BOLIVARIAN REPUBLIC OF VENEZUELA

MINISTRY OF POPULAR POWER FOR EDUCATION

U. E. 'DON SIMON RODRIGUEZ'

CHAIR: BIOLOGY

DEVELOPMENT OF ROMAN SOCIETY

OCCIDENTAL AND ITS INFLUENCE ON THE

LATER CIVILIZATIONS

Tutor: Made By:

Roe Rosemary Gómez, Enderson C.I.: 21352296

Morales, Alberto C.I.: 21352934

Maracaibo, June 2010

1
 Dedication

I want to dedicate this work to the most important person in my life: My mother, who

with his effort has made this achievement possible and, to my father for the affection he gives me.

Also, especially, to my uncles Ivonne Gonzáles, Leonardo Morales and Leandro

Morales that, despite the little time we spent together, I thank you for the support.

moral and ethical support you have given me for so many years, for your affection and understanding.

I want you to know that I love you very much and that you are my role models.

Morales, Alberto C.I.: 21352934

2
 Gratitude

I thank God who has given me strength to face all the obstacles that

My parents have been presented to me, who have supported me and provided me with everything.

necessary to be able to reach where I have reached, to my family members who have supported me

helped by my parents to achieve all my desired goals, to my

friends, who have supported me at all times for better or for worse, to my

classmates with whom I have shared pleasant moments these last 5

years and, finally, to the teaching staff of the institution Don Simón Rodríguez and of the

institution Anselma Pulgar, who have shown that they truly possess the vocation

to teach and do what a good teacher does. Finally, a very big thank you

specially to two wonderful people; Prof. Ángela Briceño and Prof. Edgla

Ballestero, for his advice and teachings.

Morales, Alberto C.I.: 21352934

I am thankful to my maternal grandmother because she has always been advising me to.

I excelled in my studies.

A mi abuela paterna por darme tantos concejos y enseñarme con su ejemplo que hay

That fighting like this things be difficult.

Gómez, Enderson C.I.: 21352296

3
 Introduction

The history of Rome begins with Romulus and Remus, two abandoned brothers who

they turned out to be princes of Alba Longa and returned to their homeland upon learning who

They were. After stabilizing power, they retreat to the shores where they were found,

Rome is being built there.

Since the new city is populated only by men, they solved the problem.

kidnapping the Salinas women through tricks. After achieving this, and that the

their own Salinos joined them, they became a monarchical city with the King at

commander.

The members of the senate were the king's advisors, who at that moment were

composed of 30 patricians, which rose to 300 during the empire.

Most family problems were resolved by the pater famili.

was composed of the family members themselves and the slaves who, after being freed by

any cause they became clients of the head of the family so they never stopped being

part of the family.

More or less this was how the social structure of Rome was arranged during the monarchy,

some more classes joined the republic, and for the empire, the structure remained the same.

just like in the republic.

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 Diagram

I. Dedication

II. Gratitude

III. Introduction

Founding of Rome

2. Monarchical Rome

2.1Culture

2.2 Economy

2.3 Policy

3. The Republican Rome

III.1 Culture

III.2 Economy

III.3 Politics

4. The Roman Empire

4.1 Culture

4.2 Economy

4.3 Policy

5. Decay and fall of the empire

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 6. Influence on later civilizations

IV. Conclusion

V. Attachments

VI. Index

VII. Glossary

VIII. Bibliography

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 Development

Foundation of Rome

The city ofRomearose from the settlements of tribesLatinas, sabinasyEtruscan,

being the first inhabitants of Rome on the seven hills, at the confluence between the

Tiber River and the Salaria Way, 28 km from the Tyrrhenian Sea. In this place, the Tiber has an island.

where the river can be crossed. Due to the proximity of the river and the ford, Rome

it was at a crossroads of traffic and trade. This city was formed in the 8th century.

B.C. although the legend places it on April 21, 753 B.C., a date that marked the year I

from the Roman calendar.

The remote origins of the city of Rome are lost in legend;

surely prior to the year 753 BC when previously the Roman authorities

they closed their foundation.

In the same way, it is unlikely that its foundation arose from an action

explicit and deliberate, later Roman traditions adorned its emergence

con diversas leyendas, recogidas especialmente por un historiador romano, que

they link the origin of Rome to a lineage of gods and heroes.

The legend of the founding of the town and city of Rome has two distinct cycles.

The first one, which we call the Trojan cycle, features Aeneas as the protagonist, while the

second is the cycle of Romulus and Remus.

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In the well-known legend of the Trojan War, we find a Trojan prince,

Aeneas, son of a goddess, Venus, and a mortal, Anchises. Fleeing from destruction

from the city, Aeneas takes his father Anchises in his arms and his son, named Julus or

They set off to Cartago and to Italy, followed by the surviving Trojans.

By the time they arrive in Lazio, Anchises has already died, although before dying he told his...

son: "you will found our homeland on a coast, and when you do, you will be so hungry

that you will eat the offerings to the gods and even the tables where you had placed them.

In Lazio, near the coast, Aeneas founds the city of Alba Longa. After Aeneas,

ten kings will happen in the city. With Numitor, the tenth king, the cycle begins

Romulus and Remus.

Numitor's brother, named Amulius, is an ambitious being of power and therefore dismisses

to his brother on the throne. To avoid the possible offspring from his daughter,

Rhea Silvia, the delivery as a vestal virgin (priestesses in charge of maintaining the

flame of the homeland ignited.

Rhea Silvia, a very beautiful woman, is raped by the god Mars and as a result of that violation

two twins are born, Romulus and Remus. Given that the punishment for the vestal virgins that

they had relationships it was death, Rhea Silvia abandons her children near the river. There

It appears, a she-wolf or a prostitute, according to the version of the legend, that breastfeeds them.

Romulus and Remus live wildly near Alba Longa until they discover that they are

descendants of Numitor. Alongside other young people from the city, they defeat Amulius and

they restore Numitor to the throne. Both brothers decide not to continue living in Alba.
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They decided to found a city there where they were abandoned, accompanied by

also the youth of Alba Longa This city will be Rome.

Since a city cannot have two kings, Romulus and Remus turn to the

prophecies to know which of the two should govern. Remus argues that he has seen

six birds flying over him, then Romulus replies that twelve have flown over him.

Romulus remains as the king of Rome. With a plow, he traces the perimeter of the Pomerium.

(sacred area of the city). Remo, jealous of his brother, begins to mock him.

saying that he can enter and exit the sacred area without any problem, goes

breaking the perimeter and his brother gets angry. Both get into a fight and

Romulus kills his brother. Then he claims that this will be the fate that awaits him.

that destroys the walls and the city.

Since there were only men in Rome, Romulus and the rest of the young men plan to abduct the

Sabinas. They spend some time in Rome until their parents and brothers can go.

to save them, by then they have already fallen in love with the Romans and not only do they not leave.

Rome, but prevent fratricidal fighting and ask their relatives to stay there.

2. Monarchical Rome

The monarchy is the institutional stage of Rome thatifextends from its foundation

from Romulus, the first king, until the fall of Tarquin the Proud, in the year 509 B.C.

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Thepoetryepic and Latin historiography provide us with the origins and early centuries of

Rome a version in which the legendary element abounds, especially in the theme of

the founding of the city.

2.1 Culture

a. Social Division

Clans:

The Gens (pronounced inClassical Latinas [gens]) were a civil grouping or

social system of Ancient Rome. Each gens included several families, which were

they were identified through the cognomen of the individuals, so their members were

Gentiles or pagans among themselves and were led by several heads of families. In this

gentility was primarily a title of nobility that attested to the antiquity and

ingenuity in the sense of purity of the group, something initially exclusive to families

patricias.

Unlike the Greek genos, in Roman gens, which descended through the line

the male ancestor referred to in the name was neither venerated nor remembered

ancestor.

Its members were the Gentiles and all of them carried the samename, the name

gentilicium or simply, genus or gentilicium, which, in theory, would indicate the presence

from a common ancestor.

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Families:

The Roman family was an institution of theancient Rome, present in the social sphere and

legal, which was composed of all those who lived under the authority of the head of

family or pater familias, including of course the slaves. Family is a word

related to the servants and therefore understands them as well.

The Roman family was legally so strong that certain issues that are dealt with today

the courts or in the temples, then they were dealt with at home, under the command of the head

of family. The family was truly the basic cell of Roman society.

Head of the family:

The pater familias was themana Roman who did not depend on anyone and on whom others depended

the others. It didn't matter whether he was single or married, nor his age. The woman never

could be head of the family.

Theparental authorityof a head offamilyRoman allowed him to dispose of thelifeof

any family member, kill them and even sell them. They could also abandon

legally to a child born of his wife or to recognize him.

She could even adopt children of others, as well as arrange marriages for her children.

It is really he who forms the Roman family.

As a boss offamilyit is also thepriestof thereligionfamiliar and thejudgein the

conflicts among family members, but for this last part, it needs to have advice

of a family council.
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Patricians:

In theancient Romethesocial classof the patricians (in Latin 'patricii') was composed

by descendants of the thirty primitive curiae. They constituted the aristocratic class, a

nobility of race. They were considered superior to the rest of the inhabitants: they enjoyed

all rights, owned land and were called to be part of the army

Roman, the legion. Only they participated in the government.

As the social, political, and demographic weight of Rome increased in theLazio, the

the city's population continued to grow, a result of the immigration that the new hub of

regional power was attracting. This influx of new citizens was referred to as

plebe, plebeians, in contrast to the descendants of the ancient inhabitants of the

city, the patricians.

Con el paso del tiempo, el peso social, demográfico y político del patriciado fue

decaying. Little by little they were forced to give up more and more shares of

power to the common people, whose number and economic and social power were constantly growing.

The underlying tensions between the two groups grew over time, to

as the obligations of patricians and plebeians were becoming equalized. Thus, at some

Between 560 and 530 BC, the population of plebeians surpassed that of patricians.

Likewise, the plebeians soon made up the majority of the ranks and classes of

Roman army, which until then had been reserved for the patricians.

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Clients:

They were considered a special part of the family since the clientele was a

an institution deeply rooted in Roman society. Important families

they bragged about the number of clients they had and their prestige and power depended on

a good part of them.

A client was a Roman who was under the protection of another. At the end of the

In the republic, practically all Romans were clients of other Romans who in turn

they were of others. Tito Labieno was a client of Pompey just as Mark Antony was of

César. The boss had the political loyalty of his client and in turn had to protect him.

help him when he needed it. He worried about finding him accommodation if he lost it,

finding him a good wife, assisting him legally or lending him money and the client

he supported all his boss's projects by voting for him and attending his parties. This

the situation was of great importance in that Rome, as the political forces

they needed as many clients as possible, and the more important they were

better.

Plebe:

Plebe was asocial classfrom theAncient Rome, formed, according to the terminology

employed by the authors of ancient Rome, by "those who were not part of the

people", in Latin qui gentem non habent. In any case, the term itself was of a

great extent because among the common people there were very different situations from all the

levels; practically since the founding of the city, the presence of

foreigners settled for various reasons.

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Despite everything, the fact that these non-patrician people felt marginalized and lacked

of certain civil rights, was the consequence of multiple patrician confrontations

plebeians, making them become aware of class, that they themselves

recognized commoners, would unite regardless of wealth level and would

they would unite in a reivindicative struggle for the aspirations of all of them. But only to

the beginning of the Republic is when they are established as an organized group in the

that everyone recognized a common element: their non-belonging to the patriciate, on the margins.

of their fortune or their poverty. Another social sector, that of the proletarians, joins them.

(proletarians), the most marginal or lower element of the Roman population.

In summary, we can say that the social composition of the plebeian class was

consisting of: influential and wealthy characters linked to the army; the commoners

adsidui, that is, those who owned property; and the proletarii who owned nothing - among the

who were the freedmen, that is, the emancipated slaves, either by decision

testamentary of its owners, for merits incurred during their period of slavery or

for having bought his freedom.

b. Religion

Roman religion was polytheistic and resulted from the combination of different elements.

origin. At first, the Latinos practiced a domestic worship, whose supreme

the priest was the head of the family. In all the houses, the home or sacred fire burned

the menes were venerated, which were the spirits of the ancestors; to the lares, which

they were the protective spirits of the house; and the household gods, or benevolent geniuses. To Vesta,

goddess of the home, a special cult was dedicated to her. In her honor, a school was founded.

priestesses, called Vestals, who kept the sacred fire in the goddess's altar.
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The vestals had to remain virgins, and if they broke their commitment, they were

buried alive.

With the domination of the Etruscans, new beliefs were introduced, primarily the

worship of the trinity formed by Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. They also reached

popularity of divination and omens.

The public cult was managed by priests, subordinate to the college of Pontiffs.

that was presided over by the supreme pontiff, that is, the king.

Later, when the Romans connected with the Greeks, they adopted all of their

gods, whom they changed the names of, so that Zeus became Jupiter; Hera,

Juno; Athena, Minerva; Artemis, Diana; Aphrodite, Venus; Demeter, Ceres; Hermes,

Mercury; Ares, Mars; Hephaestus Vulcan; Poseidon, Neptune; Hestia Vesta; and Apollo,

which did not change its name.

What stands out the most is the contractual relationship that the Romans established

with the gods, to whom they offered promises in exchange for favors that, if not

they fulfilled, gave rise to repudiation and the recurrence to other gods.

2.2 Economy

The economy was based on the exploitation of the land, which is why most of the

The population was made up of peasants. The wealthiest families owned large herds.

of oxen and rams.

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Cattle was used as a medium of exchange, pecus, in Latin, from which the word derives.

money, which means money. In the early days, the economy was limited to

These manifestations because the life of the Romans was primitive and simple. Just recently

with the process of expansion and conquest, these characteristics changed to give

place of luxury and pleasures. Rome then became a parasite of the Empire.

Rome boasted some mineral wealth: the salt flats at the mouth of the Tiber

and gold and silver mines. These resources were very helpful so that from their

I began to have an important commercial activity.

The men of the city were dedicated to crafts, carpenters, blacksmiths, and

Some also supplied the town with food and necessary tools for life.

daily, like butchers, bakers, shopkeepers.

2.3 Policy

Kings:

a. Romulus (753-715 B.C.): Of doubtful existence, he was the one who according to legend would have

founded Rome along with his brother Remus whom he killed. The reign of

Romulus was nothing more than a military commander, concerned with common interests in a

council of 100 men that was called senate.

He planned and carried out the abduction of the Sabine maidens and those from other cities to

to attend the Neptune parties organized by him. This irritated the neighboring towns.

who took up arms, Romulus was almost always at war with neighboring countries and

he/she achieved many victories.

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He had great despotic power, which made the senate hate him and they killed him.

They mutilated his body.

b. Numa Pompilius (715-676 or 672 B.C.): After the death of Romulus, the reign of the

the city fell to the sabine Numa Pompilius. Numa reformed the Roman calendar,

adjusting it for the solar and lunar year, also adding the months of January and February

until completing the twelve months of the new calendar. Numa was remembered as the

the most religious of all kings, even above Romulus himself. After 43 years

During his reign, Numa's death occurred peacefully and naturally.

c. Tulio Hostilio (673-641 B.C.): According to historians, after Numa the

Senators elected Tulio Hostilio who was more warlike than Romulus himself. Tulio

fomented several wars against Alba Longa, Fidenae, and Veii, so that Rome

he thus obtained new territories and greater power. It was during the reign of Tulio when

Alba Longa was completely destroyed, and its entire population was enslaved.

sent to Rome. Tulio desired new wars so much that he even encouraged another one.

conflict against the Sabines, so it can be said that it was during his reign.

when the Roman people acquired the desires for new conquests at the cost of peace.

The king waged so many wars that he neglected attention to the deities, for which,

según sostiene la leyenda, una plaga se abatió sobre Roma, hallándose el propio rey

among the affected. When Tulio asked for help from Jupiter, the god responded with a

lightning that reduced both the monarch and his residence to ashes.

d. Anco Marcio (641-616 B.C.): Grandson of Numa and son of a Sabine. He was elected by the

town and confirmed in his position by the senate. During his reign, it was fortified the

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Janiculum Hill, on the western bank of the Tiber, to thus provide greater protection to the

city on that flank, also constructing the first bridge over the river. The

the size of the city increased thanks to the diplomacy exercised by Anco, which

it allowed the peaceful union of several smaller villages in alliance with Rome. After 24 years

of reign died possibly of natural causes, like his grandfather before him, being

remembered as one of the great pontiffs of Rome.

e. Lucius Tarquinius Priscus (616-578 B.C.): Tarquinus Priscushe was the fifth king of Rome, and

the first of Etruscan origin, presumably of Corinthian descent. Expanded the

army, doubling the number of troops to 6,000 infantry and 600 cavalry. He used the

great loot obtained in their military campaigns to build great monuments in

Rome. Among these works, the great sewage system of the city stands out,

Cloaca Maxima, which aimed to drain the waters of a small stream of the Tiber that

they used to stagnate in the valleys situated between the hills of Rome. Another of the

The king's innovations were the creation of the Roman Games. Priscus continued the Circus.

Maximum with the construction of a temple-fortress on the Capitol hill,

dedicated to the god Jupiter. Unfortunately, he was murdered after 38 years of reign.

by the children of his predecessor, Ancus Marcius, even before the temple was

acabado.

f. Servius Tullius (578-534 B.C.): After the death of Priscus, his son-in-lawServius Tulliusit happened to him/her

on the throne, being the second king of Etruscan origin who ruled Rome. As his

father-in-law previously, Servius waged several victorious wars against the Etruscans. He used

the booty obtained in their campaigns to erect the first walls that would enclose the

seven Roman hills over the pomerium, the so-called Servian walls. It reached
18
rename for developing a new oneconstitutionfor the Romans, with greater attention

to the citizenship classes. He established the first census in history, dividing the people

from Rome into five economic classes, also used the census to divide the city

in four urban tribes, based on their spatial location within the city. The

Servius' reforms represented a significant change in Roman life: the right to vote was

established based on economic wealth, which is why a large part of political power

it was reserved for the Roman elites. However, over time Servius favored

gradually to the most disadvantaged classes, in order to obtain a greater

support from the plebeians, which is why their legislation can be defined as

unsatisfactory for the patrician class. The long reign of 44 years of Servius Tullius came to an end.

with his murder in a conspiracy led by his own daughter Tulia and her husband

Tarquin, his successor to the throne.

g. Lucius Tarquinus, the 'Proud' (534-510 B.C.): The seventh and last king of Rome was

Tarquin the Proud. Son of Priscus and son-in-law of Servius, Tarquin was also of origin

Etruscan. It was during his reign that the Etruscans reached the peak of their power.

Tarquin used violence, murder, and terror to maintain control over Rome.

like no previous king had used them, even annulling many reforms

constitutional rules that their predecessors had established. Their best work for Rome

it was the completion of the temple to Jupiter, initiated by his father Priscus. The crucial point of

his tyrannical reign succeeded when he allowed the violation of Lucretia, a patrician

Roman, by his own son Sextus. A relative of Lucrecia and nephew of the king,

Lucius Junius Brutus convened the Senate, which decided the expulsion of Tarquin in the year

510 B.C. After the expulsion of Tarquin, the Senate decided to abolish the monarchy,

turning Rome into a republic in the year 509 BC. Lucius Junius Brutus and Lucius
19
Tarquinio Colatino, nephew of Tarquinio and widower of Lucretia, became the

first consuls of the new government of Rome, which in the long run would achieve conquest

from almost the entire Mediterranean world, and that lasted for almost five hundred years until

the ascent of Julius Caesar and Caesar Augustus.

Senate:

The Senate -Latin senatus- was born as a consultative institution of themonarchy

Rome, formed exclusively by 30 patricians, one representative from each gens, to

principle, and then 300. Acquired greater prerogatives with the Republic, passed to

to endorse through their authority the acts of the consuls, extending their

competition with the acts of other magistrates and elections, religious issues, conflicts

among magistrates, police, crimes with capital punishment when it was commuted,

military and financial issues and international treaties.

3 The Republican Rome

The Roman Republic was a period in the history of Rome characterized by the

republican regime as a form of government, which extends from 509 BC,

when the monarchy was brought to an end with the expulsion of the last king, Lucius Tarquin the

Proud, until 27 BC, the date when the Empire began. The Republic

Rome consolidated its power in central Italy during the 5th century BC and in the centuries

In the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C., it emerged as the dominant power of the Italian peninsula, subjugating

the other towns in the region and facing the Greek city-states of the south. In the

second half of the 3rd century BC projected its power beyond Italy, which led it to a

20
series of confrontations with the other great powers of theMediterranean, in which

defeated Carthage and Macedonia, annexing their territories.

3.1 Culture

a. Social Division

Patricians and Plebeians:

Despite the disappearance of the monarchy, the Roman people continued to be dominated by

the patricians. Authority was in the hands of the consuls and the senators who

they were leaving their ranks.

The plebeians, who were generally small landowners and artisans, suffered the

consequences of the wars against the Tarquins and overwhelmed by debts

They were left at the mercy of the patricians, who underestimated and mocked them.

This difference in social situation caused a conflict that lasted two centuries, since the

year 496 to 302 BC, and culminated with the triumph of the plebeians who obtained the

recognition of their rights and equality with the patricians.

It was in the year 496 BC, when the patricians, to intimidate the plebeians, created the

dictatorship, previously unknown, which is why they decided to abandon the

city of Rome and settle on a hill located a short distance from the city: the

Monte Sacro. Then, the patricians sent an eloquent man, the consul.

Menenius Agrippa who, according to tradition, told them the fable of the members and the

stomach and managed to return to Rome, with the prior promise of the creation of two

21
new magistrates, the tribunes of the plebeians, who would be the defenders of their

rights.

Menenius Agrippa had told them that the members of the human body, tired of

to feed the stomach, which apparently was not working, they plotted a conspiracy and

they rebelled, refusing to bring food to their mouths, but soon the body

weakened and the members fell into a state of prostration. Then the members

they understood that the stomach did not remain idle and through the digestion of the

food kept the whole body in activity. Consequently, Menenius Agrippa told them

he explained that the plebeians were the members and the Senate the stomach, and so that all the

society would function in harmony, concord was necessary.

The Tribunal:

The tribunes of the plebeians were supposed to protect the citizens and ensure that none were

overwhelmed in their rights. They lacked the power to act, but they had the power to prevent.

Para ello tenían el Derecho de Veto (Prohíbo), que ejercían ya sea cuando se proponía

a law contrary to the interests of the people; when a citizen was detained, with the

which remained free until the day of the sentence; or when the consuls summoned to

army to undertake an expedition.

To complement the task of the tribunes, a body of ediles was created, elected

also among the commoners, those who were responsible for the administration of the city,

through the monitoring of cleanliness, price control, the proper use of scales

and measures; and they also performed a police function to ensure the safety of the

inhabitants.
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Plebiscites:

In the year 471 B.C., the Senate recognized the Assemblies by Tribes, in which it

he voted by head, which gave the common people the right to vote on laws that

they were called plebiscites.

The decemvirs:

How the patricians took advantage of the circumstance that there were no written laws to

administer justice according to their interests, the tribunes managed to achieve that in the year

In 451 B.C., ten magistrates, called decemviri, were appointed to whom they were given

he commissioned the mission to draft the laws, granting them supreme power for that purpose.

En estas condiciones, los decenviros redactaron diez tablas de leyes y gobernaron con

prudence. After a year, since they had not finished their task, ten were appointed.

successors who did not behave in the same way and abused their power. This

provoked a riot of the masses as a consequence. The army mutinied and the

decenviros were defeated and were forced to abdicate. Consequently, they were

reestablished the consulate and the ancient magistracies.

b. Religion

Religion in this stage of the Roman Republic was fundamentally based on the same

that in the monarchy, to the pagan gods of Jupiter, Apollo, Venus, etc.

The veneration from the father of the family and the members also continued.

home towards the menes and the lares, and to their goddess of the home Vesta.

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 3.2 Economy

Wars and military conquest changed the mindset of the Romans and modified

its economic-social structure.

Alongside the population growth, agricultural production declined in the

Italian peninsula and there was a need to import cereals from Egypt, Sicily, Gaul and

Iberia; thus Rome became a parasite of the Empire.

More than any other people of antiquity, the Romans appealed to the work of the

slaves, who were the specialized labor in workshops and factories

state-owned. However, in Rome there were no large companies. The East remained

more industrially developed than the West.

The trade took place mainly in the Mediterranean Sea, but it was negative.

for Rome, which was forced to export precious metals to compensate for the

merchandise entry. Over time, there were significant problems with the

supply of large urban centers.

3.3 Policy

The Roman political system was configured by different positions with greater or

minor importance.

Consul:

The consul is the most important position within the set of institutions.

the consul possessed the IMPERIUM which is the control of the entire political, judicial and

religious of Rome. Although they had great power, this was a position with a time
24
limited. The consuls were elected by the entire senate, and they were subjected to a vote and

demanded a continuous rotation among all those who could apply for the position. This position

so important was it in reduced hands, the consuls were chosen annually,

they legislated and applied the written laws, that means that the republican system

it was not only based on the application of ancient laws but was constantly

renewal due to the new issues that could arise from the expansion of

conquered territory. The problem is that many times the choice of the consul

it was about the bribes that the candidates offered to groups, or to certain sectors of

senate, establishing a system of 'quid pro quo' (something for something) for it

that on many occasions the elected consul approved laws that favored his

they were urged, although it is true that they also tried

to maintain a system that would allow the stability of the entire empire to continue.

There were consuls spread throughout all the territories of Roman power, in Hispania, in

Syria, in Gaul, etc. They had the same imperium but in the area that

they were governing.

Pretor:

The praetor is a position slightly inferior to that of the consul, and it also held the IMPERIUM.

but without so many assignments, their power was more limited.

Causator:

The questor was a collaborator of the consul who provided administrative tasks and

judicial.

25
Censor:

This position had a duration of 8 months. The censors were in charge of surveying.

in number and in properties to every citizen, this was done every 5 years. The censor

he has no more power than that granted by the position, he possesses no type of

EMPIRE.

Edil:

This was a minor position, assigned to certain groups of the tribunes of the Plebe.

The position of councilor corresponds to the person in charge of the games and street safety.

Dictator:

The senators had genuine terror of the figure of the King, as it signified the end.

of the republic, nonetheless they created the figure of the Dictator, this was a position

exceptional, only for cases where the stability of

empire, could be due to conflicts, internal wars or maximum security. This

cargo could only last for 6 months, once this period ended

reestablished the organization by appointing consuls. The figure

of the dictator was initially assigned by the entire senate, although that was not

It's true, in the case of Silla, he was named dictator but under the pressure that he

same exercised with his army.

Supreme Pontiff:

This is the highest religious position, it must be taken into account that at this time it was

intimately linked to politics and religion, so important decisions were

initially consulted through sacrifices to the Gods, and these sacrifices are
26
 they were carried out through the mediation of the augur, they were usually sacrifices with

based on the conclusions of the ritual, the senate was informed and it decided what

to do. The pontiff resided in one of the buildings of the Forum with his family during the

period during which he held office, and along with him resided the vestals (virgins)

dedicated to the gods) who performed the functions that the pontiff assigned to them

they assigned.

They were in charge of keeping the fire sacred to the gods.

permanently lit, they also guarded all the wills of the

citizens of the city were poor or rich, they archived them with a

complicated system that allowed them to be located quickly, these were women

given as vestals since childhood, daughters of Roman nobles as it was an honor

to have a vestal daughter, they held the position for almost their entire life, although after

A few years could decide whether they wanted to continue or leave, although after a life

dedicated to being a vestal, there were few who stopped being one. There were other positions.

religious figures of great responsibility but much lesser than that of the Supreme Pontiff

called FLAMEN, which were dedicated to different deities, to Jupiter,

Mars, etc.

Senate:

By the mid-republican era, the senate had about 300 members; it was

composed of all citizens who had held magistracies such as,

consuls, praetors, and aediles, as well as the paters, the heads of the families

patricians, descendants of the first Roman senators established by Romulus and

their successors, who formed the privileged social group, opposed to the commoners.
27
Additionally, thecensorsthey could include senators who had not served

magistracies, although they were restricted in their right to speak and were

they were called walking senators.

With access to citizens' rights of theplebeians, the Senate lost the right

to ratify the acts of the Centuriated Comitia. But on the contrary, it claimed the

right to appoint a dictator, and soon legislated overriding the Assemblies

Tribunals, reaching great power.

En el 3rd century [Link] Senate underwent modifications due to the new situation.

The senatorial seats remained in the hands of the censors and all

judges who left their position ascended to the Senate.

The Senate went from being a consultative body of the consuls, at the beginning of the

Republic, to be a corporation of rulers, without dependence on anyone. The Senate

he directed the war through the consuls, and all the politics of the Republic.

4. The Roman Empire

The conquest of so many territories ultimately led to internal problems in Rome. The

clashes occurred between two 'parties': the aristocratic and the popular.

In parallel form, the Roman legions continued to expand the territory that was already

a great territorial empire. One of the most important military leaders of those times

conquests was Julius Caesar, who, around 60 B.C., had great prestige and led the

party of the populars. He shortly became consul, but was assassinated in the
28
44 B.C. His great-nephew Octavian obtained total power over the territories in 31 B.C.

governed by Rome. Four years later, he received the title of 'augustus' from the Senate,

act that is considered the beginning of the imperial period.

4.1 Culture

a. Social Division

Just like in the previous stages of what was the great Roman civilization, the people

romano estaba dividido en gens, familias, pater familia, patricios, plebe, el tribunado y

the plebiscites. Although some changes were made regarding the plebiscites and the

tribunado, since its powers were largely diminished by the imperial regime that

I was carrying out.

b. Religion

TheEmperor Constantine, in the year 324, he took full control of Rome, attributing

his ascent to divine forces. A Gallic panegyrist announced that the new emperor

I had a vision of Apollo, in a sanctuary of Gaul.

The vision was of a cross above the Sun, followed by the words 'with this you will overcome.'

The next night, Christ appeared to him in a dream, showing him the meaning of what

that he had glimpsed.

The evening before the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, on October 28 of the year 312, had another

dream, where he was ordered to paint the Christian monogram on the shields of his troops.

By defeating Maxentius, and thus gaining power over all of the West, he related that

triumph with the symbolism used. As a tribute to his victory, he erected an arch in Rome,

29
where it was written that the tyrant Maxentius had been defeated "by inspiration of the

divinity and his greatness of spirit,” referring to Constantine himself.

En el año 326, Constantino se dirigió a Roma, lugar en el que había estado en el 315,

but this time he refused to attend a procession and sacrifice at the Capitol. The new

the capital was established in Constantinople, where Byzantium had previously been. The new

the city was consecrated in the year 330, transforming into a Christian city, despite that

remnants of the previous paganism continued to survive, such as statues and temples

pagans, who were no longer considered sacred. Important churches were established,

like that of sacred wisdom.

Meanwhile, in Rome, in 326, the year of Constantine's visit, his son was executed.

Crispo, in Pola, Dalmatia, by order of Constantine himself, accused of having attempted

to seduce his stepmother, Fausta, wife of Constantine.

Fausta also died as a result of an alleged accident in the bathtub, where she

I drowned, although many versions indicate that it was Constantine's mother who...

in charge of murdering her, when they learned that the accusation against Crispo was

false.

Constantine's mother, in light of these events, set out on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land.

These events led Constantino's opponents to suspect that his conversion

he obeyed reasons of atonement for sins due to the cruel and unjust death of his

relatives.
30
He got in touch with the bishop of Jerusalem, where they were built

numerous churches.

Constantine's baptism took place in the year 337, on his deathbed, and it was

buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, in Constantinople.

The emperor,Julian the Apostate(361-363), a policy began again.

persecution of Christianity, but upon his death, Christianity resurfaced with greater strength.

intensity.

The emperorTheodosiuson February 27 of the year 380, proclaimed Christianity as the religion

official of the Roman Empire.

4.2 Economía

Theeconomyof the Roman Empire was typical of an empireslave ownerthe slaves

they obviously worked for free, which produced enormous wealth. The

different cities and provinces were connected by a communications network,

ways and ports, which notably promoted trade.

Although life was centered in the cities, most of the inhabitants lived in the

field with a good level, where they cultivated the land and took care of the livestock.

Thecropsthe most important were thewheat, thevineyardand theolives, also fruit trees,

vegetables, legumes, and flax. The Romans improved agricultural techniques.

introducing the Roman plow, more efficient mills, such as grain, pressing of

oil, irrigation techniques, and the use of fertilizer.

31
From an economic point of view, the agricultural base varies quite a lot depending on the areas.

• In thePo Valleythe small peasantry predominated, coexisting with the

large domains. The cultivation of cereals, a suitable crop for the area, tends to

disappear.

• TheGallic Fieldand thePicenumit is a land of small farmers emerged from

the distribution of land by the State.

• EtruriayUmbriathey are lands of cities, whose organization hinders progress

of the peasantry.

• In theLazio, Mars CountryyCountry of the Sabelliansthe situation is similar to that of the

Own Rome.

• InSouthern Italythe cities are ruined and there is little peasantry.

• In theSamniumthere is a notable depopulation and the cities are also

ruined.

• InCampaniayApuliathe ancient cities have been ruined, and the

land distributions, in general will not prosper. In part of Campania the lands

they were public lands and only allowed to their occupant as a tenant for

limited time.

• In theBurnedyLucaniaThe population is weak and agriculture is barely progressing.

4.3 Policy

Augustus (31 B.C.- 14 A.D.)

In the year27 A.C. a fiction of political normality was established in Rome,

awarded to Augustus, by the Senate, the title of Imperator Caesar

Augustus (emperor Caesar Augustus). The title of emperor, which means

"winner in the battle" made him commander of all the armies.

32
 He secured his power by maintaining a fragile balance between the republican appearance.

and the reality of a dynastic monarchy with a constitutional aspect, as far as

shared its functions with the Senate, but in fact the power of the prince was

complete. Therefore, he never formally accepted absolute power although from

he carried it out, securing his power with several important positions of the

republic and maintaining command over several legions. After his death

Octavian was consecrated as the son of the divine Julius Caesar, which made him

he would become a god upon his death.

The Julio-Claudian dynasty (14 AD - 69 AD)

Augustus' successors did not prove to be particularly gifted, evidencing

the weaknesses of a hereditary dynastic system. Tiberius, Caligula, and Nero were

especially despotic, even letting themselves be carried away by the excesses of madness that

they tested the strength of the consolidated system under the wise management of

Octavio.

Tiberius (14 AD - 37 AD)

Tiberius was the son of Livia Drusilla, the wife of Octavius. After the death of the successors

Octavio's suitable ones, he had to appoint him as his heir. In military matters, he was

brilliant; with his conquests he began to form what would be the northern border of the Empire

Roman. But the memory of his personal figure is of a withdrawn, gloomy man and

strange. It is said that Caesar's crown was very heavy.

It begins to become cruel and imposes a reign of terror, presumably due to the

death of his son, in 23 AD. In 26 he withdrew from life in Rome and left the
33
administration of the empire to its two praetorian prefects: Lucius Aelius Sejanus and Quintus

Sutorio Macro. Although at first, Tiberius was relinquishing power and the throne to

Sejanus, whose cruelty and power were increasing. While Tiberius was in

Capri had to remove him and execute him along with the Senate and the Roman aristocracy, who

they did not support Sejanus in 31. But, apparently he was more supportive of Sejanus than

who was believed, because he began to take revenge on all those who sank Sejanus and

he was pressured. He killed many senators and made many enemies. His

mental stability began to decline, until he sank into a state of total

paranoia, until his death.

Caligula (AD 37 - AD 41)

Caligula was the son of the Roman general Germanicus. After the death of Tiberius, he had to

briefly share power with his brother, Tiberius Gemellus. After getting rid of

he took the reins of power. During the first months of his reign, his management was

impeccable. But after an illness, which some historians say was mental,

began to govern from bad to worse. Led Rome to a famine and a crisis

economic crisis originated by the massive expenses of the Imperial coffers.

In his desperation, he even asked for money from the middle class and the commoners. He had some

small military triumphs like the annexation of the province of Mauretania. The first

the traits of dementia were shown when he asked his soldiers to instead of attacking the

Britons began to collect shells. It was perverted to the extreme of performing, in

Repeated occasions, sexual orgies, even with his sisters. He was a true madman.

He even named his horse consul of Rome. He was assassinated in 41 by a

conspiracy of praetorians and senators.

34
Claudius (41 A.D. - 54 A.D.)

Claudio was Caligula's uncle. One of his most well-known traits was his extreme lameness.

stuttering and numerous tics that kept him away from politics. He was appointed consul and

senator for Caligula, and it is believed that he exaggerated these defects to go unnoticed by

He. After the assassination of Caligula, the Praetorian Guard named him emperor, thinking

what would be an idiot occupying a position that he would not exercise, that is, a puppet. But what

Nobody expected it, it's just that when he took power he became one of the best.

most brilliant and effective emperors in the history of the Roman Empire. It was a

excellent ruler and military strategist. Moreover, he was tremendously popular among the

plebe. The Empire expands and manages to conquer Britain. He was an excellent legislator in

law subject. Its flaws were a subject of mockery among the aristocracy, so,

to gain respect, he uncovered many betrayals and corruptions that brought down

various senatorial heads. Its extreme authoritarianism was key to imposing respect.

In the field of Public Works, he built numerous infrastructures. He even served as

judge in many cases. He was very inclusive, naming wealthy people from

provinces as senators, countering the suffocating xenophobia of society

Romanian.

He destroyed Caligula's judicial reforms and established his own. Despite

his inflexibility, he was respectful and kind to the Senate. He was finally

murdered by his second wife, Agrippina the Younger, in 54.

35
Nero (54 AD - 68 AD)

Nero ended up taking the throne, or snatching it away from the true successor, his brother.

British, thanks to the schemes of his mother, Agrippina the Younger. He ended up being murdered.

to the British, to secure himself in power. During the first 5 years of his

administration, he was known for his extreme condescension and good judgment.

This is largely due to the advice of thePrefectfrom thePraetorian Guard, Sixth Afranio

Donkey, and the philosopher Seneca. But after having set them aside, he appointed as

prefect to Ofonius Tigellinus, who ended up being a bad influence. The ambitions of

the power of her mother, Agrippina, led her to death by her own son. He also killed

his first wife, Octavia, and his second wife, Poppaea Sabina. In 64 AD,

Rome burned down in one of the greatest fires in history. It is said that

Nero ordered it to be set on fire to rebuild it, but he decided to blame the Christians. He

he met him through a musician's delusion: he believed he was a great musician and completed tours

singing and acting in front of the public, which was an embarrassment for the aristocracy

Due to his incompetence, General Galba would eventually overthrow him in 68 AD.

The Year of the Four Emperors

After the overthrow of Nero in 68 AD, Rome was plunged into anarchy.

which would lead to the so-called 'Year of the Four Emperors', where Galba,

Otón and Vitelio represented successive attempts to restore order, being

overthrown until the establishment of Vespasian, founder of the Flavian Dynasty.

36
Galba:

Galba, after having lost the governor Gaius Julius Vindex, marched with his legions.

towards Rome, amidst a great climate of hostility in the city.

In the course of events, he not only did not give the German legions the

reward they expected for their loyalty, but they also received accusations of

haber obstruido el camino de Galba al trono. Su comandante, Rufus, fue

immediately replaced by the new emperor. The loss of confidence in the

German loyalty led to the dispatch to the imperial guard corps of Batavia. Meanwhile

in the rest of the Empire, the death of Nero was celebrated; for the rebellion in the Rhine, it was

a loss.

Galba's popularity did not last long. On his way to Rome, he destroyed or made

pay enormous fines to cities that did not immediately accept their authority.

In Rome, Galba canceled all of Nero's reforms, including some measures that

had benefited important people. Like his predecessor, Galba suffered

an irrational fear of conspiracies and ordered the execution of many senators, without

tests. Discontent in the army persisted. After his saving arrival at

Rome, Galba refused to pay the stipends he promised to the soldiers who supported him.

they supported. Furthermore, with the outbreak of the civil war on June 1, 69 AD, the

legions of Lower Germania refused to swear loyalty and obedience to the new

emperor. The next day, the legions hailed Vitellius, their governor, as

emperor.

37
Otón:

Otón was recognized as emperor by the Senate on the same day as the death of

Galba. The new emperor was received with relief. Despite his ambition and greed, to

Otón was not known to be tyrannical or cruel, so it was expected that he would be a

just emperor. But there was the problem of Vitellius, who had been marching for days.

to Italy from Germany.

Vitelio commanded the elite legions of the empire, composed of veterans.

of the Germanic Wars, such as the I Germanic and the XXI Rapax. These were their

best arguments to gain power. Otón had no intention of starting another

civil war and sent messengers to propose peace and invite Vitellius to be his son

adopted. However, it was already too late, and Vitelio's army struck Italy with

a series of minor victories.

Otón was finally defeated in the Battle of Bedriacum. Instead of fleeing and trying to

counterattack, Otón decided to end the anarchy by committing suicide. He had been emperor

for just over three months.

Vitelio:

Vitelio, after the news of Otón's suicide, was recognized as emperor by the

Senate. With guaranteed acceptance, Vitellius left Rome. Despite everything

the beginning of his reign was not favorable. The city welcomed the accession with concern.

position as Pontifex Maximus of Vitellius on the same date as the anniversary of the

Battle of Alia (in 394 B.C.), a day of bad omens for the superstitious society

Romanian.
38
The events that would follow would demonstrate the certainty of such fears. With the

Strongly secured on the throne, Vitellius began a series of parties, banquets, and parades.

that led the imperial treasury to bankruptcy. Soon the debts accumulated and

The lenders began to demand payments. Vitelio showed his violent nature.

by cruelly repressing the audacity of the claimants through torture and

executions. With imperial finances in a terrible state, Vitellius had killed

all citizens who were named like him or his heir. A then unleashed a

persecution of any potential rival by inviting them to the palace with promises of power

to later murder them.

Surrounded by enemies, Vitellius made one last attempt to win the support of the city,

He bribed and promised power to those who were lacking. Meanwhile, the armies of the Danube were

closer and closer. In the face of the imminent threat, Vitelio tried to buy time and sent to

envoys accompanied by vestal virgins to negotiate a truce and initiate

peace talks. The next day, the messengers returned with the news that

the enemy was at the gates of the city. Vitellius then prepared to hide

and flee, but first he decided to make one last visit to the palace. There he was killed by one

of the men of Vespasian.

The Senate welcomed Vespasian as emperor the next day. This happened on the 21st of

December of '69, the same year that had started with Galba on the throne.

The Flavian Dynasty (69 AD - 96 AD)

39
Vespasian (69 A.D. - 79 A.D.)

Vespasian descended from a family of the equestrian order that had reached the rank

senatorial during the reigns of the emperors of the Julio-Claudian Dynasty. Being

designated consul in 51, gained renown as a military commander, standing out in the

Roman invasion of Britain. He commanded the Roman forces that faced the

rebellion of the Jews in the year 66. When he was about to besiege Jerusalem, the capital

rebellious, Emperor Nero committed suicide, plunging the Empire into a year of wars

civil wars known as the Year of the Four Emperors. After the rapid succession and

death of Galba and Otho and the rise to power of Vitellius, the armies of the

The provinces of Egypt and Judea proclaimed Vespasian emperor on July 1, 69.

On his path to the imperial throne, Vespasian allied with the governor of Syria,

Cayo Licinio Muciano, who led Vespasian's troops against Vitellius, while

Vespasian himself took control over Egypt. On December 20, Vitellius was

defeated and the next day Vespasian was proclaimed emperor by the Senate.

Little information has survived from the reign of Vespasian after his ten years of rule.

government. Notable from his reign is the financial reform program he promoted, so

necessary after the fall of the Julio-Claudian Dynasty, his successful campaign in Judea and his

ambitious construction projects such as the Flavian Amphitheater, commonly known

like the Roman Colosseum. After his death on June 23, 79, he was succeeded on the throne

for her eldest son, Tito.

Titus (79 A.D. - 81 A.D.)

Under the reign of his father, Tito sowed distrust among the citizens of Rome due to

a su servicio como prefecto del cuerpo de guardaespaldas del emperador, conocido

40
like the Praetorian Guard, and also due to his intolerable relationship with the queen

Berenice of Cilicia. Despite these moral shortcomings, Titus ruled with great

popularity after the death of Vespasian on June 23, 79 AD and is considered

as a good emperor according to Suetonius and other contemporary historians.

The most important aspect of his reign was his program for the construction of public buildings.

in Rome, the Flavian amphitheater, commonly known as the Colosseum, was completed.

Tito's enormous popularity was also due to his great generosity towards the victims of

the disasters that the Empire suffered during its brief reign, the eruption of Vesuvius in

the year 79 AD and the fire of Rome in 80 AD. After two years in office, Titus

died due to a fever on September 13, 81 AD. The great popularity of

Titus had the Senate deify him. Titus was succeeded by his younger brother,

Domitian.

Domitian (81 AD - 96 AD)

Upon the death of his father on June 23, 79, Tito succeeded him peacefully, but his

the short reign ended abruptly and unexpectedly with his death from illness,

which occurred on September 13, 81. The next day Domitian was proclaimed

emperor by the Praetorian Guard; his reign, which would last fifteen years, would be the most

long since that of Tiberius.

Classical sources describe him as a cruel and paranoid tyrant, placing him among the

empires most hated when comparing their wickedness with that of Caligula or Nero. No

However, most of the claims about him originate from writers.

who were openly hostile to him: Tacitus, Pliny the Younger, and Suetonius. These men
41
they exaggerated the cruelty of the monarch by making unfavorable comparisons with the Five

Good Emperors who followed. As a consequence of all this, historiography

Moderna rejects most of the information contained in the works of these.

writers when considering them to be poco objective. He is described as an autocrat.

ruthless but efficient, whose peaceful, cultural, and economic programs were

precursors of the prosperous second century, in comparison with the turbulent twilight of the century

His death marked the end of the Flavian Dynasty, as well as the establishment of the

Antonina.

The Dynasty of the Antonines

After the death of Domitian in 96, the Antonine Dynasty followed.

who were the first five emperors known within the Dynasty of the

Five Good Emperors, because they were all wise and led Rome very well.

This is thanks to a new succession system that was based on the designation of

successor, instead of being the closest relative. This is how a good was ensured

succession, until Marcus Aurelius breaks the norm, designating his son, Commodus,

decision that would be disastrous.

Nerva (96 AD - 98 AD)

On September 18 of the year 96, the emperor Domitian was murdered as a victim of a

palace conspiracy in which several members were involved

Praetorian Guard and several freedmen. The next day the Senate appointed him.

emperor; as the new monarch, he vowed to restore the rights that had been

abolished or simply overlooked during the reign of Domitian. However,

his administration was marked by financial problems and by its lack of

42
 skill when dealing with the troops. A rebellion of the Praetorian Guard.

in the year 97 he almost forced him to adopt the popular Marco Ulpio Trajan as his

heir and successor.

After what were approximately eighteen months of management, Nerva died of

natural death on January 27, 98. He was succeeded by his son upon his death.

adoptive, Trajan.

Trajan (98 A.D. - 117 A.D.)

Trajan succeeded Emperor Nerva in the year 98. As a civil administrator, Trajan is

known above all for its extensive program of public building construction, that

they reformed the city of Rome and left numerous enduring monuments such as the forum

of Trajan, the Trajan market and the Trajan Column. However, it was like

military commander for which he celebrated his greatest triumphs.

In 101, he launched a punitive expedition against the kingdom of Dacia ruled by the king.

Decebalus, defeating the Dacian army near Tapae in 102, and finally conquered.

Dacia completely in 106. In 107, Trajan went further East and annexed the kingdom.

Nabatea, establishing the province of Petraea. After a period of

relative peace within the Empire, launched his final campaign in 113 against Parthia, reaching

up to the city of Susa in 116, reaching the maximum expansion of the Empire

Roman in all its history. During this campaign, Trajan fell ill and passed away while

he returned to Rome. He was deified by the Senate and his ashes were buried under the

Trajan's Column. His nephew Hadrian succeeded him.

43
Hadrian (117 AD - 138 AD)

His relationship with the Senate was not good; it may have had something to do with it.

that Adrian, unlike many previous emperors, did not wish

to hold the ordinary consulate more than twice, both consecutively and at

beginning of his reign: in the first half of 118, having as a colleague

his nephew, the Barcelonan Cneo Pedanio Fusco Salinator, and, first

quarter of 119, with Publio Dasumio Rústico, another possible relative, this time

of the Dasumii italicenses. Likewise, the administrative reforms carried out to

the emperor during his reign sparked the opposition of the senators; the emperor

modernized the state administrative system by promoting experts and

technocrats, which meant that many sections of the administration were left

in the hands of these officials. As a result, the senatorial and aristocratic elite

her influence diminished.

Antoninus Pius (138 AD - 161 AD)

Her reign passed peacefully, despite a series of military disturbances that

they devastated the Empire during their rule in Mauritania, Judea, and in Britain against the

brigands, although none of these uprisings are considered significant. They

he believes that the insurrection in Britain led the Emperor to erect the Antonine Wall in

the Forth Firth and the Clyde Firth, although it was soon abandoned. It was one

of the few emperors who faced the crises of their government without leaving

Italy, addressing provincial war matters through governors or by means of

from letters to cities like Ephesus. This style of government was highly praised by its

contemporaries and for future generations.

44
Little is known about the foreign policy of Antonino's government, although judging by the

consequential events of it, no significant events occurred during this

period, compared to its predecessors and predecessors on the throne. Some

historians argue that he handled the affairs of the Empire with great care, or that such

he became disinterested in the events that happened outside of Italy, and of his

inactivity led to the problems that Marco had to face, not only him

Aurelius, along with a large number of emperors from the 3rd century.

Antoninus Pius maintained good relations with the Senate, in contrast to his

predecessor Hadrian. His reign, along with those of his predecessors Trajan and Hadrian, and

The reign of his successor Marcus Aurelius is known as the Golden Age of the Roman Empire.

Marcus Aurelius (161 AD - 180 AD)

His government was marked by military conflicts in Asia against a revitalized

Parthian Empire and in Germania facing the barbarian tribes settled along the Limes

Germanicus, in Gaul and along the Danube. During his reign he had to do

facing a revolt in the Eastern provinces led by Avidius Cassius to which

smashed.

The great work of Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, written during the campaigns of the

the 170s, it is still considered a monument to perfect government. It is

described as 'a beautifully written work with infinite tenderness'.

Commodus (180 A.D. - 192 A.D.)

Commodus was the first emperor to succeed his father on the throne since the reign.

by Tito. The young son of Marcus Aurelius was also the first emperor 'born to the
45
purple" (symbol of Roman royalty), since it was the first to be born when its

father had already ascended to the throne.

His government can be divided into two phases:

• 177 – 180. Joint reign with his father, Marcus Aurelius. During this stage the

Commodities' actions can be defined as moderate. Among other things,

Commodus fought with the armies of the Danube.

• 180 – 192. Solo government. The way of ruling of the young one was degenerating.

in an uncontrollable paranoia that led the Roman Empire to one of its

greatest crises since the governments of Caligula, Nero or Domitian.

Upon his death, the Empire plunged into a period of civil wars known as the Year

of the five emperors. At the end of this conflict, Septimius Severus took the throne,

who established the Severan Dynasty.

Senate:

Augusto proceeded to filter the list of senators, attempting to recover as senators to

the survivors of traditional families, but also favoring their

supporters, regardless of their origin, in the case of Maecenas, Agrippa, Lucius Munatius

Plancus or Gaius Asinius Pollio. He also increased the nominal powers of the Senate,

transmitting the powers of election of magistrates of the assemblies or comitia to the

senate, although it really reduced its powers, since almost all the provinces with

the army was placed under the direct control of the emperor, the magistracies became

honorary positions, and the candidates for them needed the emperor's approval,

who assumed the jurisdictional power of the Comitia Tributa, for which the Edicts

imperial decisions superseded the Senate consultations.

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 5. Decadence and fall of the empire

The decline of the Roman Empire is the historical period that extends from the

the rise to power of Diocletian in 284 until the fall of the Western Roman Empire

476.

After the golden centuries of the Roman Empire (a period calledRoman peace, that

it encompasses the 1st to 2nd centuries), a deterioration in the institutions of the Empire began,

particularly that of the emperor himself. It was thus that after the poor administrations

of the Severan Dynasty, particularly that of Elagabalus, and after the assassination of the

last of them, Alexander Severus, the Empire fell into a state of ungovernability that

It is called the Crisis or Anarchy of the 3rd century. Between 238–285 there were 19 emperors.

none of whom died a natural death, and who were unable to take the

government bonds and act in coordination with the Senate, which is why they ended up

by plunging Rome into a true institutional crisis.

During this same period, the so-called 'peaceful invasion' began, in which several

barbarian tribes settled, at first, on the borders of the empire due to the lack of

discipline from the army, in addition to the ungovernability emanating from power

central, unable to act against this situation.

Alongside this political crisis, a deep economic crisis developed.

characterized by high inflation and a decline in agriculture, industry, the

commerce, the urban environment, and the slave system. The periods when attempts were made

restore order, such as the Dominance of the 4th century, introduced political changes
47
and very important economic aspects in the administration and government of the Empire, such as

the establishment first of the tetrarchy, although the consequent territorial division

of the Empire in the Western Roman Empire, whose decline is studied here, and the

Eastern Roman Empire, which would survive another 1000 years. However, the most notable fact

relevant to this period of instability were the so-called barbarian invasions, in

those from the northern barbarians who would gradually infiltrate through the limes

of the Empire, in a succession of border wars and invasions that would ultimately end up

destroy the Empire: the imperial borders, deprived of the vigilance of yesteryear, are

they turned into authentic doors through which the tribes penetrated impunely

barbarians. The boldest were the Germanic peoples, especially the Franks and

the Goths, who charged against the empire, crossing the border of the rivers Rhine and

Danube, until causing its collapse.

Western tradition has regarded that the Roman Empire disappeared as an entity.

politics on September 4 of the year 476, when Romulus Augustulus, the last emperor

of the Western Roman Empire, was deposed by the barbarian Odoacer. Rome had already

was previously sacked by Alaric in 410, and there was practically nothing left of the

original Roman order; Romulus Augustulus barely ruled over all the

territories that had belonged to the Western Empire.

Traditionally, the year 476 is placed as the date that definitively marks the

fall of the Roman Empire and the beginning of the Middle Ages, especially because from that point on

by that date there was not even anyone who claimed to be the emperor of the West, and because,

With Rome itself having fallen, it was paradoxical that the Roman Empire could continue.

existing. However, many historians question this date, noting that

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that theEastern Roman Empiresurvived until the fall ofConstantinoplethe29 of

May 1453, a date that is also used as the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the

Renaissance.

6. Influence on later civilizations

The Romans could not match the Greeks in terms of intellectual culture and

artistic, but, although they did not reach the level of the powerful creative genius of these,

their greatest achievement was that they collected, assimilated, enriched, and spread to the West the

Hellenic heritage along with other cultures, such as that of the East.

Thus, the Greco-Roman cultural tradition was never completely lost; it is in it.

inspired by the Renaissance period. For us, it is very important to know the

Roman civilization since our Christian-Western culture has part of its roots

in Greco-Roman civilization.

The most influential legacies of the Roman Empire are:

Idioma

Rome extended its military dominance throughout the Mediterranean basin,

expanding with it their customs, their beliefs and their language, Latin.

This language spread throughout the entire Mediterranean basin through

of soldiers, merchants, officials, and slaves who traversed the Roman domains.

In various regions, such as the then-called province of Hispania, Spain, Latin

49
it was enriched and transformed by contact with native languages, thus laying the

roots of what would soon be a new language: Spanish.

Latin is the origin of other important languages: French, Italian, Dalmatian, etc. All

they come from the same Roman root, which is why they are called Romance languages.

Rights

The Roman society also inherited the idea that all members of a

The community has certain rights. These rights are expressed through laws. The

The first compilation of laws made in Rome was called "the law of the twelve tables."

because it was inscribed on twelve tablets, placed publicly so that everyone

citizens could know them.

Medical knowledge

Just like law, the Romans left us scientific knowledge such as the

medicine. The doctor of Greek origin, but who lived among the Romans around the 2nd century,

Galeno wrote several medical treatises and laid the foundations of medical knowledge.

in the face of diseases. Unlike previous doctors, who attributed the

disease to superstitions and religious beliefs, Galen studied the symptoms of

sick to determine which organ was damaged and deduce the cause of it

disease and its possible remedy.

Surgical techniques in medicine

Most of the knowledge in medicine was acquired by the Romans from

the Greeks, y they created

you own school doctor en Rome.
50
The best doctors were those of the Roman army, they were called 'medicus', while

that the army's specialized hospitals were called 'valetudinarium'. The

"doctors" used advanced surgical techniques when treating soldiers' wounds, and

they were trained to remove infected organs and amputate limbs.

Calendar

Julius Caesar reformed the lunar calendar to one based on the sun, derived from the

calendario egipcio, el cual pasó a llamarse calendario Juliano. Siglos después el Papa

Gregorio XIII le hizo algunas modificaciones y es el mismo que ocupamos hasta hoy. El

The year is set at 365.25 days, divided into twelve months of 30 or 31 days with the exception of

February, which has only 28 days. The extra day is counted every 4 years.

years by adding a supplementary day in February, called bis sextus

the day before the Kalends of March (the second sixth day before the Kalends of March), of

where the term 'leap year' was taken from. It also distinguished between ominous days.

(holidays) and auspicious days (working days). The Church adopts the Julian Calendar, numbering

the years starting from the birth of Christ.

Architecture

Roman architecture is characterized by being grand and monumental, the technique

architectural elements were derived from Greece and Etruria, making extensive use of marble. The

Roman works spread throughout all the provinces of the empire. Currently, only

they have two sources about Roman architecture which are the ruins that remain standing and

a treatise by the architect Vitruvius, however one can learn a lot from the art and from

Roman architecture. This treatise has been known since the Middle Ages, but it was not

51
used as a reference work by architects until 1414, afterwards there was

new editions and the last one was in 1909.

Engineering

Another important source of knowledge that the Romans bequeathed was the study of

physics, applied to engineering. They were able to build large ducts of

water through valleys and mountains: the aqueducts. They also built baths of

hot water in their cities, where they had fountains and roads that

they communicated with almost all the territory they dominated. The application of principles

physicists, both for hydraulics and urban architecture, reached their peak

esplendor hacia el siglo I a.C. durante el gobierno del emperador Augusto.

The cement

The Romans were very good builders, they were the ones who invented the

cemento. El uso del cemento les permitió construir edificios muy grandes, construcción

that only the Egyptians had been able to do.

The arches

Within architecture, the Romans integrated 'arches' as a new element.

to obtain even larger buildings. To make the arches, the Romans used the

wood, and they built them just like we do now. The wood was bent into the shape of

arch to then place the bricks on it and they were glued with cement. When it dried, it

the bricks were solidified on the arches and when the wood was removed, the arch remained. It

they could build one arch over another, but they had to first make a row of arches

to place those who followed him. In this way, taller buildings could be made.
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The aqueducts

An element that played a very important role in Roman culture was water, from

its use in the various cultural fields of the Roman Empire era,

influencing the health of many conquered peoples.

Aqueducts were a Roman invention, they were long channels made of stones that

They allowed the movement of water from one place to another. The water supply was necessary for

the drains and public bathrooms in cities and towns. Water was also used

for the propulsion of hydraulic wheels that moved chains and powered the

machinery.

Los romanos aprovecharon los manantiales de aguas térmicas para diversas terapias,

because it was a culture that also focused on medicine, this made them good

doctors for the time they lived.

The water distribution systems in the Roman Empire belong to a time that

from 300 BC to the 17th century. Many of the aqueducts built

to transport water they were truly advanced. The Romans were masters

in the art of construction and management, they placed such importance on water that

they were able to build aqueducts so large that they brought water to a city of

one million inhabitants, from a distance of up to 90 km.

But the most important thing was that their engineers were ready to select the

water. They separated the high-quality water, used for drinking and cooking, from the water that

53
it would be used for watering or cleaning. Curiously, nowadays, in most of the world

water is not yet separated according to its quality, so that the one used for

the water used to flush the toilet is the same as that used for drinking.

Religion

The Christian religion was established and consolidated during the time of the Roman Empire,

emerging in one of the most peripheral and inhospitable provinces of it. The emperor

Constantine personally converted to the Christian faith. The Empire enjoyed the spirit

tolerante de esta religión, su filosofía de vida, el respeto por el prójimo, sus ideas de

brotherhood, charity and all the inherent moral load, over time and in a way

They gradually incorporated into the form of 'being Roman'. Christianity is organized.

first in independent churches, united by the feeling of brotherhood, then, they

definitively inserted into the Roman world in the 4th century A.D., and thus, finally generated

a Catholic Church, that is, universal and Roman.

54
 Conclusion

After conducting research on Roman civilization and its

influence we conclude that Roman society was one of the most civilizations

imposing in the ancient world and, in it, great advances for life were made

human posterior.

One of them was the laws that were decreed in favor of the Roman citizen. Example

it was the right to vote for every citizen, which has been maintained until our time.

days. Also, anyone could study and educate themselves with knowledge

more basic.

The great advances that endure to this day were not only made in the past.

raised, but in many aspects such as architecture, since they not only designed

houses in optimal conditions. In addition to that, they built the Coliseum, the amphitheater and

many other structures that have managed to survive to our time, inspiring

thousands of people.

55
These are just some of the great achievements of the Roman Empire that it was able to contribute.

each emperor, consul, or king in their time.

Annexes

Romulus and Remus

56
 Map of the Roman Empire

Julius Caesar

August

57
Constantine I the Great

The Roman Senate

Roman Legion

58
 Roman arches

Roman Coliseum

Index

I. Dedication.........................................................2

II. Agradecimiento………………………………………………………………............3

III. Introduction...........................................................4

[Link] of Rome..........................................................7

2. Monarchical Rome……………………………………………………………...........9

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 2.1Culture…………………………………………………………………………........10

2.2 Economy ................................................................. 15

2.3Policy.................................................................16

3. The Republican Rome.................................................................20

III.1 Culture

.21

III.2 Economy

.24

III.3 Politics

24

4. The Roman Empire..........................................................................................28

4.1 Culture.............................................................................................................29

4.2 Economy........................................................................................................31

4.3 Policy

5. Decadence and Fall of the Empire.......................................................................46

6. Influence on later civilizations......................................................49

IV. Conclusion

V. Anexos.............................................................................................................56

VI. Índice...............................................................................................................59

VII. Glossary............................................................................................................61

VIII. Bibliography.......................................................................................................63
60
 Glossary

Agnate: It refers to a relative by blood in relation to another, when both

they descend from a common trunk from man to man.

Anarchy: Absence of public power.

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Augur: Official, who in ancient Rome practiced divination officially through the

song, the flight and the way of eating of the birds and by other signs.

Bellicose: Aggressive.

SurnameNickname used in ancient Rome to emphasize physical traits or

actions of a person, which extended to their family or related people.

Sift: To select rigorously.

Curias: One of the divisions of families of the ancient Roman people.

Demographic: Statistical study of a human community, related to a

determined moment or its evolution.

Despotic: characteristic of it.

Entangle several people with each other, sowing discord and dissent.

To erect: To found, to establish or to raise.

Empire:Political organization of the State ruled by an emperor

Monarchy: A form of government in which the supreme power corresponds with character

lifetime to a prince, generally appointed according to hereditary order and sometimes by

election.

To adopt a child

PontiffsPriestly magistrate who presided over the rites and religious ceremonies in the

ancient Rome.

Republic: Organization of the State whose highest authority is elected by the

ciudadanos o por el Parlamento para un período determinado.

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 Bibliografía

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

Historia de Roma – Indro Montanelli – Junio 2006

[Link]

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[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

Encarta 2009 Premium Library DVD

My first Encarta 2009

Encarta Dictionary

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

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