CHAPTER -13

NUCLEI
Atom consists of a centrally positively charged region called nucleus. Most of the
mass (99.9%) of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus of the atom.

ATOMIC MASS AND COMPOSITION OF NUCLEUS:

The mass of the nucleus and its constituent particles is expressed in atomic mass
unit (a.m.u.)
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1 a.m.u. = 1u = 12th of the mass of one 12C atom Since mass of one 12C atom

1.992647x10−26 12
= kg = 6.023x1023 gm
12

= 1.660539x10-27kg

Compostion of nucleus:

The alpha particle scattering experiment of Rutherford suggested the centrally

positively charged region inside the atom, known as nucleus. The positive charge
in the nucleus is that of the protons. In the beginning, nucleus was assumed to
contain positively charged particle-proton and negatively charged particle-
electron. However, later on it was established that electrons cannot exist inside
the nucleus.

Chadwick observed the emission of some neutral radiation when Beryllium nuclei
were bombarded with alpha particles. Chadwick discovered that this neutral
radiation consists of a new type of neutral particles called neutrons. The mass of
the new particle was very close to that of the proton.

A free neutron is unstable, unlike a free proton. It decays into a proton, an

electron and an antineutrino. It is, however, stable inside the nucleus.

Thus, a nucleus of an atom consists of positively charged particles called protons

and neutral particles called neutrons.

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The composition of a nucleus can now be described using the following terms and
symbols:

Z – Atomic number = Number of protons

N – Neutron number = Number of neutrons

A – Mass number =Z+N

= Total number of protons and neutrons

= Total number of nucleons

Nuclear species or nuclides are represented by AZX where X is the chemical symbol
of the species. For example, the nucleus of sodium is written as 23
11Na.

[ *Proton: is stable particle. It has positive charge of 1.6x10-19C. Its mass is

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1.6726x10-27kg = 1.007276u. It has 2 spin. The number of protons in the nucleus is
called atomic number (Z).

Neutron: is an unstable particle but stable inside the nucleus. It is a neutral

particle. Its mass is 1.6748x10-27kg = 1.008665u. It has very high penetrating
power, so can penetrate deep into the atom. It has low ionizing power. It has spin
1 h
( ).
2 2𝜋

Electron: is a stable particle. It has negative charge of -1.6x10-19C. Its mass is

9.1x10-31kg. It is the lightest particle of the atom.]

ISOTOPES:

The atoms of an element having same atomic number (Z) but different mass
number (A) are called isotopes. For example: Hydrogen having three isotopes 11H
protium, 21H deuterium and 31H tritium.

Isotopes have same number of electrons and protons but different number of
neutrons. Isotopes of an element occupy the same position in the periodic table.
The chemical properties of the isotopes of an element are identical but physical
properties are different.
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ISOBARS:

The atoms of elements having same mass number (A) but different atomic
number (Z) are called isobars. For example: 31H and 32He and 73Li and 74B.

Isobars have same number of total number of nucleons but different number of
protons, neutrons and electrons. They have different chemical properties but
their physical properties may be identical.

ISOTONES:

The atoms of the elements whose nuclei have the same number of neutrons are
called isotones. For example: 49Be and 105B, 136C and 147N

Atomic mass of an element:

Most of the elements have isotopes. The relative abundances of these isotopes of
an element differ from other element. The average mass of an atom i.e. atomic
mass is weighted average of the masses of the isotopes of atom. For example:
Chlorine has two isotopes having masses 34.98u and 36.98u and their relative
abundances are 75.4 and 24.6 percent. Then,
75.4𝑥34.98+24.6𝑥36.98
Atomic mass of chlorine = =35.47u
100

(Atomic mass is measured by mass spectrometer)

SIZE OF NUCLEUS:

The first experimental determination of the size of a nucleus was made from the
result of Rutherford scattering of α- particle. The nuclear size is found to vary
linearly with mass number (A).Since the nucleus is approximately spherical,
therefore, the volume of the nucleus is proportional to its mass number (A).

If ‘R’ is the radius of the nucleus, then

4
π R3 α A or, R α A1/3 or, R = R0 A1/3
3

where R0 = 1.2x10-15 m is an empirical constant for all nuclei.

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Nuclear density:

Mass per unit volume of a nucleus is called nuclear density.

Let number of nucleons in the nucleus = A

Mass of each nucleon (proton or neutron) = 1.66x10-27kg

Mass of nucleus = 1.66x10-27 x A kg

4 4 4
Volume of the nucleus = 3 π R3 = 3 π (R0 A1/3)3 = 3 πR30 A

Mass of nucleus 1.66x10−27 x A

Therefore, nuclear density ρ = Volume of nucleus = 4
πR30 A
3

3x1.66x10−27
= 4x3.14x(1.2x10−15 )3 = 2.29x1017kg/m3

Thus, we observe that the nuclear density is very large compared to the density of
ordinary matter. It is also observed that nuclear density is independent of A. That
is nuclear density is same for all nuclei irrespective of their atomic masses.

MASS-ENERGY EQUIVALENCE RELATION:

Einstein showed that mass is another form of energy and one can convert mass-
energy into other forms of energy, say kinetic energy and vice-versa.

The famous mass-energy relation proposed by Einstein is given by

E = mc2

Here energy equivalent of mass ‘m’ is related by the above equation and ‘c’ is the
velocity of light in vacuum (3x108m/s)

Energy equivalent to 1 a.m.u. (1u):

According to Einstein’s mass-energy relation

E = mc2

1u = m = 1.6604x10-27kg and c = 3x108m/s

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So, E = 1.6604x10-27 x (3x108)2

= 1.484x10-10 J

Now, 1eV = 1.6x10-19J

1.484x10−10
Therefore, E = eV =931.48x106eV
1.6x10−19

But, 1MeV = 106 eV, therefore,

E = 931.5MeV

Thus, energy equivalent to mass 1a.m.u. is 931.5MeV.

MASS DEFECT:

When a nucleus of an atom is formed by bringing protons and neutrons together,

the mass of the nucleus so formed is always less than the sum of masses of
constituent protons and neutrons in the free state. This difference in mass is
called mass defect.

Thus, mass defect is defined as the difference between the mass of the
constituent nucleons of the nucleus in the free state and the mass of the nucleus.

Consider a nucleus of mass ‘M’ having ‘Z’ proton and (A-Z) neutrons. Let mn be
the mass of neutrons and mp be the mass of each proton.

Mass of Z protons = Zmp

Mass of (A-Z) neutrons = (A-Z)mn

Sum of masses of Z protons and (A-Z) neutrons = Zmp + (A-Z)mn

Therefore, mass defect ∆m = [{Zmp + (A-Z)mn} – M]

NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY:

The total energy required to disintegrate the nucleus into its constituent particles
( i.e. nucleons) is called binding energy of the nucleus or nuclear binding energy.

Binding energy is basically the energy required to hold the nucleons in a nucleus.
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If certain number of neutrons and protons are brought together to form a nucleus
of a certain charge and mass, energy Eb will be released in the process. The energy
Eb is called nuclear binding energy. If we separate a nucleus into its constituents
(nucleons), we would have to supply a total energy equal to E b to those particles.

Thus, the energy equivalent to mass defect is the binding energy of the nucleus.

Binding energy Eb = ∆mc2

Eb = [{Zmp + (A-Z)mn} – M]c2

Since 1 a.m.u. = 931.5MeV

So, Eb = ∆m x 931.5MeV

NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY:

The average energy required to release a nucleon from the nucleus is called
binding energy per nucleon. It is represented by Ebn.

Ebn = Eb/A

Binding energy per nucleon determines the stability of a nucleus. If binding

energy per nucleon of a nucleus is less, the nucleus is less stable and nucleus is
more stable if its binding energy per nucleon is higher.

BINDING ENERGY PER NUCLEON VS MASS NUMBER GRAPH:

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We notice the following salient features of the plot:

i) The binding energy per nucleon Ebn is practically constant i.e. independent
of the atomic number for nuclei of middle mass number (30 < A < 170). The
curve has a maximum about 8.75MeV for A = 56 and has a value of 7.6MeV
for A = 238
ii) Ebn is lower for both light nuclei (A < 30) and heavy nuclei (A > 170).

CONCLUSION:

We draw following conclusions from above two observations:

i) The binding energy per nucleon is low for both the light and heavy
nuclei. So they are unstable.
ii) The intermediate nuclei have large value of binding energy per nucleon,
so they are more stable.
iii) Binding energy per nucleon of light nuclei having mass number A =
48,12,16 and 20 is more than their neighbour. This shows that these
nuclei are more stable than their neghbour.

*When a heavy nucleus splits up into lighter nuclei, then binding energy per
nucleon of lighter nuclei is more than that of the original heavy nucleus. Thus,
a large amount of energy is liberated in this process. This process is called
nuclear fission.

** When two very light nuclei combine to form a relatively heavy nucleus,
then binding energy per nucleon increases. Thus, energy is released in this
process. This process is called nuclear fusion.

*** Binding energy of a nucleus has nothing to do with the stability of the
nucleus.

**** Binding energy per nucleon is the highest (8.8MeV/nucleon) for 62

28Ni , so
nickel is the most stable element.

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NUCLEAR FORCE:

The force which holds the nucleons inside the nucleus and accounts for stability of
a nucleus is called nuclear force.

Properties of nuclear force:

i) Nuclear force is a short range force.

ii) Nuclear force is charge independent. (It acts between n-n, p-p and n-p)
iii) Nuclear force is the strongest known force of nature. ( 10 38 times
gravitational force, 100 times electric force)
iv) Nuclear force is spin dependent. (Greater for parallel spin than the
antiparallel spin)
v) Nuclear force is a saturated force. ( A nucleon can attract only the
nearest neighbours and has no influence on the other nucleons)
vi) Nuclear force is a non-central force.

Potential energy between two nucleons vs distance between them is shown

below.

The potential energy is the minimum at a distance r 0 of about 0.8fm. This means
that the force is attractive for distances larger than 0.8fm and repulsive if they are
separated by distances less than 0.8fm.

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RADIOACTIVITY:

The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of radiation by heavy elements is

called radioactivity. The elements which show this phenomenon is called
radioactive elements.

A nuclear phenomenon in which an unstable nucleus undergoes decay is called

radioactive decay. There are three types of radioactive decay in nature.

(a) 𝛼- decay: in which a He nucleus 42He nucleus is emitted.

(b) 𝛽- decay: in which electrons or positrons(antiparticle of electron) are
emitted.
(c) 𝛾- decay: in which high energy photons (~100keV) are emitted.

ALFA-DECAY:

In α-decay, mass number of the product nucleus(daughter nucleus) if four less

than that of the decaying nucleus (parent nucleus), while the atomic number
decreases by two.
α−decay
A A−4
𝑍X → 𝑍−2X + 42He

The disintegration energy or the Q-value of a nuclear reaction is the difference

between the initial mass energy and the total mass energy of the decay products.

For α-decay, Q = ( m X - mY - mHe)c2

Q is the kinetic energy gained in the process or if the initial nucleus ‘X’ is at rest,
the kinetic energy of the products. Clearly, Q > 0, for exothermic process such as
α-decay.

BETA-DECAY:

In a 𝛽-decay, a nucleus spontaneously emits an electron (β -decay) or a positron

(β+ decay). A common example of β-decay is
32 32
15P → 16S + e- + 𝜈
22 22
And that of β+ decay is 11Na → 10Ne + e+ + 𝜈
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The emission of electron in β-decay is accompanied by the antineutrino (𝜈); in β+
decay, instead, a neutrino (𝜈) is generated. Neutrinos are neutral particles with
very small (possibly, even zero) mass compared to electrons.

In both β- and β+ decay, the mass number remains same. In β- decay, the atomic
number Z of the nucleus goes up by 1 and in β + decay, Z goes down by 1. The basic
nuclear process underlying β- decay is the conversion of neutron to proton.

n → p + e- + 𝜈

while for β+ decay, it is the conversion of proton into neutron

p → n + e+ + 𝜈

while a free neutron decays into proton, the decay of proton is possible inside the
nucleus, since the proton has smaller mass than the neutron.

GAMMA-DECAY:

When a nucleus emits α or and β particles, it get excited. Such a nucleus in an

excited state spontaneously decays to its ground state by emitting a photon with
energy equal to the difference in the two energy levels of the nucleus.

For example: When 60 - 60

27Co undergoes β decay, it produces 28Ni, which is in excited
state. It de-excites by emitting successively 𝛾-rays (photons) of energies 1.17MeV
and 1.33MeV respectively.

NUCLEAR ENERGY:

The energy obtained from conversion of nuclear mass is known as nuclear energy.

Nuclear energy is released in nuclear reaction. There are two types of nuclear
reactions. (a) Nuclear fission and (b) Nuclear fusion

(a) NUCLEAR FISSION: Nuclear fission is a process of splitting a heavy nucleus

into two nuclei of comparable masses alongwith emission of large amount
of energy.

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For example: When a uranium isotope 235
92U is bombarded with a neutron, it
breaks into two intermediate mass number fragments.
1 235 144
0n + 92U → 56Ba +86 1
36Kr + 3 0n + Q

The same reaction can produce other pairs of intermediate mass fragments
1 235 133 99
0n + 92U → 51Sb + 41Nb + 4 10n + Q
1 235 140 94
0n + 92U → 54Xe +38Sr + 2 10n + Q

The fragment products are radioactive nuclei, they emit β-particles in succession
to achieve stable end product.

Chain Reaction in Nuclear Fission:

The neutrons produced in a nuclear fission cause further fission of more nuclei,
producing large number of neutrons. The process continues and the number of
fission taking place at each stage goes on increasing at a fast rate. This process is
called Uncontrolled Chain Reaction. This is the principle underlying ATOM BOMB.

Another method to sustain the chain reaction is to slow down the neutron
emitted in the fission. Now if only one neutron is available to cause further fission
and rest are absorbed then a constant amount of energy is released. Such a
reaction is called Controlled Chain Reaction. This is the principle underlying
NUCLEAR REACTOR. A nuclear reactor is used to produce electricity.

(b) NUCLEAR FUSION: A process in which two or more very light nuclei (A ≤ 8)
combine to form a nucleus with a larger mass number alongwith
simultaneous release of large amount of energy is called nuclear fusion.

For examples:
1 2 4 1
1H + 1H → 2He + 0n + Q and

4 11H → 4
2He + 2 +10e + 2𝜈 + Q

Nuclear fusion is known as thermonuclear reaction. Nuclear fusion can be

achieved at a very high temperature (~107K) and high pressure (107Atms

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pressure). The energy released in the nuclear fusion is greater than the energy
released in fission.

STELLAR ENERGY: (ENERGY SOURCE OF STARS)

It has been estimated that sun radiates 1026 Joules per second. The sun is a
middle age star (lifetime about 5000 million years). It has been found that
hydrogen and helium constitute about 90% of the mass of the sun and 10% are
other elements.

Hans Bethe suggested that the source of stellar energy is thermonuclear

reactions. He proposed that the thermo-nuclear reactions taking place in the sun
and other stars follows two different series of processed.

(i) Proton-Proton cycle: in which the direct collision of protons result in the
formation of heavy nucleus.
1 1 2 0
1H + 1H → 1H + +1e + 𝜈 + 0.42MeV
2 1 3
1H + 1H → 2He + γ + 5.49MeV
3 3 4 1
2He + 2He → 2He + 21H + 12.86MeV
Total energy in this cycle is (0.42 + 5.49 + 12.86) MeV = 18.77MeV
released.
(ii) Carbon-Nitrogen cycle: in which carbon nuclei absorbs a succession of
protons until they emit alpha particles to become carbon nuclei once
more to repeat the cycle indefinitely.
12 1 13
6C + 1H → 7N + Q1 MeV
13 13 0
7N → 6C + +1e + 𝜈

13 1 14
6C + 1H → 7N + Q2 MeV

14 1 15
7N + 1H → 8O + Q3 MeV

15 15
8O → 7N + +10e + 𝜈
15
7N + 11H → 12 4
6C + 2He

Total energy in this cycle is (24.68) MeV released.

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