Algebra - Essential Class Notes

1. Basic Operations and Properties

Order of Operations (PEMDAS)

1. Parentheses
2. Exponents
3. Multiplication and Division (left to right)
4. Addition and Subtraction (left to right)

Properties of Real Numbers

Commutative:

• Addition: a + b = b + a
• Multiplication: ab = ba

Associative:

• Addition: (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
• Multiplication: (ab)c = a(bc)

Distributive: a(b + c) = ab + ac

Identity:

• Addition: a + 0 = a
• Multiplication: a · 1 = a

Inverse:

• Addition: a + (-a) = 0
• Multiplication: a · (1/a) = 1 (a ≠ 0)

Integer Exponents

Rules:

• a^m · a^n = a^(m+n)

• a^m / a^n = a^(m-n)
• (a^m)^n = a^(mn)
• (ab)^n = a^n b^n
• (a/b)^n = a^n / b^n
 • a^0 = 1 (a ≠ 0)
• a^(-n) = 1/a^n
• (a/b)^(-n) = (b/a)^n

2. Linear Equations and Inequalities

Solving Linear Equations

One-variable: ax + b = c

1. Isolate variable term

2. Divide by coefficient
3. Check solution

Two-variable systems:

• Substitution method: Solve one equation for a variable, substitute into other
• Elimination method: Add/subtract equations to eliminate a variable
• Graphing method: Find intersection point

Solutions:

• One solution: lines intersect

• No solution: parallel lines (inconsistent)
• Infinitely many: same line (dependent)

Linear Inequalities

Symbols: <, >, ≤, ≥

Rules:

• Add/subtract same number: inequality stays same

• Multiply/divide by positive: inequality stays same
• Multiply/divide by negative: flip inequality sign

Compound inequalities:

• "And" (∩): a < x < b → both must be true

• "Or" (∪): x < a or x > b → at least one true

Absolute value inequalities:

• |x| < a means -a < x < a

• |x| > a means x < -a or x > a
3. Polynomials
Operations with Polynomials

Addition/Subtraction: Combine like terms

Multiplication:

• Monomial × polynomial: distribute

• Binomial × binomial: FOIL (First, Outer, Inner, Last)
• (a + b)(c + d) = ac + ad + bc + bd

Special products:

• (a + b)² = a² + 2ab + b²
• (a - b)² = a² - 2ab + b²
• (a + b)(a - b) = a² - b² (difference of squares)

Division:

• Long division
• Synthetic division (for divisor of form x - c)

Factoring

Greatest Common Factor (GCF): Factor out the largest common factor

Factoring trinomials:

• x² + bx + c: Find two numbers that multiply to c and add to b

• ax² + bx + c: Use AC method or trial and error

Special patterns:

• a² - b² = (a + b)(a - b) (difference of squares)

• a² + 2ab + b² = (a + b)²
• a² - 2ab + b² = (a - b)²
• a³ + b³ = (a + b)(a² - ab + b²) (sum of cubes)
• a³ - b³ = (a - b)(a² + ab + b²) (difference of cubes)

Factor by grouping: For four terms: group in pairs, factor GCF from each, factor out common
binomial

4. Quadratic Equations
Methods for Solving

Factoring: If ax² + bx + c = 0 factors as (mx + p)(nx + q) = 0 Then x = -p/m or x = -q/n (Zero

Product Property)

Square Root Property: If x² = k, then x = ±√k

Completing the Square:

1. Move constant to right side

2. Take half of b, square it, add to both sides
3. Factor left side as perfect square
4. Solve using square root property

Quadratic Formula: For ax² + bx + c = 0: x = (-b ± √(b² - 4ac)) / 2a

Discriminant: b² - 4ac

• b² - 4ac > 0: two real solutions

• b² - 4ac = 0: one real solution
• b² - 4ac < 0: no real solutions (two complex)

Graphing Quadratics

Standard form: y = ax² + bx + c

Vertex form: y = a(x - h)² + k

• Vertex: (h, k)
• Axis of symmetry: x = h

Finding vertex from standard form:

• h = -b/2a
• k = f(h)

Direction:

• a > 0: opens upward (minimum)

• a < 0: opens downward (maximum)

y-intercept: (0, c)

x-intercepts: Solve ax² + bx + c = 0

5. Rational Expressions and Equations
Simplifying Rational Expressions

Steps:

1. Factor numerator and denominator completely

2. Cancel common factors
3. State restrictions (values that make denominator = 0)

Operations with Rational Expressions

Multiplication: (a/b) · (c/d) = (ac)/(bd) Factor first, then cancel common factors

Division: (a/b) ÷ (c/d) = (a/b) · (d/c)

Addition/Subtraction:

1. Find LCD (Least Common Denominator)

2. Rewrite with LCD
3. Add/subtract numerators
4. Simplify

Complex Fractions

Simplify by:

1. Finding LCD of all fractions

2. Multiply numerator and denominator by LCD
3. Simplify

Solving Rational Equations

1. Find LCD of all denominators

2. Multiply both sides by LCD
3. Solve resulting equation
4. Check for extraneous solutions (values that make denominator = 0)

6. Radicals and Rational Exponents

Radical Notation

√a = a^(1/2) (square root) ∛a = a^(1/3) (cube root) ⁿ√a = a^(1/n) (nth root)

ⁿ√(a^m) = a^(m/n)
Properties of Radicals

• ⁿ√(ab) = ⁿ√a · ⁿ√b

• ⁿ√(a/b) = ⁿ√a / ⁿ√b
• (ⁿ√a)^n = a

Simplifying Radicals

1. Find perfect nth power factors

2. Rewrite using product property
3. Simplify perfect powers

Example: √50 = √(25·2) = 5√2

Operations with Radicals

Addition/Subtraction: Combine like radicals (same index and radicand)

Multiplication: Use product property, then simplify

Rationalizing denominators:

• 1/√a: multiply by √a/√a

• 1/(a + √b): multiply by conjugate (a - √b)/(a - √b)

Solving Radical Equations

1. Isolate radical term

2. Raise both sides to appropriate power
3. Solve resulting equation
4. Check for extraneous solutions

7. Functions
Function Notation

f(x) means "f of x" or "the value of f at x"

Domain: All possible input values (x-values) Range: All possible output values (y-values)

Types of Functions

Linear: f(x) = mx + b

• Graph: straight line

 • Slope: m, y-intercept: b

Quadratic: f(x) = ax² + bx + c

• Graph: parabola

Absolute Value: f(x) = |x|

• Graph: V-shape

Square Root: f(x) = √x

• Domain: x ≥ 0

Rational: f(x) = p(x)/q(x)

• Domain: all x where q(x) ≠ 0

Piecewise: Different rules for different intervals

Function Operations

Sum: (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x) Difference: (f - g)(x) = f(x) - g(x) Product: (f · g)(x) = f(x) · g(x)
Quotient: (f/g)(x) = f(x)/g(x), where g(x) ≠ 0

Composition: (f ∘ g)(x) = f(g(x))

Inverse Functions

f^(-1)(x) is the inverse of f(x)

Properties:

• f(f^(-1)(x)) = x
• f^(-1)(f(x)) = x
• Graphs are reflections over y = x

Finding inverse:

1. Replace f(x) with y

2. Swap x and y
3. Solve for y
4. Replace y with f^(-1)(x)

Horizontal Line Test: Function has inverse if no horizontal line crosses graph more than once
8. Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Exponential Functions

f(x) = a^x where a > 0, a ≠ 1

Properties:

• Domain: all real numbers

• Range: y > 0
• Passes through (0, 1)
• a > 1: increasing (growth)
• 0 < a < 1: decreasing (decay)

Natural exponential: f(x) = e^x, where e ≈ 2.71828

Logarithmic Functions

y = log_a(x) means a^y = x

Common logarithm: log(x) = log₁₀(x) Natural logarithm: ln(x) = log_e(x)

Properties:

• Domain: x > 0
• Range: all real numbers
• log_a(1) = 0
• log_a(a) = 1
• log_a(a^x) = x
• a^(log_a(x)) = x

Laws of Logarithms

• log_a(xy) = log_a(x) + log_a(y)

• log_a(x/y) = log_a(x) - log_a(y)
• log_a(x^n) = n·log_a(x)
• log_a(x) = log_b(x) / log_b(a) (change of base)

Solving Exponential and Logarithmic Equations

Exponential:

1. Isolate exponential term

2. Take log of both sides
3. Use logarithm properties
 4. Solve for variable

Logarithmic:

1. Combine logs using properties

2. Convert to exponential form
3. Solve for variable
4. Check domain restrictions

9. Systems and Matrices

Systems of Equations

2×2 system: Two equations, two variables 3×3 system: Three equations, three variables

Methods:

• Substitution
• Elimination
• Matrices (Gaussian elimination, Cramer's rule)
• Graphing

Matrix Operations

Addition/Subtraction: Add/subtract corresponding entries (same dimensions)

Scalar multiplication: Multiply each entry by scalar

Matrix multiplication: (A × B)_ij = sum of (row i of A) · (column j of B)

Identity matrix (I): 1's on diagonal, 0's elsewhere

• AI = IA = A

Inverse matrix (A^(-1)):

• AA^(-1) = A^(-1)A = I

Determinant (2×2): |a b| |c d| = ad - bc

Solving Systems with Matrices

Matrix form: AX = B Solution: X = A^(-1)B (if A^(-1) exists)

Key Study Tips
1. Master the basics - properties and operations are foundational
2. Practice factoring - it's used throughout algebra
3. Check your work - substitute solutions back into original equations
4. Identify patterns - recognize special forms and structures
5. Learn from mistakes - understand why wrong answers are wrong
6. Show all steps - helps catch errors and understand process
7. Use multiple methods - verify answers using different approaches
8. Memorize key formulas - quadratic formula, exponent rules, log properties