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routing protocol

- the process of preparing the routing table and finding the best path(shortest) is known as routing .
- routing is optional.

r2 r5 r10

A r1 r3 r6 r9 B

r4 r7 r8

R1 sends the packet to R2

R2 also prepare the routing table and finds the best path sends to R5
R5 also prepare the routing table and finds the best path

r2 r5 r10

Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 1

 A r1 r3 r6 r9 B

r4 r7 r8

routing table

concept: flooding

flooding is simple computer network routing algorithm in which every incoming packet is sent
through every outgoing link except one it arrived on.

advantage of flooding:
- no need to prepare routing table at every router.
- no routing is required.
- shortest path is always guarantee i.e. the packet arrives at the destination first(destination ke pass packet
sabse pehle jo pahunchega will be the shortest path)
- it is highly reliable, if one path is down then the packet reach at the destination by choosing another path.

disadvantage of flooding:
- traffic is very high, traffic bhaut jada hoga network ke upar
- many duplicate packets received by receiver.

advantage of routing:
- traffic is very less.
- no duplicate packet received by receiver.

disadvantage of routing:
Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 2
disadvantage of routing:
- routing table is required (time consuming, prepare routing table at every router)
- chosen path may be down so it is not highly reliable.
- shortest path is depends on the algorithm and some algorithms fails to find the shortest path.
- cannot travel from other path as shortest path will be fixed with the help of routing table

concept: routing table

routing table:

destination distance next hop

routing algorithm
(i) static : path is fixed and cannot be changed
(ii) dynamic
- distance vector routing
- link state routing

concept: distance vector routing

routing table:

destination distance next hop

step (i) prepare the routing table at every router based on the local knowledge

(d) from D (c) from C

destination distance next hop destination distance next hop

A 2 A A no edge _____
B 0 B B 3 B
C 3 C C 0 C
D 7 D D 11 D

Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 3

 11
D C

7
1 3

A B
2
(a) from A (b) from B

destination distance next hop destination distance next hop

A 0 A A 2 A
B 2 B B 0 B
C no edge _____ C 3 C
D 1 D D 7 D

step 2: share the distance instead of sending whole table

- at A
A receive distance vector from B, D
- at B
B receive distance vector from A, C, D
- at C
C receive distance vector from B, D
- at D
D receive distance from A, B, C

- at A
A receive distance vector from B, D
A will update its routing table according to B and D.

from-B from-D
B D
A 2 A 1
B 0 B 7
C 3 C 11
D 7 D 0

how to compute?
- either take help from B or D.

Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 4

for A to B

(a) A to B
2 0
- A to B(2)+ B to B(0) A B+B B

(b) A to D
1 7
- A to D(1)+ D to B(7) A D+ D B

min {2,8} = 2
next hop will be B.

new routing table of A:

destination distance next hop
A 0 A
B 2 B
C
D

for A to C

(a) A to C
2 3
- A to B(2)+ B to C(3) A B+B C

(b) A to D
1 11
- A to D(0)+ D to C(11) A D+ D C

min {5,12} = 5
next hop will be C.

new routing table of A:

destination distance next hop
A 0 A
B 2 B
C 5 B
D

for A to D

(a) A to D
2 7
- A to B(2)+ B to D(7) A B+B D

(b) A to D
1
- A to D(1) A D

Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 5

 (b) A to D
1
- A to D(1) A D

min {9,1} = 1
next hop will be D.

new routing table of A:

destination distance next hop
A 0 A
B 2 B
C 5 B
D 1 D

AD rule: shortcut

- at A
A receive distance vector from B, D
A will update its routing table according to B and D.

from-B from-D
B D
A 2 A 1
B 0 B 7
C 3 C 11
D 7 D 0
AB=2 AD=1

for A to B

from-B from-D
B D
A 2 A 1
B 0 B 7
C 3 C 11
D 7 D 0
AB=2 AD=1
-2 - 1+7=8

min {2,8}=2

new routing table of A:

destination distance next hop
A 0 A
B 2 B

Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 6

 B 2 B
C
D

for A to C

from-B from-D
B D
A 2 A 1
B 0 B 7
C 3 C 11
D 7 D 0
AB=2 AD=1
-2 - 1+7=8
- 2+3=5 - 1+11=12

min {5,12}=5

new routing table of A:

destination distance next hop
A 0 A
B 2 B
C 5 B
D

for A to D

from-B from-D
B D
A 2 A 1
B 0 B 7
C 3 C 11
D 7 D 0
AB=2 AD=1
-2 - 1+7=8
- 2+3=5 - 1+11=12
- 2+7=9 - 1+0=1

min {9,1}=1

new routing table of A:

destination distance next hop
A 0 A
B 2 B
Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 7
 B 2 B
C 5 B choose minimum

D 1 D

little analysis:
(i) A received from B
from-B
add A and B
B
A 2
- now calcualte the path
B 0
lets say we are calculating for A to C
C 3
D 7
so, A to B is 2
AB=2
and B to C is 3 - 2+3=5
total : 5

(ii) A received from D from-D

add A and D D
A 1
- now calcualte the path B 7
lets say we are calculating for A to C C 11
D 0
so, A to D is 1 AD=1
and D to C is 11 - 1+11=12
total : 12

so the minimum is 5 that comes from table B. so next hop

will be B with distance of 5.

- at B
B receive distance vector from A, C, D
B will update its routing table according to A, C and D.

from-A from-C from-D

A C D
A 0 A ∞ A 1
B 2 B 3 B 7
C ∞ C 0 C 11
D 1 D 11 D 0
AB=2 BC=1 BD=1

for B to A

Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 8

 from-A from-C from-D
A C D
A 0 A ∞ A 1
B 2 B 3 B 7
C ∞ C 0 C 11
D 1 D 11 D 0
AB=2 BC=1 BD=1
-2 - ∞ - 1+7=8

min {2,∞,8}=2

new routing table of B:

destination distance next hop
A 2 A
B 0 B
C
D

for B to C

from-A from-C from-D

A C D
A 0 A ∞ A 1
B 2 B 3 B 7
C ∞ C 0 C 11
D 1 D 11 D 0
AB=2 BC=1 BD=1
- 0+∞=∞ -∞ - 1+7=8
- 2+∞=∞ -3 - 7+11=18

min {∞ ,3, 18}=3

new routing table of B:
destination distance next hop
A 2 A
B 0 B
C 3 C
D

for B to D

from-A from-C from-D

A C D
A 0 A ∞ A 1
B 2 B 3 B 7
Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 9
 A C D
A 0 A ∞ A 1
B 2 B 3 B 7
C ∞ C 0 C 11
D 1 D 11 D 0
AB=2 BC=1 BD=1
- 0+∞=∞ -∞ - 1+7=8
- 2+1=3 -3 - 7+11=18
- 3+11=14 -7

min {3, 14, 7}=3

new routing table of B:
destination distance next hop
A 2 A
B 0 B
C 3 C
D 3 A

new routing table of C:

destination distance next hop
A 5 B
B 3 B
C 0 C
D 6 B

new routing table of D:

destination distance next hop
A 1 A
B 3 A
C 10 B
D 0 D

final routing table:

(d) from D (c) from C

destination distance next hop destination distance next hop

A 1 A A 5 B
B 3 A B 3 B
C 6 A C 0 C
D 0 D D 6 B

11
D C
Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 10
 11
D C

7
1 3

A B
2
(a) from A (b) from B

destination distance next hop destination distance next hop

A 0 A A 2 A
B 2 B B 0 B
C 5 B C 3 C
D 1 D D 3 A

egdes which are not include in any routing table:

- 11 and 7

Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 11

disadvantages of distance vector routing:
(i) count to infinity problem
(i) inifnite looping (solution: split horizon)
(iii) convergence is very slow (solution: link state routing)

(i) good news spreads fast

(ii) badnews spreads slow
(i) good news

(a) initially B is not connected to A.

distance between B to A is unreachable.

1 1
A B C D
∞ ∞ ∞

(b) after sometime B is connected to A

1 1 1
A B C D
∞ ∞ ∞

(c) now B got to know that A is connected

- so B will update the cost from ∞ to 1.

1 1 1
A B C D
∞ ∞ ∞
1 ∞ ∞

(d) now, (time t1)

Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 12
 (d) now, (time t1)
C shares the infomation with B: cost is ' ∞' to reach A
B shares the infomation with C: cost is '1' to reach A
so, if B chooses C, B cost becomes : ∞+1
B will maintain its own cost '1'.

1 1 1
A B C D
∞ ∞ ∞
1 ∞ ∞ (time t1)
1 ∞ ∞

(e) now, (time t1)

B cost to reach A: 1
D cost to reach A: ∞

- C ask B to reach A, B shares the infomation with C: cost is '1' to reach A

- C ask D to reach A, D shares the infomation with C: cost is ' ∞' to reach A

C decided to take path B, so its cost becomes 2.

- B to A: 1
- C to B: 1
- C to A: 2

1 1 1
A B C D
∞ ∞ ∞
1 ∞ ∞ (time t1)
1 2 ∞

(f) now (time t1)

- D ask C to reach A, C shares the infomation with D: cost is ' ∞' to reach A

1 1 1
A B C D
∞ ∞ ∞
1 ∞ ∞ (time t1)
1 2 ∞

(g) now (time t2)

- B ask C to reach A, C shares the infomation with B: cost is '2' to reach A
B will not update it's value
Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 13
 B will not update it's value

- C ask D to reach A, D shares the infomation with C: cost is '∞' to reach A

C will not update it's value

- D ask C to reach A, C shares the infomation with D: cost is '2' to reach A

D will update it's value

D decided to take path C, so its cost becomes 3.

- D to C: 1
- C to B: 1
- B to A: 1
- D to A: 3

1 1 1
A B C D
∞ ∞ ∞
1 ∞ ∞ (time t1)
1 2 3 (time t2)

now, even if you continue to run the algorithm the values remains the same.

(ii) bad news (count to infinity problem)

continues..

1 1 1
A B C D

1 2 3

(b) after sometime B is not connected to A, link down.

1 1
A B C D
1 2 3

(c) now B got to know that A is not connected

- so B will update the cost from 1 to ∞ .

1 1
A B C D
1 2 3
Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 14
 1 2 3
∞ 2 3

(d) now, (time t1)

- B ask C to reach A, C shares the infomation with B: cost is '2' to reach A
B will assume that C have direct path to reach
so, B will update its value to 3
B to C: 1
C to A : 2 (assumption, C have no edge)
C previously got its value from B, but as link got down B changed its value to
∞ but it did not inform any other station so other stations did not update its
value.

so now there is confusion between stations.

1 1
A B C D
1 2 3
∞ 2 3
3 2 3 (time t1)

(e) now, (time t1)

- C ask D to reach A, D shares the infomation with C: cost is '3' to reach A

C decided to take path D, so its cost becomes 4.

C to D: 1
D to A: 3
(assumption, D have no edge)
D previously got its value from C, but as link got down B changed its value to
∞ but it did not inform any other station so other stations did not update its
value.

so now there is confusion between stations.

1 1
A B C D
1 2 3
∞ 2 3
3 4 3 (time t1)

(f) now (time t2)

- B ask C to reach A, B shares the infomation with C: cost is '4' to reach A
B will update it's value.

Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 15

why it choosing higher values?
becuase, it is dynamic algorithm, B does not have any direct edge with A so B
will take the cost it needs to reach A.
1 1
A B C D

1 2 3
∞ 2 3
3 4 3 (time t1)
5 4 3 (time t2)

(g) now (time t2)

- C ask D to reach A, D shares the infomation with C: cost is '3' to reach A
C will update its value to 4

- D ask C to reach A, C shares the infomation with D: cost is '4' to reach A

D will update it's value to 5

1 1
A B C D

1 2 3
∞ 2 3
3 4 3 (time t1)
5 4 5 (time t2)

this continues to infinity....

- why it happened?
B sends the packet to C, C wants to send the packet to A then it will send to D
because the path for A from C is by D to A

D wants to sends the packet to A, D will send the packet to C because the path for
A from D is by C to A

so, the infinite looping contiues.

we only share distance vector and not the whole table, if we would have shared the
whole table then it would have avoided infinite looping

if we share routing table then the router will get to know the paths

des dis nh des dis nh des dis nh

Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 16
 des dis nh des dis nh des dis nh
A 1 A A 2 B A 3 C
1 1 1
A B C D
1 2 3

now B got to know that A is not connected

- so B will update the cost from 1 to ∞ .

des dis nh des dis nh des dis nh

A 1 A A 2 B A 3 C
A ∞ A A 2 B A 3 C
1 1 1
A B C D
1 2 3
∞ 2 3

- B asks C to reach A, C shares the infomation to B: cost is '2' to reach A

B to C: 1
C to A: 2
B to A: 3

- C asks D to reach A, D shares the infomation to C: cost is '3' to reach A

C to D: 1
D to A: 3
C to A: 4

- D asks C to reach A, C shares the infomation: cost is '2' to reach A

D to C: 1
C to A: 2
D to A: 3

des dis nh des dis nh des dis nh

A 1 A A 2 B A 3 C
A ∞ A A 2 B A 3 C
A 3 C A 4 D A 3 C
1 1 1
A B C D
1 2 3

Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 17

 ∞ 2 3
3 4 3

- at D
'D' received its distance vector from c
from C
2
DC=1
- 2+1=3

point to remember:
- solution of count to infinity problem is given by split horizon

concept: split horizon solution

(i) B got to know that A is not connected

- so B will update the cost from 1 to ∞ .

des dis nh des dis nh des dis nh

A 1 A A 2 B A 3 C
A ∞ A A 2 B A 3 C
1 1 1
A B C D
1 2 3
∞ 2 3

(ii) if a node is dependent on some other node to reach the destination then it cannot help.
- direct cost mat bejho, pehle check karo apni table ko what is your next hop?
B asks C to reach A, C depend on B (next hop), C cannot help B.
because, C itself depends on B

des dis nh des dis nh des dis nh

A 1 A A 2 B A 3 C
Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 18
 des dis nh des dis nh des dis nh
A 1 A A 2 B A 3 C
A ∞ A A 2 B A 3 C
1 1 1
A B C D
1 2 3

∞ 2 3

i cannot help ∞

(iii) if a node is dependent on some other node to reach the destination then it cannot help.
- direct cost mat bejho, pehle check karo apni table ko what is your next hop?
C asks D to reach A, D depend on C (next hop), D cannot help C.
because, D itself depends on C

des dis nh des dis nh des dis nh

A 1 A A 2 B A 3 C
A ∞ A A ∞ B A 3 C
1 1 1
A B C D
1 2 3

∞ ∞ 3

i cannot help ∞
i cannot help ∞

des dis nh des dis nh des dis nh

A 1 A A 2 B A 3 C
A ∞ A A ∞ B A ∞ C
1 1 1
A B C D
1 2 3

∞ ∞ 3

Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 19

 ∞ ∞ 3

i cannot help ∞
i cannot help ∞

∞ ∞ ∞

continues to ∞ unreachable.
- after 4,5 steps algorithms stops.

question:

∞ routing table of B:
0
destination distance next hop
∞ A B
9 A 2 A
B 0 B
2 C 5 A
0 D 9 D
C D
5
∞

what distance vector router 'B' will share to 'A' and 'D' by using split horizon concept?
(a) depends on A: ∞(share to A)
destination distance next hop
A 2 A B depends on A: ∞
B 0 B B depends on B: 0
C 5 A B depends on A: ∞
D 9 D B depends on D: 9

(a) depends on D: ∞(share to D)

destination distance next hop
A 2 A D depends on A: 2
B 0 B D depends on B: 0
C 5 A D depends on A: 5
D 9 D D depends on D: ∞

concept: link state routing

Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 20

 step (i) prepare the link state packet at every router based on the local knowledge(neigbours)

(d) from D
(c) from C
D
seqno. C
A 1 seqno.
Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 21
 (c) from C
D
seqno. C
A 1 seqno.
B 7 B 3
C 11 D 11
11
D C

7
1 3

A B
2

(a) from A (b) from B

A B
seqno. seqno.
D 1 A 2
B 2 C 3
D 7

step (ii) every router flood the link state packet to every other router.

- at A
A received link state packet from B, C, D

from B from C from D

A 2 B 3 A 1
C 3 D 11 B 7
D 7 C 11

(a) A get to know that node to 'B' is present in the graph: 2

2
A B

(b) A get to know that node to 'C' is present in the graph from B: 3

2
A B

Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 22

 2
A B

(c) A get to know that node to 'D' is present in the graph from B: 7

2
A B

7
3

D C

(d) A get to know that node to 'D' is present in the graph from C: 11

2
A B

7
3

D C
11

(e) A get to know that node to 'D' is present in the graph from D: 1

2
A B

1 7
3

D C
11

Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 23

- dijkstra algorithm:

with the help of B, C, D it made a complete graph

2 now the job is to find the shortest path
A B
routing table of A:
1 7 destination distance next hop
3
A 0 A
B 2 B
D C C 5 C
11
D 1 D

- at B
B received link state packet from A, C, D

from A from C from D

B 2 B 3 A 1
D 1 D 11 B 7
C 11

- dijkstra algorithm:

with the help of A, C, D it made a complete graph

2 now the job is to find the shortest path
A B
routing table of B:
1 7 destination distance next hop
3
A 2 A
B 0 B
D C C 3 C
11
D 3 A

- at C
C received link state packet from A, B, D

from A from B from D

B 2 A 2 A 1
D 1 C 3 B 7
D 7 C 11

- dijkstra algorithm:
Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 24
- dijkstra algorithm:

with the help of A, C, D it made a complete graph

now the job is to find the shortest path
11
D C routing table of C:
destination distance next hop
1 7 A 5 A
3
B 3 B
C 0 C
A B D 6 D
2

problem in link state routing:

(i) the fundamental idea is to use flooding to distribute the link state packets to all routers. to
keep the flood in check, each packet contains a sequence number that is incremented for each new
packet sent.

(ii) routers keep track of all the (source router sequence) pairs they see.

(iii) when a new link state packet comes in, it is checked against the list of packets already seen.
if it is new, it is forwarded on all lines except the one it arrived on.

(iv) if it is a duplicate, it is discarded

(v) if a packet with a sequence number lower than the highest one seen so far ever arrives, it is
rejected as being obsolete as the router has more recent data.

this algorithm has a few problems, but they are manageable.

(i) if the sequence numbers wrap around i.e we have reached the maximum sequence number and
next will be 0, confusion will come.

solution: use a 32-bit sequence number. with one link state packet per second, it would take
137 years to wrap around, so this possibility can be ignored.

A B C

D
Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 25
 D

(i) if A want to send the packet, A forwards the packet to B, B forward the packet to every outer going
link except the one it came from (A)
rec(a)
A B C

D
rec(b)

(ii) if C want to send the packet received from B, C forward the packet to every outer going link except
the one it came from (B)
rec(a) rec(b)
A B C

D
rec(b)
rec(c)

(iii) if D want to send the packet received from B, D forward the packet to every outer going link except
the one it came from (B)
rec(d)
rec(a) rec(b)
A B C

D
rec(b)
rec(c)

(iv) if C want to send the packet received from D, C forward the packet to every outer going link except
the one it came from (D)

rec(c) rec(d)
rec(a) rec(b)
A B C

Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 26

 A B C

D
rec(b)
rec(c)

(v) if D want to send the packet received from C, D forward the packet to every outer going link except
the one it came from (C)
rec(d)
rec(c) rec(d)
rec(a) rec(b)
A B C

D
rec(b)
rec(c)

(vi) if B want to send the packet received from C, B forward the packet to every outer going link except
the one it came from (C)
rec(d)
rec(c) rec(d)
rec(b) rec(a) rec(b)
A B C

D
rec(b)
rec(c)
rec(b)

infinite looping.

- how to solve this problem?

sequence number

A B C

Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 27

(i) if A want to send the packet, A forwards the packet to B along with sequence number, B forward the
packet to every outer going link except the one it came from (A)
- B apna database banayega before forwarding to anyone.
(A se packet aya tha jiska seq no 0 tha)

A 0 A 0
rec(a) rec(b)
A B C

- D apna database banayega before forwarding to anyone.

(A se packet aya tha jiska seq no 0 tha)

A 0 A 0
rec(a) rec(b)
A B C

D
rec(b)
A 0

(iii) if D want to send the packet received from B, D forward the packet along with sequence number to
every outer going link except the one it came from (B)

A 0 A 0 A 0
rec(a) rec(b) rec(d)
A B C

D
rec(b)
A 0

C received the same packet from B

C received the same packet from D
Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 28
C received the same packet from D

C will discard and will not forward the same packet.

(iv) if C want to send the packet received from B, C forward the packet along with sequence number to
every outer going link except the one it came from (B)

A 0 A 0 A 0
rec(a) rec(b) rec(d)
A B C

D
rec(b) rec(c)
A 0 A 0

D received the same packet from B

D received the same packet from C

D will discard and will not forward the same packet.

it checks
- have i forwaded the same packet before?
if yes, then it will discard the packet.

har router ka ek database loga lets say D

(kis kis router se kaunse packet forward kar chuka hai)
router latest seq no
A 10
B 20
C 30

- lets say (A,8) aya

old information hai (A,10) already forward kar chuka
hai aage ka so discard kardega

router latest seq no

A 10
B 20
C 30

Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 29

- lets say (A,15) aya
new information hai (A,10) already forward kar chuka hai so
now it will update the seq number to 15

router latest seq no

A 10 15
B 20
C 30

- lets say (A,12) aya

old information hai A,15 already forward kar chuka hai
aage ka so discard kardega

router latest seq no

A 15
B 20
C 30

- lets say (A,15) aya

already forward kar chuka hai, discard.

router latest seq no

A 15
B 20
C 30

so it basically discard the lower and same sequeunce number packets and only
forwards the higher sequence number packets.

problem in sequence number:

(ii) if a router ever crashes, it will lose track of its sequence number. if it starts again at 0, the
next packet it sends will be rejected as a duplicate.

(iii) if a sequence number is ever corrupted and 65,540 is received instead of 4 (a 1-bit error),
packets 5 through 65,540 will be rejected as obsolete, since the current sequence number will be
thought to be 65,540

solution:
include the age of each packet after the sequence number and decrement it once a second. when the
age hits zero, the information from that router is discarded. normally, a new packet comes
in, say, every 10 sec, so router information only times out when a router is down (or six
consecutive packets have been lost, an unlikely event). The Age field is also decremented by each
router during the initial flooding process, to make sure no packet can get lost and live for an
indefinite period of time (a packet with age zero is discarded).

Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 30

 at D database:
router latest seq no
A 15
B 20
C 30
15: 00...0000001111

by mistake 0 becomes 1 so it becomes 47 from 15.

u15: 00...0000011111

for A min sequence number becomes 47.

- if A se packet aya sequence number 16 ka so it will reject thinking it is an old packet.

so from 16 to 47 every packet are rejected but they were valid packets.

solution:
add one more thing in the table- lifetime/validity/age
at D database:
router latest seq no lifetime/validity/age
A 47 10 seconds
B 20
C 30

entry permanent nahi hoti (47) uski ek age hoti hai lets say 10second
- 10second ke baad yeh entry delete ho jayegi aur jo latest sequence number hai uski
entry hoti rahegi.
- so it will not cause such a blunder of rejecting large number of valid packets.

Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 31

topic: routing information protocol

rip: routing information protocol is a dynamic routing protocol which uses hop count as a routing
metric to find the shortest path between source and destination.

- the path with the lowest hop count is considered as the best path from source to destination.
- rip prevents infinite looping by limiting the number of hops allowed in a path from source to
destination.
- the maximum hop count allowed for rip is 15, and a hop count of 16 is considered as destination
unreachable.

point to remember:
rip uses udp as its transport protocol with the port number 520.

1 1
A B C D
Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 32
 1 1
A B C D
1 2 3
∞ 2 3
3 4 3
. . .
. . .
15∞ 15∞ 15∞

Chapter - 8 (Routing protocol) Page 33