positioned right next to it, when it switches on, allowing a current to flow through it.
 Page No :28

IC 555 Multivibrator circuits

Clock pulses are generally square shaped waves that are produced by a single pulse generator circuit such
as a Multivibrator which oscillates between a "HIGH" and a "LOW" state and generally has an even 50%
duty cycle, that is it has a 50% "ON" time and a 50% "OFF" time.
IC 555 Timer:

To design and study the following circuits using IC 555:

1. An astable multivibrator: has NO stable states but switches
continuously between two states this action produces a train of
square wave pulses at a fixed frequency.
2. A monostable multivibrator: has only ONE stable state and if
triggered externally, it returns back to its first stable state.
3. A bistable multivibrator: has TWO stable states that produces a
single pulse either positive or negative in value.
Astable Multivibrator:
These circuits are not stable in any state and switch outputs after predetermined time periods. The result of
this is that the output is a continuous square/rectangular wave with the properties depending on values of
external resistors and capacitors. Thus, while designing these circuits following parameters need to be
determined:
1. Frequency (or the time period) of the wave.
2. The duty cycle of the wave.

The key external component of the astable timer is the capacitor. An astable multivibrator can be designed
as shown in the circuit diagram (with typical component values) using IC 555, for a duty cycle of more
than 50%. The corresponding voltage across the capacitor and voltage at output is also shown. The astable
function is achieved by charging/discharging a capacitor through
resistors connected, respectively, either to VCC or GND. Switching
between the charging and discharging modes is handled by 5 resistor
divider R1-R3, two Comparators, and an RS Flip-Flop in IC 555. The
upper or lower comparator simply generates a positive pulse if VC
goes above 2/3 VCC or below 1/3 VCC. And these positive pulses
either SET or RESET the Q output.
 Page No :29

Monostable multivibrator:
Monostable multivibrator often called a one shot multivibrator is a pulse generating circuit in which the
duration of this pulse is determined by the RC network connected externally to the 555 timers. In a stable
or standby state, the output of the circuit is approximately zero or a logic-low level. When external trigger
pulse is applied (See circuit diagram) output is forced to go high (» VCC). The time for which output
remains high is determined by the external RC network connected to the timer. At the end of the timing
interval, the output automatically reverts back to its logic-low stable state. The output stays low until
trigger pulse is again applied. Then the cycle repeats. The monostable circuit has only one stable state
(output low) hence the name monostable.

Bistable Multivibrator:
In these circuits, the output is stable in both the states. The states are switched using an external trigger but
unlike the monostable multivibrator, it does not return back to its original state. Another trigger is needed
for this to happen. This operation is similar to a flip-flop. There are no RC timing network and hence no
design parameters. The following circuit can be used to design a bistable multivibrator. The trigger and
reset inputs (pins 2 and 4 respectively on a 555) are held high via pull-up resistors while the threshold input
(pin 6) is simply grounded. Thus configured, pulling the trigger momentarily to ground acts as a 'set' and
transitions the output pin (pin 3) to Vcc (high state). Pulling the threshold input to supply acts as a 'reset'
and transitions the output pin to ground (low state). No capacitors are required in a bistable configuration.
 Page No :30

Clap Switch:
Clap switch is an interesting hobby circuit which turns on the lights with a clap sound. Although its name
is “Clap switch”, but it can be turned ON by any sound of approximately same pitch of Clap sound. The
main component of this clap switch circuit is the Electric Condenser Mic, which has been used as a sound
sensor. Condenser Mic basically converts sound energy into electrical energy, that in turns used to trigger
555 timer IC, through a Transistor. And triggering of 555 IC would turn ON the LED, which will be
automatically turned OFF after some time.

Audio Amplifier Circuit using LM386

The integrated chip is a low power audio frequency amplifier requiring a low level power supply (most
often batteries). It comes in an 8-pin mini-DIP package. The IC is designed to deliver a voltage
amplification of 20 without external add-on parts. But this voltage gain can be raised up to 200 (Vu = 200)
by adding external
parts.

Fig A Fig B
The external parts shown on diagram B can be selected to get the desired gain. Circuit A will give a voltage
amplification of 200. Circuit B will give a gain around 50. The circuit C is not for voltage amplification but
will raise the bass level by about 5 dB. Take note that the circuit C is to be connected between pins 1 and 5
of the IC.
 Page No :31

Light Detection Circuit

The light activated switch mainly consists of comparator IC [Link] can have voltages ranging
from 3-32 volts. The LM358 IC has internally frequency compensated two operational amplifiers. In
the present circuit only one op-amp is used
for comparing the input voltages. It has
[Link] these eight pins pin 1, 2, 3, are
used by the first op-amp and 4,8 pins are
common for both the op amps. Third pin is
the inverting pin whose input is given from
the Light Dependent Resistor. Second pin
is the non-inverting pin and its input is
given from the potentiometer. Eighth pin is
connected to the supply voltage and 4th pin is connected to the ground.

Light dependent resistor has high resistance value in darkness as light illumination on the
resistor increases resistance value decreases. Here a two mega ohm Light Dependent Resistor is used.
It has resistance value ranging from 2000ohms to 2 mega ohms. This is connected to the supply
through a resistor of 10k resistance. BC547 is an NPN transistor. It has cutoff voltage of 0.7v. NPN
transistors are initially open circuited that is when there no base voltage; there is no flow of current
from emitter to collector. When the base gets required voltage transistor starts conducting. Here,
base is connected to the output of the LM358 IC through a resistor of [Link] is connected
to the ground. Collector is connected to the one of the relay pins.

Temperature Sensor
This circuit can cool your heat generating electronic devices by operating a DC fan when the temperature
in its vicinity increases above the preset level. Its operation is fully automatic and turns off when the
temperature returns normal. It uses a small 12V DC brush less fan used in computers.
The circuit exploits the property of Thermistor to operate the DC Fan. Thermistor is a kind of temperature
dependent resistor and its resistance varies depending on the temperature in its vicinity. There are two
types of Thermistor-
NTC and [Link] temperature coefficient (NTC) Thermistor decreases its resistance when the
temperature increases while Positive temperature coefficient (PTC) increases its resistance when the
temperature increases. Thermistors are bead like resistors available from 100 ohms to 10K or more
values. Here a 4.7K NTC Thermistor is [Link] uA741 is used as a voltage comparator to switch on
 Page No :32

the DC fan. Its INV input (pin2) gets an adjustable voltage through VR while its Non-INV (pin3)
input gets voltage through a potential divider comprising R1 and the Thermistor. Thus the voltage at
pin3 depends on the conductivity of the Thermistor.
When the temperature is normal (as set by VR), pin3 gets higher voltage than pin2 and makes the
output of IC high as indicated by Red LED. This high output keeps T1 off since its base is positive.
DC fan remains off in this condition. When the temperature increases above the value set by VR,
resistance of Thermistor decreases and the voltage at pin3 decreases. As a result, output of IC
becomes low to switch on T1. A small brush less DC fan (one used in computers) turns on to
increase the air circulation. When the temperature returns normal, Fan automatically turns off.
Diode 1N4007is necessary to remove back EMF when T1 turns off.

741 IC Pin Out

LM358 IC Pin Out

7805 &7812 IC Pin Out 7912 IC Pin Out

NPN Transistor Pin-out

 Page No :33

MUX and DEMUX

Multiplexer:
A multiplexer or mux is a combinational circuit that selects several analog or digital input signals and
forwards the selected input into a single output line. A multiplexer of 2 n inputs has n selected lines, are used
to select which input line to send to the output.

4:1 MUX:

A 4-to-1 multiplexer consists four data input lines as D0 to D3, two select lines as S0 and S1 and a single
output line Y. The select lines S1 and S2 select one of the four input lines to connect the output line. The
particular input combination on select lines selects one of input (D0 through D3) to the output.

8:1 MUX:
An 8-to-1 multiplexer consists of eight data inputs D0 through D7, three input select lines S2 through S0
and a single output line Y. Depending on the select lines combinations, multiplexer decodes the inputs.

74151 IC Pin Out

 Page No :34

Demultiplexer:
The process of getting information from one input and transmitting the same over one of many outputs is
called demultiplexing. A demultiplexer is a combinational logic circuit that receives the information on a
single input and transmits the same information over one of 2n possible output lines.

1:4 DEMUX:
A 1-to-4 demultiplexer has a single input (D), two selection lines (S1 and S0) and four outputs (Y0 to Y3).
The input data goes to any one of the four outputs at a given time for a particular combination of select
lines.

1:8 DEMUX:
The below figure shows the block diagram of a 1-to-8 demultiplexer that consists of single input D, three
select inputs S2, S1 and S0 and eight outputs from Y0 to Y7.

74237 IC Pin Out

 Modules integration.

1. DTMF Based Home Automation.

Regulated
Power Supply

DTMF Decoder Relay Driver

Board

7 Segment
Display

2. Light Intensity based street light control

Regulated
Power Supply

LDR Driver Relay Driver

Circuit Board

3. Solar Powered Mobile Charger

Regulated
Power Supply

4. DTMF controlled Robot:

Regulated
Power Supply

DTMF Decoder

Motor Driver
Board
7 Segment
Display

+91-95385 enquiries@indiantechkeys. [Link].c

05796 com om
 5. Collision Detection/Line Follower Robot:

Rechargeable Solar
Battery
Panel
Regulated
Power Supply

IR Sensor Motor Driver

Board

6. RF Controlled Remote Car.

Rechargeable Solar
Battery
Panel
Regulated
Power Supply

RF Receiver Motor Driver

Circuit Board

7. Temperature Sensor for Water Heater Coil.

Regulated
Power

Temperature Relay Driver

Sensor Circuit

+91-95385 enquiries@indiantechkeys. [Link].c

05796 com om
+91-95385 enquiries@indiantechkeys. [Link].c
05796 com om