Chapter Three

Computer System Organization

 Introduction to Computer Systems
 A System is a group of components, consisting of subsystems or
procedures that work in a coordination way to achieve some objective.

 A computer system is composed of components that are classified into

two components.

1. Computer hardware or

2. Computer software
Components of computer system
 Computer Hardware
 Computer hardware is the physical part of the computer that you see, you use to and
the parts you can touch.
 The hardware part of a computer system is composed of a number of interacting
physical parts based on the need of the information flow.
 The physical components of a computer system are referred to as computer
hardware.
 Any computer system has essentially the following five important hardware parts:
1. Input Device
2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
3. Memory Units
4. Output Device
5. Secondary Storage Devices
Cont…
 Input Unit (Input Device)
 Input unit provides away for humans to input data into a computer.
 Input device link the external environment with the computer system.
 The following functions are performed by an input unit:
– It accepts (or) reads the instructions and data from the outside world.
– It converts the given instructions and data in computer system for further processing.
– It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system for further
processing.
 Examples of Input Device include:
 Key board  Speech recognition
 Mouse
 Digital camera
 Scanner
 Touch screen, and
 Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
 Light pen.
 Magnetic-Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
 Bar Code Reader
Cont…
 Cont…
• Key Board:
– Key board devices are the most commonly used input devices today.

– They allow data entry into a computer system by pressing a set of keys mounted on a keyboard, which
is connected to the computer system

• Keyboard consists of five keys:

– Alphanumeric keys = consisting of letters & numbers.

– Punctuation key = comma, semicolon, period, question mark etc.

– Special key = consisting of function keys, cursor control or arrow keys, numlock, shift key, Tab key

– Function key

– Numeric key
Cont…
 Cont…
• Mouse (Pointing Device):
– It is small hand- held device, with a ball
embedded in its underside and connected to the
computer terminal with a cable. It usually has
two buttons.

• Scanner:
– It is an input device, which translates paper
documents (text, or images) into electronic
format, which can be stored in a computer or
manipulated.
 Cont…
 Optical Character Recognition (OCR):
 The reading of data using optical scanning equipment is called OCR.

 Characters, alphabetic and numeric, are imprinted in a particular type style.

 An optical reader reads documents imprinted with optical characters.

 Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR):

 MICR is similar to OCR, and is used by the banking industry for faster processing of the large
volume of cheques being handled every day by this industry.

 With MICR Special characters are imprinted on documents with magnetic ink.

 The magnetic ink reader magnetizes and senses the ink, converting the magnetic result to signals
which are analyzed and stored.
 Cont…
 Bar-code Reader:
– It is used for reading bar-coded data.
– I.e. Data coded in the form of small lines (known as bars) are known as barcodes.
The bar-code reader converts the bar code into an alpha- numeric value, and feeds
it to the computer.
 Voice recognition:
– Voice recognition devices are input devices, which allow a person to input data
into a computer system by speaking to it.
– The system consists of a sound board and software that are used to convert the
sound waves of sound into digital form that can be stored on disk. In addition to
the board, there is usually a microphone to allow input.
 Light pen:
– It is a light sensitive pen which is connected to a screen by wire and used
to write, draw, mark, or select objects on the screen.
 Cont…
 Touch Screen:
– It is a type of screen that allows users to choose menu items or other
objects displayed on the screen by touching.

 Digital Camera:
– It is like an ordinary camera but stores the image it captures in a format that can
be stored on disk.
– The image can then be manipulated using graphics software.
– Using this technology you can insert the image in to data files, documents or
presentations.
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 The Central Processing Unit (CPU) also called the microprocessor can
be named as the brain of the computer.
 The CPU has two major functions:
1. It co-ordinates and controls the computer’s activities
2. It performs arithmetic and logic operations using the binary number system
 Purpose of CPU
1. Fetch instruction: The CPU read instruction from the memory
2. Interpret instruction: the instruction must be decoded to determine what action is required
3. Fetch data: the execution of an instruction may require reading of data from memory or an I/O
module.
4. Process data: the execution of an instruction may require performing some arithmetic or logical
operation on data.
5. Write data: The result of an execution may require writing data to memory or an I/O module
 Cont…
 In order to able to do these, the CPU needs

 Temporarily store some data

 Remember the location of the last instruction

 Store instruction and data temporarily while execution i.e, the CPU needs a small
internal memory called registers.

 The CPU consists of three major components:

1. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

2. Control Unit

3. Memory Unit
 Cont…
1. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU):

– This is the place where the actual execution of the instruction takes place
during processing.
– Mathematical operations (+,*, -, /) and logical comparisons (<, >, ≤, ≥, =) such
as the compassion of the magnitude of two values take place in the ALU.

– The ALU also provides a temporary storage unit for holding the results of the
operations called the accumulator
 Cont…
2. Control Unit:
 It acts as a central nervous system form the other components of the computer
system.
 The control unit is responsible for controlling the overall operations of the
computer system.
 It directs and co-ordinates all units of the computer.
 The control unit has the following major function:
a) It coordinates and controls the operations of a computer system.
b) Accepts instruction, interpret them and execute it by appropriate parts of the system in
the correct sequence; and
c) Ensures that, according to the stored instruction, the right operation is performed on the right
data at the right time.
 Cont…
 Control unit acts as an interface between the peripheral units and the main memory,
and also an interface between the arithmetic logic unit and main memory.

 The control unit has a storage unit called instruction register (IR) and an Program
Counter (PC).

 Instruction Register(IR) - holds the address of the current instruction, which is

being executed.

 Program Counter (PC) - holds the address of the next instruction to be executed.
 Cont…
3. Memory Unit:
 Memory is used to store the set of instruction that determines the operation
to be carried out.
 i.e. data for processing & instruction for doing the processing.
 Computer Memory can be classified into mainly two types, such as:
1. Main Memory (Prime Memory / Primary Memory / Internal Memory) &
2. Secondary Memory (Secondary Storages / Auxiliary Memory).
 The CPU contains the necessary circuitry for data processing & controlling the
other components of a computer system. However, it does not contain: -
The place to store programs & data needed during data processing because the
registers have small storage areas.
 There is a need for large storage area for data and programs to avoid the idleness of CPU.
 Every computer has such a storage space, which is known as Primary Storage / Main
Memory / Simply Memory.
 Cont…
 Main Memory: Computer Main Memory has two parts:
1. Random Access Memory (RAM),
2. Read Only Memory (ROM).
1. Random Access Memory (RAM):
 It is a read/write memory, i,e. information can be written in to and read from it.
 Used for storing application programs or for storing intermediate results
during program execution.
 It temporarily stores programs and data currently used so that the computer can
quickly access the information.
 RAM is volatile memory, i.e., it loses its contents when the power is turned off.
 It is fast and can be accessed randomly (data & programs can be stored and
retrieved directly).
 Cont…
2. Read Only Memory (ROM):
 ROM is a non-volatile chip where data is stored permanently and cannot be
altered by the programmer.

 The data stored in ROM is non-volatile, i.e., data stored in ROM is not lost even if
the power is switched off.

 It is static/ fixed, and-used to store programs required permanently for the

functioning of the computer (start up & operate).

 There are two types of ROM:

1. Non- Erasable Programmable Read only Memory (PROM)

2. Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM)

 Cont…
 The primary storage of a computer system has the following limitations:

1. Limited Storage Capacity:

• The storage capacity of the primary storage of a computers is not sufficient

to store the large volume of data, which needs to be handled by most
data processing centers.

2. Volatile:

• The primary storage is volatile, and the data stored in the computer is lost,
when the electric power is turned off or interrupted.
 Output Unit
 Output unit supplies the information obtained from data processing, to the outside world.

 It links the computer with the external environment.

 As a computer works with binary code, the results produced are also in the binary form, the
binary form must be converted to human acceptable (readable ) form, so that it can be analyzed,
examined or distributed to others. This task is done through output units.

 The output unit performs the following functions:

– It accepts the results produced by the computer which are in coded form.

– Converts these coded results to human readable form.

– Supplies the converted results to the user.

• Examples:
– Monitors (or) Display Screen, Printers, Plotters, Screen Image Projector & Voice Response Systems.
 Cont…
• Monitors:
– These are the most popular output devices used today for producing soft-
copy output.
– They display the generated output on a Television like Screen.
– There are two basic types of monitors used today

1. Cathode-Ray-Tube (CRT)
– The CRT monitors look much like a television, and are used with
non-portable computer systems.

2. Flat-Panel/ LCD
– The Flat-Panel monitors are thinner and lighter, and are commonly
used with portable computer systems, like Lap-Top.
 Cont…
 Printers:
 These are the most commonly used output devices today for producing hard-copy of output.
Printers are classified into two major groups:
1. Impact Printers;

2. Non-Impact Printers

1. Impact Printers:

 These printers bring the paper or other medium into contact with the print element. Impact
printers can be used where carbon copies are needed.

 Two common types are:

A. Dot-Matrix Printers

B. Line Printer
 Cont…
A. Line Printer:
 These are high speed printers that print whole lines of text at one time.
 Speed of line printers range from 100 to 4000 lines per minute. Print quality will be poor.
B. Dot-Matrix Printers:
 These are the most popular and widely used impact character printers.
 The print head has a number of pins arranged in an array.
 These are relatively inexpensive and fast, low quality output.
 Speeds typically range from 100 characters per second (cps) to 600 cps.
2. Non-Impact Printers:
– These printers use other techniques such as thermal and electrostatic to print on the
medium.
– Two common types of non-impact printers are:
A. Ink-Jet Printer
B. Laser Printers
 Cont…
A. Ink-Jet Printers:
– These are character printers, which form characters and all kinds of images by spraying small
drops of ink in the paper or other medium.
– These printers produce higher quality output than dot- matrix printers, because they form
characters by very ting ink dots.
– They cannot produce multiple copies of act in a single printing.
– They are slower and expensive than dot-matrix printers.
B. Laser Printers:
– Laser printers are page printers, which print one page at a time.
– Laser printers produce very high quality output.
– Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing.
– Are faster is printing speed than other printers discussed.
– 4-12 pages/minute for low speed and 500-1000 pages/minute for high speed printers.
 Cont…
• Plotters:
– A plotter is a computer controlled device that outputs a graphic image which includes
graphs, charts, maps, engineering application such as Computer Aided Design (CAD).

– Plotters differ from printers in that they draw lines using a pen.

• Projector:
– It is used to project information from computer on to large screen, so that it can be
simultaneously viewed by a large group of people.
– A screen image projector can be directly plugged to a computer system and the
presenter can make a presentation to a group of people by projecting the presentation.
 Secondary Storage Devices
 It is also called auxiliary memory or secondary storage.
 Secondary storage is non-volatile, costs lower and has an operating speed slower than
that of the primary storage.
 It is used to store large volume of data on a permanent basis, which can be
partially transferred to the primary storage, as and when required for processing.
 Used to hold data and programs not currently being used on but which will be
transferred to the main storage when required.
 Used to transfer data or programs form one computer to another.
 Serve as backup devices to backup data and programs.
 There are two commonly used secondary storage devices:
1. Magnetic tape (Tape Storage)
2. Magnetic disk (Disk storage)
 Cont…
1. Magnetic Tape (Tape Storage):
– Are sequential access storage devices coated with a magnetizable recording
material, which allow information to be stored and retrieved sequentially.
– Magnetic tape can be erased and reused.
– A magnetic tape unit is similar in concept to a tape recorder.
– It has a supply reel and a take-up reel.
– It has a read head for reading information stored on the tape into main storage,
and it has a Wright head form recording the information onto the tape.
– They are too slow
 Cont…
– They are used only for long-term storage and backup.
– Used for storing very large data sets.
– Cheap (because erased & reused many times, low cost of tape & high data recording
densities).
– Easy to handle & store.
 Disadvantages:
– Due to their sequential access nature, they are not suitable for storage of those data, which are
frequently require to be accessed randomly.
 Magnetic tapes are used for the following purposes:
– For applications which are based on sequential data processing.
– Backing up of data stored on storage devices such as a disk.
– Archiving of data which are not used frequently
 Cont…
Disk Storage:
– Disk drives are direct or random access storage devices, which allow information to
be stored and retrieved directly.
– There are two types of disk drives: 1. Magnetic disk drives 2. Optical disk drives.
 Magnetic Disk Drives:
– Magnetic disk is a thin, circular plate/platter made of metal or plastic, which is usually coated on both
sides with a magnetizable recording material.
– Like magnetic tapes, magnetic disks can also be erased and reused.
– Magnetic disk drives are two types:
1. Floppy drives
• Floppy drives use diskettes
2. Hard drives
• Hard drives use hand disk as storage media.
• Hard disks hold more data and are faster than floppy diskettes.
 Cont…
 Hard drives
 Unlike floppy disks, hard disks are made of flexible plastic.
 Hard disks are made of rigid metal (usually aluminum) and its storage capacity vary from
several megabytes to several Giga bytes
 Data is stored in magnetic form in concentric circles or tracks divided into sectors, which are the
addressable storage units.
 There are two types of hard disk drives:
1. Removable hard disk drives
– With a removable disk drive, disk packs can be removed and replaced. It has movable read/ write heads.
2. Fixed disk drives.
– With fixed disk drives, the disks are permanently mounted on the drive.
– While fixed disk drives have a read /write head for each disk.
 Cont…
• Optical-disk:
– They are Sequential & Direct Access Devices

– As compared with magnetic tape & magnetic disk, optical disk is a relatively new
secondary storage medium, which can store extremely large amount of data in alimented
space.

– An optical-disk storage system consists of a rotating disk, which is coated with a thin
metal or some other material that is highly reflective.

– Laser beam technology is used for recording / reading of data on the disk.

– Due to the use of laser beam technology, optical disks are also known as laser disks or
optical laser disks.
 Cont…
 There are two forms of optical disks, namely
1. Compact Disk (CD)

2. Digital Versatile Disk (DVD)

1. Compact Disk (CD)

• There are three most popularly used types of optical disks:

i. CD- ROM (compact disk-read only memory)

ii. CD-RW (CD-Re-Writable)

iii. CD-R(CD-Read)
 Cont…
1. CD- ROM (compact disk-read only memory)
– These disks come prerecorded, and the information stored on them cannot be altered (it lets you
read from the disk, but not allow you to write on the disk).
– Users can read but not write or erase hence the name 0nly-memory.
– It is used to store information that needs to be stored permanently.
– To create CD - ROMs, a CD-R (Compact Disk-Recordable drive) and a CD-R software package are
needed.
– CD-R disks allow you to write to them only once.
2. CD-RW (CD-Re-Writable)
– It can be erased and written on the disk many times.
– It is another type of CDs which allows users to write on to the disk in multiple sessions.
– CD-RW optical disks behave as magnetic disks in writing data on to them multiple times.
3. CD-R(CD-Read)
– It allows you to write data to a disk but only once like CD-ROM, data can be read many times.
– User can write many times but not erase
 Peripheral Units
 Peripheral units are anything connected to the computer, which is not a
part of the CPU and main memory

 They include input, output units and secondary storage devices.

 The I/O devices provide the means for communication between the
computer and the outer world.

 Secondary storage devices help to store data / instructions from longer

times until they are required by the memory.
 2. Computer Software
 A computer hardware has no intelligence of its own.
 It must be supplied with a set instructions that tell it what to do, how to do and
when to do it.
 A finite set of instructions that the computer follows to do a given job is
called a “Program”.
 The group of programs that a computer needs to function its work properly is
known as “Software”.
Software
 It is a collection of programs and routines that support the operations of performing
a task using a computer.
 It also includes documentations, rules and operational procedures.
 It makes the interface between the user and the electronic components of the
computer.
 Cont…
 Software can generally be divided into two categories:
1. System software
2. Application software
1. System software
– The system software handles the computer hardware so that the user can
operate the computer with little knowledge about the computer hardware.
– A computer system represents a number of resources that must be managed.
– To manage a computer’s hardware components, to coordinate them so that
they work together efficiently,
– It is necessary to have software that monitors and manages the system.
– It is designed to allow the computer to manage its own resources and run the
hardware and basic operations
 Cont…
 System software does not solve problems relating to a business or a profession is
called systems software.

 The computer system software performs the following functions:

1. Supports the development of other application software.

2. Supports the execution of other application software.

3. Monitors the effective use of various hardware resources, such as CPU, memory,
peripherals, etc.

4. Communicates and controls the operation of peripheral devices, such as printer, disk, tape, etc.
 Cont…
 System software lies between the hardware and the application software.

 Without system software we won’t be able to use any applications software.

 System software tells the computer how to interpret data and instruction; how to
communicate with peripheral equipment like printers.
 Cont…
 The important categories of system software are:

1. Operating System

2. Programming Language

3. Language Translators
 1. Operating System (OS)
 It is the most important system software component

 It consists of the master programs that manage the basic operations of the
computer.

 It is a set of programs that control the overall operation of the computer.

 It directs all processing activities within the computer,

 calling in other systems software when needed,

 scheduling jobs, allocating storage facilities,

 activating input and output devices, and

 many other tasks to ensure the proper and

 efficient use of hardware by application programs.

 Cont…
 Generally, the functions of operating systems: -
1. Managing the computers resources (eg.- Programs & data).
2. Interpret and process commands.
3. Manage input/output devices.
4. Allow the system to understand application software.
5. Allow the user to communicate with the computer.
 There are three types of operating system
1. Single-Tasking Operating System
2. Multi-Tasking Operating System
3. Multi-User Operating System
 Single-Tasking Operating System:
 A single tasking operating system indicates that only one program can
be run on the computer at a time.

 A single-tasking operating system cannot handle two or more programs at

the same time.

 Example:
– DOS (PC-DOS, MS-DOS, Apple-DOS)

– CPM (Control Program for Microcomputers which was the first operating system for
micro computers).
 Multi-Tasking Operating System:
• Executing more than one program concurrently at the same time is
known as Multi-Tasking Operating System.

• Multitasking OS is the execution of two or more programs by one user

concurrently on the same computer with one central processing unit.

• Examples:

– Ms-Windows 3x, 9x, Windows NT, UNIX, Linux.

 Multi-User Operating System:
 Some users, especially in large companies, connect a number of
computes, called workstations, to a control computer so that the
central computers CPU are shared by all of the workstations.

 But you must use an operating system that supports all of this
workstation
 2. Language Software
 Language software is a generic name consisting of various programs
that serve as editors & translators to develop programs in a number of
programming languages.

 There are three types of language software:

1. Machine Language (Low-level language)

2. Assembly Language

3. High-Level Language
 Machine Language (Low-level language)
 There is only one language understood by the computer without using a translation program.
 It can be written in Binary values 0’s and 1’s.
 Advantages:
– This program can be executed very fast by the computer.
– This is because machine instructions are directly understood by the computer.
– No translation is required.
• Disadvantages:
– Machine Dependent:
• Because of internal design of every type of computer is different from every other type of
computers, the machine language also differs from computer to computer.
– Difficult to Program:
• It is directly executed by the computer, so it is difficult to program in machine language.
– Error Prone:
• The programmer can’t easily write, without errors.
– Difficult to Modify:
• It is difficult to correct / modify machine language programs.
 Assembly Language
 A language represented by letters, symbols / mnemonics, instead of numbers, is
called an Assembly Language (or) Symbolic Language.
 A program written in assembly language is called an Assembly Language Program (or)
Symbolic Program.
 This translation is done with the help of a translator program, which is known as an
Assembler.

 Advantages:
 Disadvantages:
 Easier to understand and use.
 Machine dependent.
 Easy to correct errors.
 Knowledge of hardware is required.
 Easier to modify.
 Machine level coding.
 More efficiency than machine

language.
 High-Level Language
 The programs written in alphabets, number and some special characters are also

known as High-Level Language Programs.

 It has several examples: BASIC, FORTRAN, PASCAL, C, C++, Java and etc.

 Advantages:  Disadvantages:
 Machine Independence.  Lower efficiency.
 Easier to Learn and use.  Execution time is more.
 Fewer errors.
 It need translator to execute.
 Lower program preparation cost.
 Less flexibility.
 Better documentation.

 Easier to maintain.
 Language Translator
 It is a program that converts one or more languages to another language.

 Three types of translators are Assemblers, Compilers & interpreters.

1. Assemblers: - is a program that translates assembly languages into machine code.

2. Compiler: - is a program that translates a high level language into machine code.
(Pascal, Fortran Cobol)

3. Interpreter: - is a program that translates each instruction of high level language &
executes the instruction before translating the next instruction.
 Applications Software
• Application software is a set of one or more programs, designed to solve a
specific problem.
• Some application software are:
– Word-Processing Software
– Spread-Sheet Software:
– Data-Base Management Software
– Graphics Application Software
– Personal Assistance Software
– Education Software
– Entertainment Software
– Etc ……
End of Chapter