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With today's modern electronic, electrical components and circuitry

constantly changing, the demand is forced upon the electrical power
industry to produce and supply a clean source of electrical energy.

The Problem

The extensive utilization of solid state power conversion technologies has

created new problems for the power industry and power engineer
designer. This technology, called Switch Mode Power Systems (SMPS),
consists of various types of solid state switching elements. These
switching elements are solid state devices such as: SCR's, DIAC's,
transistors and capacitors. These switching devices are in computers,
copy machines, fax machines, telecommunications equipment, solid-state
drives and controls, energy-efficient lighting ballasts, and numerous types
of DC-Power Loads. These solid state elements continuously switch on
and off producing non-linear or non-sinusoidal wave shapes in the current
supplied from the energy source.

While a linear load uses current from the AC source continuously over
the sinusoidal cycle, a non-linear load (such as the SMPS) uses current
in large pulses from the AC source which creates harmonic distortion.
These non-linear current pulses may exceed the nameplate ampere
rating of the power source and may cause transformers to run hotter than
expected, even when these transformers are supplying less than 50% of
their rated nameplate capacity.

With non-linear loads, overloaded neutrals are also showing up in three-

phase panel boards serving single-phase loads. In some cases the
neutral conductor carries 180 Hertz currents, rather than 60 Hertz
currents. This phenomenon is called triplen harmonics. Triplens are
multiples of three, which do not cancel but are additive in the neutral
conductor.

As defined by ANSI/IEEE Std. 519-1981

Harmonic
Harmonic components are represented by a periodic wave having a
frequency that is an integral multiple of the fundamental frequency.

In other words, harmonics are voltages or currents at frequencies that

are integer multiples of the fundamental (60 Hz) frequency, e.g. 120 Hz,
180 Hz, 240 Hz, 300 Hz, etc. Harmonics are designated by their
harmonic number, or multiple of the fundamental frequency. Thus, a
harmonic with a frequency of 180 Hz (three times the 60 Hz fundamental
Frequency) is called the 3rd harmonic.

Harmonics superimpose themselves on the fundamental waveform,

distorting it and changing its magnitude. For instance, when a sine wave
voltage source is applied to a non-linear load connected from phase-to-
neutral on a 3-phase, 4-wire wye circuit,

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The load itself will draw a current wave made up of the 60 Hz

fundamental frequency of the voltage source plus 3rd and higher order
odd harmonic (multiples of the 60 Hz fundamental frequency), which are
all generated by the non-linear load. Figure 1 shows the resultants of a
distorted 3rd and 5th harmonic waveform. It is not uncommon for
portions of an industrial power system to have 15 to 25% of Total
Harmonic Distortion (THD). THD is calculated as the square

Therefore, THD is the percent of odd harmonics (3rd, 5th, 7th, ..., 25th, ...)
present in the load which can affect the transformer. This condition is called a
"Non-Linear Load" or "Non-Sinusoidal Load".

For dry type transformers, to determine what amount of harmonic content is

present, a "K" factor calculation is made instead of using the THD formula.

The total amount of harmonics will determine the percentage of non-linear

load, which can be specified with the following typical examples:

Transformers shall be sized to account for harmonic non-linear loads of 50%

minimum (K-4), 100% (K-13), 125% (K-20), 150% (K-30).

The neutral connection shall be sized at 200% of the current rating of the phase
connections.

The conductors of the transformer winding shall be sized to handle circulation

of 3rd harmonic current and not exceed the rated temperature rise.

Transformers shall be capable of operating within the specified temperature rise

while supplying 100% of the 60 Hertz fundamental rated current values plus
the following harmonics as calculated by ANSI/IEEE 57.110-1986.

(A) 50% Non-Linear Load (K-4 Rating)

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16.7% of the rated current at the 3rd Harmonic
10.0% of the rated current at the 5th Harmonic
7.1% of the rated current at the 7th Harmonic
5.6% of the rated current at the 9th Harmonic

Beyond the 9th Harmonic the percentages of the fundamental current

through the 25th Harmonic shall be equal to the reciprocal of the odd
harmonic number involved times 0.5
The FPT Type FHK4 series transformer is designed for 100% linear
load plus 50% non-linear load which can operate at a total Ih (pu)2 h2
K-factor load value of 4.0. See Table 1.

(B) 100% Non-Linear Load (K-13 Rating)

33.3% of the rated current at the 3rd harmonic
20.0% of the rated current at the 5th harmonic
14.3% of the rated current at the 7th harmonic
11.1% of the rated current at the 9th harmonic

Beyond the 9th Harmonic the percentages of the fundamental current

through the 25th Harmonic shall be equal to the reciprocal of the odd
harmonic number involved times 1.0
The FPT Type FHK13 series transformer is designed for 100% linear
load plus 100% non-linear load which can operate at a total (Ih (pu)2h2)
K-factor load value of 13.0. See Table 1.

(C) 125% Non-Linear Load (K-20 Rating)

41.7% of the rated current at the 3rd harmonic
25.0% of the rated current at the 5th harmonic
17.9% of the rated current at the 7th harmonic
13.9% of the rated current at the 9th harmonic

Beyond the 9th Harmonic the percentages of the fundamental current

through the 25th Harmonic shall be equal to the reciprocal of the odd
harmonic number involved times 1.25
The FPT Type FHK20 series transformer is designed for 100%linear
load plus 125% non-linear load which can operate at a total (Ih(pu)2h2)
K-factor load value of 20. See Table 1.

(D) 150% Non-Linear Load (K-30 Rating)

50.0% of the rated current at the 3rd harmonic
30.0% of the rated current at the 5th harmonic
21.4% of the rated current at the 7th harmonic
16.7% of the rated current at the 9th harmonic

Beyond the 9th Harmonic the percentages of the fundamental current

through the 25th Harmonic shall be equal to the reciprocal of the odd
harmonic number involved times 1.50
The FPT Type FHK30 series transformer is designed for 100%linear
load plus 150% non-linear load which can operate at a total (Ih(pu)2h2)
K-factor load value of 30. See Table 1.

Note: In these example the amount of non-linear load specified, the

percentage of fundamental current, and the percentage of harmonic
factor are arbitrary values; actual values may vary. (Consult FPT factory

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for your specific application or current values for each harmonic.)

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The K-Factor rating assigned to a transformer and marked on the

transformer case in accordance with the listing of Underwriters
Laboratories, is an index of the transformer's ability to supply harmonic
content in its load current while remaining within its operating
temperature limits. A specific K-factor rating indicates that a transformer
can supply its rated KVA load output to a load of specified amount of
harmonic content. At present, industry literature and commentary refers
to a limited number of K-factor ratings: K-1, K-4, K-9, K-13, K-20, K-30,
K-40. In theory, a transformer could be designed for other K-factor
ratings in-between those values, as well as for higher values. The
commonly referenced ratings calculated according to ANSI/IEEE
C57.110-1986 are as follows:

K-1: This is the rating of any conventional transformer that has been
designed to handle only the heating effects of eddy currents and other
losses resulting from 60 Hertz, sine-wave current loading on the
transformer. Such a unit may or may not be designed to handle the
increased heating of harmonics in its load current.

K-4: A transformer with this rating has been designed to supply rated
KVA, without overheating, to a load made-up of 100% of the normal 60
Hertz, sine-wave, fundamental current plus: 16% of the fundamental as
3rd harmonic current; 10% of the fundamental as 5th; 7% of the
fundamental as 7th; 5.5% of the fundamental as 9th; and smaller
percentages through the 25th harmonic. The "4" indicates its ability to
accommodate four times the eddy current losses of a K-1 transformer.

K-9: A K-9 transformer can accommodate 163% of the harmonic loading

of a K-4 rated transformer.

K-13: A K-13 transformer can accommodate 200% of the harmonic

loading of a K-4 rated transformer.

K-20, K-30, K-40: The higher number of each of these K-factor ratings
indicates ability to handle successively larger amounts of harmonic load
content without overheating.

Table 1 Gives example of K-factor loads.

Triplen harmonic currents are phase currents which flow from each of
the phases into the fourth wire neutral and have frequencies in integer
multiples of three times the 60 hertz base frequency (180Hz, 360Hz,
540Hz, etc). At each of these third multiple triplen frequencies, these
triplen phase currents are in phase with each other and when flowing in
the neutral as zero sequence currents, are equal to three times their
RMS phase values. See Figure 2.

In a 3-phase, 4-wire system, single-phase line-to-neutral currents flow in

each phase conductor and return in the common neutral. Since the
three 60 hertz currents are separated by 120°, when balanced they
cancel each other. The measured resultant current is equal to zero. See
Figure 2.

Theory also states that

for even harmonics,
starting with the second
order, when balanced
the even harmonic will
cancel in the common
neutral.

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Other odd harmonics
add in the common
neutral, but their
magnitude is
considerably less than
triplens. The RMS
value of the total
current is the square
root of the RMS value
of the individual
currents squared. As
shown in Equation 2.

At any given instant, the 60 Hertz currents on the three-phase legs have
a vector resultant of zero and cancel in the neutral. But, the third (and
other odd triplen harmonics) on the phase legs are in phase and
become additive in the neutral.

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A. A transformer intended for use with loads drawing non-sinusoidal

currents shall be marked "Suitable for non-sinusoidal current load with
K-factor not to exceed x. (x= 4, 9, 13, 20, 30, 40 or 50)

B. Formulas to determine eddy losses and total losses where the

transformer load losses (PLL) are to be determined as follows:

PLL=PDC(1+K(PEC))

where:
PDC = the total I2R losses

K= the K-factor rating at the transformer (4, 9, 13, 20, 30, 40 or 50)
PEC= assumed eddy current losses calculated as follows:
for transformers rated
300 KVA or less, and

For transformers rated

more than 300 KVA

in which:
PAC = the impedance loss

C=0.7 for transformers having a turn ratio greater than 4:1 and having
one or more windings with a current rating greater than 1000 amperes,
or C=0.6 for all other transformers

PDC-I =the I2R losses for the inner winding

The impedance losses and the I2R losses shall be determined in
accordance with the Test Code for Dry Type Distribution and Power
Transformers, ANSI/IEEE C57.12.91-1979.

As Stated in ANSI/IEEE C57.110-1986

Harmonic load currents may be accompanied by DC components in the

load current which are frequently caused by the loss of a diode in a
rectifier circuit. A dc component of load current will increase the
transformer core loss slightly, and may increase the magnetizing current
and audible sound level .

Relatively small dc components (up to the RMS magnitude of the

transformer excitation current at rated voltage) are expected to have no
significant effect on the load carrying capability of a transformer
determined by this recommended practice. Higher dc load current
components may adversely affect transformer capability and must be
corrected by the user.

Harmonic currents flowing through transformer leakage impedance and

through system impedance may also produce some small harmonic
distortion in the voltage waveform at the transformer terminals. Such
voltage harmonics may cause extra harmonic losses in the transformer
core. However, operating experience has indicated that core
temperature rise usually will not be the limiting parameter for
determination of safe magnitudes of nonsinusoidal load currents.

The Noise Isolation Transformer suppresses common mode noise by

introducing a grounded shield between its primary and secondary
windings. The grounded shield provides a low impedance path to
ground by capacitive coupling which prevents unwanted high frequency
signals contained in the source voltage from reaching the transformer
secondary.

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The grounded shield between the primary and secondary windings is
called an electrostatic shield. This shield does not perform any function
with regard to harmonic current or voltage distortion wave forms.
However the shield is extremely valuable in protecting sensitive
equipment from common-mode electrical noise and transients
generated on the line side of the transformer.

The ratio of the common mode noise attenuation (CMA) on the input to
that of the output of the transformer is expressed in decibels as shown
in Equation 3. An isolation transformer with an electrostatic shield can
have a ratio of input noise voltage (VIN) to output noise voltage (VOUT)
within the range of 10:1 to 1000:1 or even higher.

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Federal Pacific Type DIT Drive Isolation Transformers are designed to

meet the requirements of SCR controlled, variable speed motor drives.
They are specifically constructed to withstand the mechanical forces
associated with SCR drive duty cycles and to isolate the source voltage
circuit from low frequency noise generated from SCR voltage spikes
and transient feedback. Whereas the electrostatic shielded transformer
attenuates higher frequency noise in the 10 K Hz - 100 K Hz range.

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Having the presence of an upline transformer with an electrostatic shield

may mean that other shielded transformers would not be required in the
system. However, if a shielded transformer feeds another shielded
transformer, there is an effect of the attenuation ratio multiplying as
shown in Figure 3. If the attenuation ratio is 100:1 in each of the
transformers, the total attenuation will be 100x100=10,000:1. Obviously,
cascading inherently multiplies the attenuation effectiveness of shielded
transformers. The term cascading means that two or more transformers
are connected in series on the same system.

One line diagram shows system with shielded up line transformer

and the attenuation ratios for various combinations with down line
transformers. In most systems, only one shielded up line transformer
is required.

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Estimating K Factor
Loads

For the most part, each designer or installer must make his/her own
decision regarding what K-factor to assign to any load or load category.
The following table is intended to assist in that determination by
presenting what we believe are realistic, yet conservative, K-factors for
a number of loads and load categories based on their relative harmonic
producing capabilities.

Calculating K Factor
Loads

1. List the KVA value for each load category to be supplied. Next,
assign an ILK value that corresponds to the relative level of
harmonics drawn by each type of load. See Table 2.

2. Multiply the KVA of each load times the ILK rating that
corresponds to the assigned K-factor rating. This result is an indexed
KVA-ILK value:

KVA x ILK=KVA -ILK

3. Tabulate the total connected load KVA for all load categories to be
supplied.

4. Next, add-up the KVA-ILK values for all loads or load categories to
be supplied by the transformer.

5. Divide the grand total KVA-ILK value by the total KVA load to be
supplied. This will give an average ILK for that combination of loads.
(Total KVA-ILK) ÷ (Total KVA) = average ILK

6. From Table 3, find the K-factor rating whose ILK is equal to or

greater than the calculated ILK. Corresponding to this ILK is the K-
factor of the transformer required.

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Problem 1
Calculate the overall K-factor for several non-linear loads.

Load Category KVA Load x ILK = KVA-ILK Value

Discharge lighting 7.0 x 25.82 = 180.74

Receptacle circuits 2.0 x 123.54 = 247.08
Main frame computers 5.0 x 80.94 = 404.70
Motor w/drive 0.5 x 80.94 = 40.47
Motor w/o drive 1.5 x 0.00 = 0.00

Totals 16.0 872.99

Total KVA -ILK / Total KVA=average ILK

872.99/16 = 54.56 = average ILK

From Table 3, the nearest K-factor greater than or equal to the average
ILK of 54.56 is K-13 with an ILK of 57.74.

Problem 2
Calculate the amount of additional K-30 load that can be handled by a
25KVA, K-13 transformer with 9KVA of spare capacity.
1. Determine the available spare K-13 KVA-ILK, using the ILK that
corresponds to the transformer's K-factor rating.
spare KVA x ILK = spare KVA-ILK
9 x 57.74 = 519.66 spare KVA-ILK
2. Divide the spare KVA-ILK by the Index of Load K-rating for the load to
be supplied.
The ILK for a K-30 load is 123.54
spare KVA-ILK / new load ILK @ K-30 =maximum additional KVA
519.66 / 123.54 = 4.2 KVA maximum additional KVA
3. Therefore, an additional 4.2 KVA of K-30 load could be added to this
transformer. This additional loading represents the absolute maximum
non-linear loading for that transformer.

For a transformer already partially loaded, any additional KVA

loading must take into consideration the K-factor of each of the
new loads to be added.

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