SOLVED PROBLEMS:

1.-Find the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 100 g of

copper from 10°C to 100°C. b) Assuming that 100 g of aluminum at 10°C is
You supply the amount of heat from section a), deduce which body, copper or
aluminum, it will be hotter. The specific heat of copper and aluminum is
0.093 and 0.217 cal/g °C, respectively.

Energy, in the form of heat, captured by copper:

Q = M C (Tf – To)
Q = 100 • 0.093 • (100 - 10) = 837 cal

Energy, in the form of heat, captured by copper:

q = m c (tf - to)
837 = 100 • 0.217 • (tf – 10)
837 = 21.7 • (tf - 10)
38.6 = tf - 10
tf = 48,6 ºC

Solution: The copper will be hotter (100 ºC > 49 ºC)

2.-An aluminum container of 100 g whose specific heat is 0.22

cal/g°C contains 100 g of water at 20°C.
If the container is placed on a stove, determine the amount of heat that
it absorbs the system until the water reaches a temperature
of 80°C.

Let's calculate Qal (the energy in the form of heat that the mass acquires)
aluminum)

Qal = 100 g × 0.22 [cal /(g × ºC) ] × (80 ºC–20 ºC) = 1320 cal
and the Qag (the heat form that water acquires)

Qag = 100 g × 1 [cal /(g × ºC) ] × (80 ºC–20 ºC) = 6000 cal

In total, for the system, they are:

1320 cal + 6000 cal = 7320 cal

3.- Calculate how much to cool a mass of 800 g of water vapor at 100 º
C, to convert it into ice at -7ºC?
DATOS: ce hielo=2132 J/kg.º K; Lf=334000J/kg;ce agua= 4180 J/kgº;
Lv=2257000 J/kg.

Gas phase at 100 ºC to liquid at 100 ºC

Q = mc = 0.8 • 2257000 J

Liquid transition from 100 ºC to liquid at 0 ºC

Q = mc Δt = 0.8 • 4180 • 100 = 0.8 • 418000 J

Transition from liquid at 0 ºC to solid at 0 ºC

Q = mc = 0.8 • 334000 J

From solid at 0 ºC to solid at -7 ºC

Q = mc Δt = 0.8 • 2132 J

The total heat is the sum of all:

0.8 • 2257000 + 0.8 • 418000 +

+ 0,8 • 334000 + 0,8 • 2132 =

= 0.8 (2257000 + 418000 +

+ 334000 + 2132) = 2408905.6 J

Heat capacity
The heat capacity of a body is the quotient between the amount
the thermal energy transferred to a body or system in a process
anyone and the temperature change that they experience. In a way
less formal is the energy required to raise the temperature by 1 K
a certain amount of a substance, (using the SI). Indicates the largest or
less difficulty that this body presents to experience changes of
temperature under heat supply. It can be interpreted as a
medida de inercia térmica. Es una propiedad extensiva, ya que su magnitud
it depends, not only on the substance, but also on the amount of matter of the
body or system; for this reason, it is characteristic of a body or system.
particular. For example, the heat capacity of water in a pool
the Olympic one will be greater than that of a glass of water. In general, the capacity
The calorific value also depends on the temperature and pressure.

Heat capacity should not be confused with heat capacity.

specific heat, which is the intensive property that refers to
the capacity of a body "to store heat, and it is the quotient between the
heat capacity and the mass of the object. The specific heat is a
characteristic property of substances and depends on them
variables that heat capacity.

Measure of heat capacity

To measure the heat capacity under certain conditions is
it is necessary to compare the heat absorbed by a substance (or a system) with
the resulting temperature increase. The heat capacity is given by
by

Where:

C is the heat capacity, which will generally be a function of the

state variables.
Q is the heat absorbed by the system.
ΔT the temperature variation

It is measured in SI units of joules/K (or also in cal/°C).

The heat capacity (C) of a physical system depends on the amount of
substance or mass of that system. For a system formed by a single
A homogeneous substance is also defined by specific heat or capacity.
specific heat c from the relationship:

Where:

What is specific heat or specific heat capacity?

in the mass of the substance considered

From the previous relationships, it is easy to infer that as the mass of a

substance, its heat capacity increases as inertia increases
thermal, and with it increases the difficulty of the substance to vary its
temperature. An example of this can be seen in coastal cities
where the sea acts as a great thermostat regulating the variations of
temperature.

Formal statement of heat capacity

Let it be a thermodynamic system in state A. The capacity is defined

calorific Cc associated with an elemental quasi-static process c that starts from A and
it ends in state B as the limit of the quotient between the amount of
heat Q absorbed by the system and the temperature increase ΔT that
experiment when the final state B starts to blend with the initial state A.

Heat capacity is thus a thermodynamic variable and is

perfectly defined in each equilibrium state of the system.

Heat capacities of solids and gases

The heat capacity of solids and gases depends, according to the

theorems of energy equipartition, of the number of degrees of freedom it has
a molecule, as will be explained below.

Monatomic gas

A monoatomic gas, such as noble gases, has molecules

formed by a single atom. This is because the rotational energy, as the molecule
almost punctual, can be disregarded. Thus in monoatomic gases the total energy
is practically all in the form of translational kinetic energy. As the
Space is three-dimensional and there are three degrees of translational freedom.
drives according to the equipartition theorem that the internal energy
total internal energy of a monatomic ideal gas and its heat capacity CVcome given
by

Where T is the absolute temperature, N is the number of gas molecules inside.

of the system that we studied, n the number of moles, k the constant of
Boltzmann and R are the universal constant of ideal gases. Thus, the specific heat
The molar of a monatomic ideal gas is simply c.v = 3R/2 or cp= 5R/2. Let it be
real monatomic gases also satisfy the previous equalities although of
approximate mode.

Diatomic gas

In a diatomic gas, the total energy can be found in the form of energy
translational kinetic energy and also in the form of rotational kinetic energy, that makes
that diatomic gases can store more energy at a temperature
dada. The temperature close to room temperature the internal energy and the
heat capacities are given by:

For extremely high temperatures, the vibrational energy of the bonds

it begins to become important and diatomic gases deviate somewhat from the previous ones
conditions. At even higher temperatures, the contribution of thermal motion
of the electrons produce additional deviations. However, all gases
real such as hydrogen (H2), oxygene (O2), nitrogen (N2or carbon monoxide
carbon (CO) fulfills at moderate room temperatures the previous ones
relationships. Therefore, these gases have specific heats or capacities
molar heats close to cv= 5R/2.

Polyatomic gases

The equipartition theorem for polyatomic gases suggests that gases

polyatomic ions that have "soft" or flexible bonds and vibrate easily
With what frequencies should they have a molar heat capacity.

Where r measures the rotational degrees of freedom (r = 1 for linear molecules, r =

2 for planar molecules and r = 3 for three-dimensional molecules). However
these predictions do not hold at room temperature. The heat capacity
molar increases moderately as the temperature rises. That is
due to quantum effects that cause the vibrational modes to be quantized
and are only accessible as the temperature rises, and the expression (*)
it can only be a limit at very high temperatures. However, before reaching
temperatures where that expression is a reasonable limit many molecules do
rompen por efecto de la temperatura, no llegando nunca al anterior límite. Un
rigorous treatment of heat capacity therefore requires the use of
quantum mechanics, particularly of the quantum type statistical mechanics.
 Specific heat and heat capacity of some materials
Heat Density Heat capacity
Material
specific
kcal/kg °C kg/m³ kcal/m³ ºC
Water 1 1000 1000

Steel 0.12 7850 950

Dry land 0.44 1500 660

Granite 0.19 2645 529

Oak wood 0.57 750 430

Brick 0.20 2000 400

Pine wood 0.6 640 384

Sandstone 0.17 2200 374

Limestone 0.22 2847 484

Concrete 0.16 2300 350

Gypsum mortar 0.2 1440 288

Wool fabric 0.32 111 35

Expanded polystyrene 0.4 25 10

Expanded polyurethane 0.38 24 9

Fiberglass 0.19 15 2.8

Air 0.24 1,2 0.29

The table shows that common materials have a great
heat capacity of water, water walls, dry compacted earth or soil
(adobe, tapia), and dense stones like granite alongside metals such as
steel. These are between 500 and 1000 kcal/m³ ºC.

Then there is another group that ranges from 300 to 500 kcal/m³ ºC among which are
locates most of the usual materials in current construction, such as the
brick, concrete, wood, drywall boards, and stones
sandstones.

In a final group are found (3 to 35 kcal/m³ ºC), thermal insulators of

dough like wool of glass the wools minerals, polystyrene
expanded and the expanded polyurethane which due to its 'low density' because
they contain a lot of air, have a very low heat capacity, but they serve as
thermal insulators.

A special case is air (0.29 kcal/m³·K; 1.214 J/m³·K), which serves as a

medium for transporting heat in passive systems but not for storing
heat inside it.

Specific heat
Specific heat is a physical quantity defined as the amount
of heat (Energy, since heat is not an energy but rather a form of
transport of the same,) that must be supplied to the mass unit of a
substance or thermodynamic system to raise its temperature by one unit
(kelvin or degrees Celsius). In general, the value of specific heat depends on this
initial temperaturel.[1] [2]It is represented by the letter (lowercase).

Similarly, heat capacity is defined as the amount of heat that

It is necessary to supply the entire mass of a substance to raise its temperature.
in a unit (kelvin or degree Celsius). It is represented by the letter (uppercase).
Therefore, the specific heat is the specific heat capacity, this is where
it is the mass of the substance.

Specific heat is an intensive property of matter, so it is

representative of each substance for the opposite, the capacity
Calorific is an extensive property representative of each body or system.
particular.

The greater the specific heat of substances, the more thermal energy is
needs to increase the temperature. For example, eight times is required.
more energy to increase the temperature of a magnesium ingot than to
a lead ingot of the same mass.

The term 'specific heat' originates from the work of physicist Joseph Black.
who carried out various calorimetric measurements and used the phrase "capacity for the
calor". At that time, mechanics and thermodynamics were considered sciences.
independent, which is why the term might currently seem inappropriate; such
perhaps a better name could be specific heat energy transfer,
but the term is too ingrained to be replaced.

Basic equations

The average specific heat corresponding to a certain temperature range is

define in the form:

where is the transfer of energy in the form of heat between the system and its
environment or another system, it is the mass of the system (an n is used when referring to the
molar specific heat) and it is the increase in temperature that is experienced by the
system. The specific heat corresponding to a given temperature is defined
as:

The specific heat is a function of the temperature of the system; that is, . This
the function is increasing for most substances (except for the
monatomic and diatomic gases). This is due to quantum effects that cause
that the modes of vibration are quantized and only become accessible gradually
that increases the temperature. Knowing the function, the amount of heat associated
with a change in the system's temperature from the initial temperature Tito the
final Tfit is calculated using the following integral:

In an interval where the heat capacity is approximately constant the

the previous formula can be written simply as:

Amount of substance

When specific heat is measured in science and engineering, the amount of

substance is often measured in mass, whether in grams or in kilograms, both
of the SI. Especially in chemistry, however, it is advisable that the unit of the
amount of substance is the mole when measuring specific heat, which is a certain
number of molecules or atoms of the substance. When the unit of the quantity
the substance is the mole, the term molar specific heat can be used for
refer explicitly to the measure; or use the term specific heat
massive, to indicate that a unit of mass is used.
Related concepts

There are two notably distinct conditions under which heat is measured.
specific and these are denoted with suffixes in the letter c. The specific heat of the
Gases are usually measured under constant pressure conditions (Symbol: c)p).
Measurements at constant pressure produce values greater than those that
they are carried out at constant volume (cvdue to the fact that in the first case a
expansion work.

The ratio between the specific heats at constant pressure and at constant volume
constant for the same substance or thermodynamic system is
it is called the adiabatic coefficient and is designated by the Greek letter (gamma).
This parameter appears in physical formulas, such as the one for speed.
of sound in an ideal gas.

The specific heat of substances other than monatomic gases is not

given by fixed constants and can vary slightly depending on the
temperature[2]Therefore, the temperature must be specified precisely.
how the measurement is made. Thus, for example, the specific heat of water exhibits a
minimum value of 0.99795 cal/(g·K) for the temperature of 34.5 °C, while
it is 1.00738 cal/(g·K) at 0 °C. Therefore, the specific heat of water varies
less than 1% compared to its value of 1 cal/(g·K) at 15 °C, so it is often
he/she considers it as constant.

The pressure at which the specific heat is measured is especially important for
gases and liquids.

Units
Units of heat

The unit of measurement of heat in the International System is the joule (J).
The calorie (cal) is also frequently used in scientific applications and
technological. The calorie is defined as the amount of heat necessary to
to increase by 1 °C the temperature of one gram of distilled water, in the interval of
14.5 °C to 15.5 °C. That is to say, it has a definition based on specific heat.

Units of specific heat

In the International System of Units, specific heat is expressed in joules.

per kilogram and per kelvin (J·kg)-1-K-1another unit, not belonging to the SI, is the
calorie per gram and per kelvin (cal·g-1·K-1Thus, the specific heat of water is
approximately 1 cal/(g·K) over a wide temperature range, at the pressure
atmospheric; exactly 1 cal·g-1·K-1in the range of 14.5 °C to 15.5 °C (due to
definition of the calorie unit.

En los Estados Unidos, y en otros pocos países donde se sigue utilizando

In the Anglo-Saxon System of Units, specific heat is usually measured
in BTU (unit of heat) per pound (unit of mass) and degree Fahrenheit (unit of
temperature)

BTU is defined as the amount of heat required to raise one degree.

Fahrenheit the temperature of a pound of water under atmospheric conditions
normal.

Factors that affect specific heat

Degrees of freedom

The thermodynamic behavior of the molecules of monatomic gases,

like helium and diatomic gases, hydrogen is very different. In the
monatomic gases, the internal energy corresponds solely to movements
of translation. Translational movements are movements of the body
complete in a three-dimensional space where particles move and
they exchange energy in collisions in a way similar to how balls would
rubber enclosed in a container that will be shaken vigorously. (see the
animation here). These simple movements on the X, Y, and Z dimensional axes
they imply that monatomic gases only have three degrees of
translational freedoms.

The molecules with higher atomicity, on the other hand, have several degrees of
internal, rotational and vibrational freedoms, additional since they are objects
complexes. They behave like a population of atoms that can move
within a molecule of different shapes (see the animation on the right). The
internal energy is stored in these internal movements. For example,
Nitrogen, which is a diatomic molecule, has five degrees of freedom.
available: the three translational plus two rotational internal degrees of freedom. It is important to note
to highlight that the molar heat capacity at constant volume of gases
monatomic is, with R being the Universal Constant of ideal gases, while
that for Nitrogen (diatomic) it is worth, which clearly shows the relationship
between the degrees of freedom and the specific heat.
Molar mass

One of the reasons why specific heat takes different values for
different substances is the difference in molar masses, which is the mass of a
mole of any element, which is directly proportional to the mass
molecular of the element, sum of the values of the atomic masses of the
molecule in question. Heat energy is stored thanks to the existence of
atoms or molecules vibrating. If a substance has a lighter molar mass,
So each gram of it has more atoms or molecules available to
store energy. This is why hydrogen, the substance with the lowest mass
molar, has such a high specific heat; because one gram of this substance
it contains such a large number of molecules.

One consequence of this phenomenon is that, when specific heat is measured

in molar terms the difference between substances becomes less pronounced, and
the specific heat of hydrogen ceases to be atypical. Accordingly, the
molecular substances (that also absorb heat at their internal degrees of
freedom), they can store large amounts of energy per mole if it is about
large and complex molecules, and consequently their specific heat measured in
mass terms are less notable.

Since the net density of a chemical element is strongly related to

its molar mass, there is generally a strong inverse correlation between
the density of the solid and its cp (specific heat at constant pressure measured in
(mass terms). Large ingots of low-density solids tend to
absorb more heat than a small ingot of a solid of the same mass but
of greater density since the first generally contains more atoms. In
consequence, in general terms, there is a close correlation between
the volume of a solid element and its total heat capacity. There is, however,
many deviations from this general correlation.

Hydrogen bond links

Molecules that contain polar hydrogen bonds have the ability to

store thermal energy in these links, known as bridges of
hydrogen.