Technological University

From Nuevo Laredo

Knowing how to do it with responsibility
IMPLEMENTATION OF SYSTEM
QUALITY IN THE MACHINING AREA

THESIS (ENG.)
THAT TO OBTAIN THE TITLE OF

Industrial Maintenance Engineer

PRESENTS:
JESUS DELGADO OCAÑA

Generation 2019 - 2023

New Laredo Tamaulipas April 2023

Technological University
From Nuevo Laredo
Knowing how to do it with responsibility
 MAINTENANCE ENGINEER
INDUSTRIAL
IMPLEMENTATION OF SYSTEM
QUALITY IN THE MACHINING AREA
PROJECT
WHAT SUSTAINS

JESUS DELGADO OCAÑA

TO OBTAIN THE DEGREE OF
INDUSTRIAL MAINTENANCE ENGINEER
RECTOR
ING. JOSE ANTONIO TOVAR LARA.
ACADEMIC DIRECTOR
Mr. Martín Cruz Arellano.
Academic Advisor
ING. AMABELY HERRERA AGUIRRE.
Business Advisor
CARLOS ENRIQUE ESPINOZA CAMARENA.

New Laredo Tamaulipas April 2023

Here is the thesis release sheet for printing.
 Dedication
I thank my parents for all the effort they have made for me to succeed.
go ahead and thrive to have a better life, for being those people who support me
your unconditional support despite all the obstacles we face every day
with day and for all the advice that has been given to me throughout my life.
My father, who is my great example to follow, because as time goes by
Over time, I realize all the effort he/she makes for my family.
move forward, for being a great man who does not give up despite everything
the adversities he has faced, for being that man who has taught me to
not to fall into bad ways and to do everything honestly, thank you for being my father.

My mother, who is another great example for me to follow, has shown me that
even though you are going through difficult times, you must move forward and
never stray from your path, for being that woman who has given me everything and that
above all it has shown me that its love cannot be compared to any other,
thank you for being my mother.

There are not enough words to describe everything I feel for you all and that
I am eternally grateful to you, thank you very much for everything, for
help me get to where I am, thanks to you I have accomplished everything
What I have until now.

Acknowledgments
 At the Technological University of Nuevo Laredo for providing me with the
opportunity to study at your institution, for providing me with a great academic education
and for the high level of competitiveness and recognition at the national level to which
they have managed to arrive.

My deepest gratitude to all the teachers who inspired me

they taught classes that helped me prepare professionally, for that
great dedication and enthusiasm with which they teach their classes, demonstrating that
Your effort is so that we as students are best prepared.
For work, I am pleased to have been your student.
To the company Multiservicios y Maquinados Camarena for giving me the
opportunity to present my thesis project, for being the company that has
taught countless things.
Finally, I thank my colleagues for being those people with whom
that I shared many anecdotes, because of the things I have learned thanks to
them, for being those people who always cheered you up on a bad day and for
all the advice and trust you gave me, thank you.
 Index
Chapter I. Introduction.......................................................................................1
1.1.- Background..............................................................................................1
1.2.- Objetivo.......................................................................................................1
1.3-. Justification.................................................................................................1
1.4.- Marco contextual.........................................................................................1
Chapter II. Theoretical Framework...................................................................................2
2.1.- Conceptual Framework
2.2.- Historical Framework
2.3.- Reference Framework.................................................................3
Chapter III. Statement of the Problem............................................................4
3.1.- Problem
3.2.- Type of Research..................................................................................4
3.3.- Hypothesis
3.4.- Variables.5
Chapter IV. Methodology......................................................................................5
4.1.- Participants...............................................................................................5
4.1.1.- Population.................................................................................................5
4.1.2.- Sample....................................................................................................5
4.2.- Instruments...............................................................................................6
4.3.- Procedure.............................................................................................6
Chapter V. Results........................................................................................7
5.1.- Results..................................................................................................7
5.2.- Discussion ........................................................................................... 7
5.3.- Conclusions.................................................................7
5.4.- Sugerencias................................................................................................8
Documentary sources........................................................................................9
Annexes. 9
 Summary
Micro enterprises in industrial machining mostly engage in
to the manufacturing and reconstruction of all types of parts, however not all
they have a quality guarantee since most of the micro enterprises
they do not focus on that because they do not have business management, many
they do not remain in the market for a long time mainly
due to lack of knowledge, meaning they do not know how to proceed with the
quality methods which is what most clients are looking for.
The only way to compete in the market is through the use of
quality tools with statistical bases, since these tools are
those that are being a major factor in technological innovation.
Quality should be the foundation of all companies, for the reason that
One must have good training and offer professional services to everyone.
the clients.
With the implementation of quality tools, we will be able to
detecting errors when doing any work facilitates the start of the work and
with the administrative tools we will have a great management of the
organization.
Add a brief summary of the content for each chapter.

Keywords.
 Abstract
The industrial machining micro-enterprises are mostly dedicated to the
manufacture and reconstruction of all kinds of parts, however not all of them
have a quality guarantee since most of the micro-enterprises do not focus on
that because they do not have a business management, many of them do not
remain in the market for a long time, mainly due to lack of knowledge, that is,
They do not know how to follow quality methods, which is what most clients seek.
The only way to compete within the market is through the use of quality tools.
with statistical bases, since these tools are the ones that are being a great factor
in technological innovation. Quality must be the foundation of all companies, due
to the fact that they must have good training and offer professional services to
all clients. With the implementation of quality tools we will be able to detect
errors when carrying out any work, it facilitates the start of the work and with the
With administrative tools, we will have great management of the organization.

Key words.
 Introduction

This project involves the implementation of a quality control analysis.

for the micro enterprise Multiservicios y Maquinados Camarena, since this
the company is facing a big problem and it is due to the large production of
pieces that do not meet quality parameters, the justification of the work
viene principalmente de temas con los que estuve familiarizado en empleos
previous ones where their priority is product quality, that is why this type
The research is mainly aimed at the industrial machining sector.
this will be based on quality statistical tools where
it will make the structural changes that the company needs.

In a quality control analysis system, it encompasses the control of all

stages, for this it is necessary to implement statistical tools
to facilitate understanding and learning of it, creating quality circles
that help staff develop new skills when carrying out their
jobs making better decisions.

Microenterprises have been progressing slowly over time.

not everyone thinks about the future of the market, that's why most of the
Microenterprises exit the market quickly due to not constantly innovating.

This present study reveals that statistical tools facilitate the

error detection, reduction of work time, process improvement and the
cost reduction.

9
 Chapter 1. Fundamentals of Research
1.1.-Statement of the Problem

The visual inspection at the end of machining is essential in a workshop.

industrial machining, where several factors intervene in this study.
Currently, a visual inspection has not been performed at the end of a process.
As a consequence, the company is not meeting the customer's needs.
efficient manner, as the required specifications are not met in the
drawing.

The lack of quality control directly affects the company, not only
not for the costs of rework but for the opportunities that are being missed
to pass.

1.2.- Description of the problem.

The ways to compare a service or product must be taken into account to

that these are of good quality, meeting all the specifications
requests by the customer.

For this, the microenterprise Multiservicios y Maquinados Camarena requires that

all personnel must be disciplined, so that from the beginning the company can them
provide training and as their stay within the
empresa estén recibiendo retroalimentaciones para que puedan cumplir con un
good quality work. The qualities of each staff member will be utilized, thus
as a good acquisition of raw material that allows us to overcome and
to maintain a good position within the industrial machining market.

To achieve this proposal, a visual inspection will be implemented at the end of each
process as a base of simple operations, which will allow us to detect
errors more easily and in a way that changes will need to be made within
the organization in administration and production departments.

10
 1.3.- Objective.
Propose a quality system through a visual inspection based on
inspect the part each time a process is completed that allows for reduction of
errors made at work.

Train the staff.

Register that the work meets the specifications required by the
client.
Implementation of the process.

1.4.- Research questions.

1. What quality tool is going to be implemented?
2. How does the implementation of this quality tool impact?
3. What will be determined through visual inspection?
4. How will the visual inspection be carried out?
5. Is it easy to train staff to conduct a visual inspection?
6. What percentage of reduction will be achieved?
7. What problems do microenterprises regularly face?
8. How does not having a quality system implemented affect?

1.5.- Hypothesis.
Al implementar la inspección visual al terminar un trabajo nos permitirá detectar
defects in the produced parts, visual inspection is a quick way,
economic and non-intensive in assessing quality allowing for the reduction of errors
up to 20%.

1.6.- Identification of the Variables.

Independents: By implementing visual inspection at the end of a job we
will allow detecting defects in the produced parts
Dependents: visual inspection is a quick, cost-effective, and non-intensive method.
to evaluate quality allowing for a reduction of errors by up to 20%.

11
 1.7-. Justification of the research.
1. Convenience

This research is useful for microenterprises in industrial machining as it

most of them have organizational problems and within them there is no
a quality system as such, that is why many of them do not stay
a long period in the market due to the poor quality of its services, is
that's why when implementing a visual inspection within the microenterprise
Camarena Multiservices and Machining will quickly improve to reduce
errors since upon finishing a job, it can be detected quickly and
economic a defect.

2. Social relevance

The microenterprises in industrial machining that implement this tool

they will benefit significantly as it allows for savings
due to the fact that defects are found quickly and efficiently, it also has
a high flexibility because it allows adaptation to different products without
complications and also allows for a cleaner and safer inspection since the
The time dedicated to the inspection is a short period.

3. Practical implications

By implementing visual inspection, the problem of not being able to find the
defects that cause failure to meet the specifications required by the
client, as visual inspection is very practical and will make the process
more complex. Thanks to this, it ensures the guarantee that the products are
of quality complying with all specifications.

4. Theoretical value

With the implementation of visual inspection, the administrative staff will

acquire new knowledge as they will be receiving training to
the workers fulfill their job appropriately and satisfactorily by taking better
decisions, thanks to the implementation the staff of the microenterprise has the
opportunity to take advantage of acquiring new knowledge and
results for which they leave them with positive results.

With this implementation, we seek to find new results since the

Visual inspection has many advantages in industrial machining,

12
Similarly, the visual inspection, being very flexible, offers new ideas that may
change the inspection process to make it more versatile in a way that helps to
to conduct an inspection more in line with the process.

5. Methodological utility

Visual inspection helps us collect and analyze data due to the

documentation of visual observations thanks to the measurement tools,
With this, it is possible to improve the process thanks to the correction of defects.
during the process, this reduces work and verification times
having an increase in production efficiency.

With visual inspection, one can experience the way it is applied since
Inspection steps can be removed or added to improve the process of
inspection.

1.8. - Contextual framework.

The present research was conducted in Nuevo Laredo, Tamaulipas, in the
Camarena Multi-Services and Machining Company, Quality Department.
In a period of time from January 3 to April 30, 2023.

13
Chapter 2. Theoretical Framework

14
 2.1.- Conceptual Framework.
Include all the theories that support the study topic, this section is
extensive and must contain all the necessary information to understand the
research topic, (20-30 pages)

What are non-destructive tests?

Non-Destructive Testing is a fundamental and essential tool for

the quality control of engineering materials, manufacturing processes,
reliability of products in service, and maintenance of systems, whose
fault premature it can be costly or disastrous. Just like most of
complex procedures cannot be defined in a few words so
are defined as: "The use of physical or chemical properties of materials,
for the indirect evaluation of materials without damaging their future usefulness.

They are identified by the initials PND, and are considered synonymous with: Non-trials
destructive (END), non-destructive inspections and non-destructive tests.

Historical Background

The original and oldest method of non-destructive testing is inspection.

visual, an extension of this test are the penetrant liquids, the beginning of the
which is considered with the application of the technique of 'oil and talc'. A
continuation, it is provided a list of events historical
related with discoveries and applications of non-destructive testing
destructive.

1868 First attempt to work with magnetic fields

1879 Hughes establishes a test field
1879 Hughes studies Eddy Currents
1895 Roentgen studies the cathode ray tube
1895 Roentgen discovers X-rays
1896 Becquerel discovers 'Gamma' rays.
1900 Start of penetrant liquids in railways
1911 ASTM establishes the MT technique committee
1928 Industrial use of magnetic fields
1930 Theodore Zuschlag patented the Eddy Currents
1931 First Eddy current industrial system installed
15
 1941 Fluorescent liquids appear
1945 Dr. Floy Firestone works with ultrasound
1947 Dr. Elmer Sperry applies UT in the industry

Material failure

We must clarify the difference between products, according to their applications.

Some products are used solely as decorative items, or have requirements
of resistance to efforts so low that they are normally overdesigned. These
materials may require inspection only to ensure that they are maintained
its manufacturing quality, such as color and finish.

The products or materials that need careful testing and evaluation are
those used for applications in which they must support loads,
temperature, etc. Under these conditions, the failure may involve situations
how to take out of operation and dispose of the product, expensive repairs, damage
other products and the loss of life.

It can be defined as 'Failure': 'the fact that an item of interest cannot be

used.

Although a manufactured article is a product, the material of that product can

to fail, therefore, the types of material failure and their causes are of great interest.
There are two general types of failure:

The fracture or separation into two or more parts, which is easy to recognize, and

The permanent deformation or change in shape and/or position, which is less easy
to recognize.

It is of great importance to know the type of failure that may be expected, in order to know:

What is the inspection carried out for?

What inspection method should be used?
How will it be inspected?, and
How can the risk of failure be reduced?
If we expect to prevent failure through the use of non-destructive testing, these
they must be selected, applied, and interpreted with care and based on
the valid knowledge of the failure mechanisms and their causes.

16
The knowledge of materials and their properties is very important for
any person involved with non-destructive testing.

The purpose of the design and application of tests should be effective control of
the materials and products, in order to provide a service without any issues arising
premature failure or damage.

The source of the failure may be:

A discontinuity,
A chemically incorrect material, or
A material treated in such a way that its properties are not suitable.
The detection of discontinuities is usually considered as the aspect
most important for the application of non-destructive testing; the majority of
the tests are designed to allow the detection of some type of
interior or exterior discontinuity, or the measurement of some characteristics, of a
single material or groups of materials.

Discontinuity

Any local interruption or variation of continuity or configuration

normal physics of a material.

Discontinuity can be considered as: any change in geometry, gaps,

cracks, composition, structure or properties. Some discontinuities,
as boreholes or surface shapes are considered intentional in
the design and do not require to be inspected. Other discontinuities are
inherent in the material, due to its chemical composition or its structure, these
discontinuities can vary widely in size, distribution, and intensity,
depending on the material, the heat treatment, the manufacturing process and the
the environment to which the materials are exposed, in this case, are the
discontinuities that need to be detected.

In general, there are two classifications of discontinuities:

By its shape

Volumetric. Described because they have three dimensions or volume.

17
Planar. Described as they are thin in one dimension and large in the others.
two dimensions.

Due to its location

Superficial. Described because they are exposed at the surface.

Internals. Described because they do not intercept the surface.

Other classifications of discontinuities:

Relevant. They are those that by some of their characteristics (dimensions,

Forms, etc. must be interpreted, evaluated, and reported.

Not relevant. They are those that, due to some of their characteristics, are interpreted,
but they are not evaluated, and they should be recorded.

Linear. They are those with a length greater than three times their width.

Round. They are those with an elliptical or circular shape that have a length equal or
less than three times its width.

Defect

It is a discontinuity that exceeds the established acceptance criteria, or

what could cause the material or equipment to fail when it is put into service or
during its operation.

Indication

It is the answer obtained by applying some testing method.

destructive, which requires being interpreted to determine its meaning.

They are classified into three types:

False indications: They occur due to an incorrect application of the test.

Irrelevant indications: Produced by the finished superficial o

the material configuration.

18
True indications: Produced by discontinuities.
When applying a non-destructive test, technicians observe indications, for
that must determine which are produced by discontinuities.

Classification of Non-Destructive Testing

The classification of non-destructive testing is based on the position where

the discontinuities that can be detected are located, so they are classified
en:
Non-Destructive Surface Testing.
Non-Destructive Volumetric Testing.
Non-destructive leak testing.

Non-Destructive Surface Testing

These provide information about the surface hygiene of the materials.

inspected. The surface NDT methods are:

VT - Visual Inspection
PT - Penetrating Liquids
MT - Magnetic Particles
ET - Electromagnetism

In the case of using VT and PT, it has the scope of detecting only
surface discontinuities (open to the surface); and in the case of MT and ET
both superficial and subsuperficial discontinuities are detected, which are
those below the surface, but very close to it.

Non-Destructive Volumetric Testing

These provide information about the internal health of the materials.

inspected. The methods of volumetric NDT are:

RT - Industrial X-ray
UT - Industrial Ultrasound
AET - Acoustic Emission

These NDT methods allow the detection of internal and subsurface discontinuities.
as well as under certain conditions, the detection of surface discontinuities.

19
Non-destructive tests of tightness

They provide information on the extent to which fluids can be contained in

containers, without escaping into the atmosphere or going out of control. The
methods of PND of hermeticity are:

Leak Tests
Pressure Change Tests. (Pneumatic or hydrostatic)
Bubble Tests
Tests by Mass Spectrometer
Leak Tests with Halogen Tracers

Reasons for the use of PND.

Below, a series of reasons for the use of Non-Tests is mentioned.

Destructive:

The identification or separation of materials.

The identification of material properties and the associated reliability
with its existence.
Uniformity in production.
Saving on production costs.
To eliminate defective raw materials.
To make improvements in the production systems.
Seeking to ensure the quality in the operation of systems in service,
in plants or various types of installations.
Seeking to prevent premature failure of materials during their service.
As diagnostic tools after the failure has occurred,
to determine the reasons for this.

Factors for the selection of the PND.

It is necessary to consider a series of basic factors for the selection y

application of the PND.

The types of discontinuities to detect

The size, orientation, and location of the discontinuities to be detected
The size and shape of the object to be inspected

20
The characteristics of the material that will be inspected

Qualification and certification of PND personnel.

Before applying the Tests no Destructive actions are required to be fulfilled.

certain requirements, which are mentioned below:

The qualification of the inspection method used.

The PNDs must be carried out in accordance with written procedures.
inspection, which should be qualified beforehand.

The qualification of the personnel conducting the inspection.

It is considered that the success of any Non-Destructive Testing is affected
mainly by the personnel who performs, interprets and/or evaluates the results of
the inspection. For this reason, the technicians who carry out the PND must be
qualified and certified.

The administration of the qualification process and personnel to ensure

consistent results.

Currently, there are two programs for qualification and certification.

of the personnel conducting PND, accepted on an international scale besides
one national. These programs are:

The Recommended Practice SNT-TC-1A, published by A.S.N.T.,

The ISO-9712 standard, published by ISO, and
The Mexican Standard NOM-B-482.

SNT-TC-1A

Es una Práctica Recomendada que proporciona los lineamientos para el programa

of qualification and certification of non-destructive testing personnel of
a company. It is published by the ASNT.

ASNT

American Society For Nondestructive Testing

Non-Destructive.

ISO 9712
21
It is an International Standard that establishes a system for qualification and
certification, by a national central agency with international recognition,
of the personnel who perform non-destructive testing in the industry.

ISO
International Organization for Standardization
Normalization).

Rating

It is the documented compliance with requirements of: education, training,

experience and exams (theoretical, practical, and physical); established in a
written program. This program can be an internal procedure of the
company, according to SNT-TC-1A, or a national standard, according to ISO-
9712.

There are three basic levels of rating, which can be subdivided.

by the company or the country, for situations where levels are needed
additional for specific tasks and responsibilities.

Qualification Levels Level I

He is the individual qualified to carry out specific calibrations, to carry out
Specific PNDs to conduct specific evaluations for acceptance or
rejection of materials according to written instructions, and to carry out the
record of results. Must receive the necessary instruction or supervision from a
level III or its designated.

Level II

He is the qualified individual to adjust and calibrate the equipment and to interpret and
evaluate the test results with respect to codes, standards and
specifications. He is familiar with the scope and limitations of the method and
you can have the assigned responsibility of training in the place of
work of levels I and apprentices. Is able to prepare written instructions and
organize and report the test results.

Level III

22
He is the individual qualified to be responsible for establishing techniques and
procedures; interpret codes, standards, and specifications to establish the
testing method and technique to be used to meet the requirements; it must have
practical support in materials technology and manufacturing processes and being
familiar with commonly used PND methods; is responsible for
training and level I and II exams for your qualification.

Qualification Requirements Training

It is the structured program to provide theoretical knowledge and
develop practical skills in an individual so that they can perform an activity
defined by inspection.

Practical Experience

It is not possible to certify personnel who do not have practical experience in the application.
from the PND, therefore:

Level I Technician: Must gain experience as an apprentice.

The Level II technician: Must work for a time as level I.
The Level III technician: Must have been an apprentice, level I, and have worked for at least one or
two years as level II.

This experience must be demonstrated with documents, which must be kept.

in files or personal records for verification.

Physical Exams

They aim to demonstrate that the personnel performing the PND are capable of
properly and correctly observe the obtained instructions.

The required exams are:

Distance visual acuity.

Near visual acuity.
Chromatic discrimination.
For the visual acuity exams, the technician must be able to read a
specified type and size of letter at a certain distance; In the case of the
color discrimination test, or color differentiation, must be

23
 able to distinguish and differentiate the colors used in the method in which
will be certified.

According to SNT-TC-1A, the visual acuity exam must be performed.

every year and the chromatic discrimination every three years.

Knowledge assessments

The exams administered for evaluating staff at levels I and II consist of:
a general exam, a specific one, and a practical one. According to SNT-TC-1A,
the minimum passing grade for each exam is 70%, and also, the
The minimum simple average of the grades of the three exams is 80%.

Minimum requirements for grading in VT Level I and II (SNT-TC-1A)

Minimum education of completed high school or equivalent.

Minimum experience of 210 hours or three months in visual inspection.
Minimum theoretical-practical training of 24 hours.
Having passed the three evaluation exams and achieving the average
simple minimum.
Having presented and approved the physical exams.

Certification

The certification is the written testimony of the qualification. The certification of

Personnel of Non-Destructive Testing at all levels is the responsibility of the
company that hires him (according to SNT-TC-1A), or the central agency (
agreement with ISO-9712), and must be based on the satisfactory demonstration of
the qualification requirements.

The document SNT-TC-1A recommends having certification records.

of the staff, which must be kept archived by the company, for a
time specified in the company's written procedure, and should include
the following:

Name of the certified individual.

Certification level and the NDT method.

24
 Education and the experience time of the certified individual.
The establishment indicating satisfactory compliance of
training, in accordance with the requirements of the written practice of
employer.

The results of the vision tests described in paragraph 8.2 for the
current certification period.

Copies of the current exams or evidence of satisfactory compliance with the

exams.

Other adequate evidence of satisfactory qualifications, when such

grades are used for exemption from the specific exam as they
describe in paragraph [Link] or as described in the written practice of
employer.

Composite grade or adequate evidence of grades.

Level III firm that has verified the candidate's qualifications for their
certification.
Certification and/or recertification date, and the assignment date to PND.
Date on which the certification expires.
Signature of the employer's certification authority.

The certification is only valid for a limited time. ISO and ASNT establish a
period of validity of the certification of:

Three years for levels I and II.

Five years for level III.
All PND personnel must be recertified, according to SNT-TC-1A.
with one of the following criteria:
Evidence of satisfactory work continuity in Non-Destructive Testing.
Reexamination.

Description of Visual and Optical Inspection

Typically, Non-Destructive Testing is carried out by applying a medium of

inspection (such as electromagnetic or acoustic) of a material. After the
contact with the inspected material, certain properties of the medium of

25
applied inspection is changed and then used to determine
changes in the characteristics of the inspected material.

For example, differences in density in an X-ray or the generation and

localization of a peak on the trace of an oscilloscope, are means used
to indicate the changes in the inspection medium.

Visual and optical inspection is the one that uses the energy of the visible portion.
of the electromagnetic spectrum. Changes in the properties of the light
after coming into contact with the inspected object, they may be
detected by him human eye or by an inspection system visual. The
detection can be performed or highlighted using mirrors,
amplifiers or magnifiers, borescopes and other accessories or instruments
visuals.

Some visual and optical inspections are based on simple laws of optics.
geometric. Others depend on the complicated properties of light. One
the unique advantage of visual inspection is that it can provide data
more reliable quantitative than any other Non-Destructive Test.

Basic principles
Image formation

The formation of the image of an object takes place in the human eye or another
light-sensitive accessory, most optical instruments are
designed to form images.

In many cases, the way the image is formed and its proportion can
to be determined by geometry and trigonometry, without detailed consideration of
the physics of light rays.

This technique is known as 'geometric optics', which includes the formation

of images through lenses and mirrors. The operation of microscopes,
telescopes and boroscopes can also be partially explained with the
geometric optics. Furthermore, the most common limitations of instruments are
Optics can be evaluated with this technique.

26
Light sources

Light sources for visual inspection typically emit radiation from

continuous or non-continuous spectrum (line). Monochromatic light is produced by the
use of an accessory known as a 'monochromator', which separates or disperses the
wavelengths of the spectrum through prisms or gratings.

Less expensive, and almost equally effective for routine inspections, are the
light sources that emit different lines of the spectrum. These sources include
mercury lamps, sodium lamps, and vapor discharge lamps.

Such light sources can be used in combination with glass, filters of

liquid or gas, or with high-efficiency interference filters, to transmit
only radiation of a specific wavelength.

The 'strobe light' is an accessory that uses synchronized pulses of high light
intensity, allowing the observation of objects moving quickly, with
a periodic movement. A stroboscope can to be used for
direct observation of an apparently still object or for exhibition of
photographs.
Light detection and recording

Una vez que la luz ha interactuado con la pieza inspeccionada (siendo absorbida,
reflected or refracted), the resulting light waves are considered as
the signals of the inspection that can be registered visually or
fotoeléctricamente. Tales señales pueden ser detectadas por medio de celdas
photoelectric, photomultipliers or closed circuit television systems.

On many occasions, electronic image accessories are used for

invisible ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum (X-rays, infrared) o
ultraviolet), but they can also be used to transmit visual data
from hazardous areas or where obstructions are located.

Sometimes, photographic records are made. The photographic plates

processed can to be evaluated visually or photoelectrically. Some
applications have the advantage, due to the ability of photographic film, to
integrate low-energy signals over long periods of time. The film
photographic can be selected to meet specific conditions of the
inspection as sensitivity and speed.

27
Detection by fluorescence

Visual inspection can be based on fluorescence as a means for

quality control of chemical compounds, to identify counterfeit money, for
to track hidden water flows and to detect discontinuities in metals.
it is said that a material is fluorescent when, when exposed to radiation, it produces a
secondary emission of longer wavelength than the primary.

Historical background

Visual inspection was the first non-destructive testing method used.

by man. Nowadays, visual inspection is among the main
inspection procedures to detect and evaluate discontinuities. Since their
origins, a variety of difficult and complex techniques have developed,
in addition to conducting various optical research.

Development of the boroscope

The accessories that are used to observe the interior of objects are
called 'endoscopes', which comes from the Greek words 'to see inside'. In the
Currently, the term "endoscope" refers to medical instruments. The
endoscopes Industrial ones are called 'boroscopes' because originally
they were used in machine openings and gaps such as cannons of
weapons.

In 1806, Philipp Bozzini from Frankfurt announces the invention of his 'Lichtleiter'
(German word for 'guided light'), which was used for medical tracings.
This accessory is considered the first endoscope.

In 1876, the first practical cystoscope was developed to observe the bladder.
human. Two years later, Edison introduces a incandescent light. The
cystoscopes contained simple lenses, which were quickly replaced. In
1900 Reinhold Wappler revolutionizes the optical system and produces the first model.
in the United States. Later, the lateral observation system was introduced,
which was highly useful in medical and industrial applications.

Also, direct and retrospective vision systems were developed for

to be used with the cystoscope. The boroscopes and instruments for Tests no
Destructive ones have the same basic design used in cystoscopes.

28
In 1921, in the United States, the Westinghouse Company entrusted George
Crampton developed an accessory that could be used for observation
discontinuities within the rotor of a steam turbine.

In 1932, the flexible gastroscope is manufactured, originally considered for

observe the inside of the stomach walls. The instrument consisted of
a rigid section and a flexible one. The flexible borescopes for use
industrial have been built stronger, for rough use, for example,
they have flexible steel tubes, instead of rubber, in the outer tube of the
flexible portion.

During World War II, boroscopes were used to

visually inspect anti-aircraft gun barrels, steam turbines
warships, tank cannons, etc. During the Manhattan Project,
Crampton provided a boroscope to inspect from outside the
concrete barriers of the reactor, tubes close to the radioactive pile. For this
the project develops the first optical instrument that uses glass resistant to
radioactivity.

Applications

La inspección visual es el primer paso de cualquier evaluación. En general, las

Non-Destructive Testing establishes how prerequisite to carry out a
visual inspection, usually the first thing we say is 'let me see how'
it is (the appearance).

For many objects, visual inspection is used to determine the quantity.

size, shape or configuration, surface finish, reflectivity (reflection),
color characteristics, fit, functional characteristics, and the presence of
surface discontinuities.

In general, inspections using light energy are primarily used

for two purposes:

The inspection of exposed or accessible surfaces of objects opaque

(including most of the partial assemblies or finished products), and the
inspection of the interior of transparent objects (such as glass, quartz, some
plastics, liquids, and gases).

29
The energy, petrochemical, transportation, and infrastructure industry, where
There are corrosive environments, temperature or where pressure is contained.
visual checks are required.

For example, the energy industry relies considerably on the

transfer, exchange, and accumulation of heat through various states of
water, liquid or gas. First, pipes or tubing and containers are manufactured for
to contain pressure. Afterwards, they are subject to conditions such as fatigue,
corrosion and erosion that can cause failure during its service life.

Therefore, the visual inspection of the raw material, before the

manufacturing, during the manufacturing and for exams programmed
periodically during the life of the product, is considered appropriate.

Also, the manufacturing discontinuities during the welding process,

They are very important. Whether during the material process or during life in
service, discontinuities can be prevented or removed. During the
service, the inspector must distinguish between manufacturing defects, such as
porosity, slag, undermining, etc. and service failures, such as wear, cracks
due to erosion, corrosion, etc.

The petrochemical industry has the same considerations, but with greater
emphasis on the corrosion that causes wear in tanks, containers subjected to
pressure, pipe or tubes.

In the transportation industry, there is a major shift in emphasis, from the

contained pressure and corrosive environments to stress from loads and the
fatigue of the components. While the environments corrosives, such as the
saltpeter, hydraulic fluids, etc. are a concern, the use of aluminum,
manganese, tungsten, etc. accentuate fatigue cracks and wear.

Infrastructure, such as buildings, bridges, tunnels, monorails, etc., are more

focused on the structural integrity of support columns, beams, walls and the
obstruction of ducts in sewers or fluid transfer systems
(conducts or piping).

Applications in the steel industry require failure investigation.

inherent and the losses in dimensions, based on a large volume.
The practical visual inspection looks for general attributes on the surface.

30
But due to the large volumes, optics, lasers, and computers are the
help from the inspector.

Advantages

The main advantages of visual and optical inspection are:

Almost everything can be inspected, to a certain degree,
It can be very low cost,
One can resort to relatively simple equipment,
A minimum of training is required,
Wide range in uses and benefits.

Limitations

The main limitations of visual and optical inspection are:

Only the surface conditions can be evaluated.

An effective source of lighting is required,
Access to the surface that needs to be inspected is necessary.

Vision

We have knowledge of the environment around us especially through

our sense of sight, even when a lot of information reaches us through
the other senses. There are numerous phenomena related to light that
happen around us and that most people, considering them
of common occurrence, does not worry about explaining and interpreting them
debidamente.

Have you ever wondered? What causes the difference in colors in objects?
How is the formation of a rainbow explained? Why with a microscope does it...
Do we observe objects that we cannot see with the naked eye? Why through
telescopes can observe some celestial bodies, despite their
large size we cannot see directly because of to meet situated a
millions of kilometers from us? What is the nature of light and how
Does it spread?

When studying some aspects directly related to light,

Many of these and other questions can be resolved.

31
The physiology of sight

Visual data collection

The human visual process occurs in two steps:

First is the processing of the complete visual field. This is a function

typically automatic of the brain, sometimes called "attention process"
previous

Secondly, it focuses on a specific object within the visual field.

processed.

Some studies conducted indicate that the separation made of items

specifics within the general visual field is the foundation of the process of
identification.

Based on the above, it is considered that several light patterns reaching the
eyes are simplified and encoded as lines, dots, extremes, shadows,
colors, orientations, and positions referenced within the visual field
complete. The first step in the identification process is the comparison of the
visual data with the data previously collected by memory. It has
suggested that this comparison procedure is a psychological cause of the
"Let me see," the feeling of having seen something before.

The accumulated data is processed through a series of systems.

specific. Some of our light sensors receive and respondent
only certain
a stimuli and transmit their data to certain areas
details of the brain. A type of sensor accepts data about lines and
extremes; others only movement or color addresses are processed.
processing of these data distinguishes between different complex views
analyzing its different components.

Differentiation within the visual field

Similar objects are difficult to identify individually. During

the prior attention process, the particular objects that they share
common properties such as length, width, thickness, or orientation are not
different enough to stand out. If the differences between an object and the
32
general fields are marked, then the inspector requires little knowledge
of what must be identified.
However, when the object is similar to the general field, the inspector needs more.
specific details of the object. In addition, the time required to detect
a the characteristic increases linearly with the number of objects
similar within the field.

The differentiation of colors is harder when there are different colors in

objects of similar shape. The recognition of similar geometries tends to
overcoming color differences, even when colors are the object of
interest.

In addition, in a group of different shapes and colors, where there is no shape

dominant, a particular form can be hidden within the variety in the
visual field. However, if the particular shape contains a greater variation in
the color, then it will be very obvious.

Search within the visual field

The differences between carrying out asearch to detect a alone

characteristic and a search to detect sets or combinations
of characteristics may have complications. For example, the inspector may
require more time to verify a manufactured component when
the possible errors are characterized by combinations of properties not
desired, and less time could be taken for visual inspection, if the
manufacturing errors always produce a change in a single property.

Another aspect of a search in the visual field is directed at the absence of

characteristics. It is easier to locate the presence of a characteristic than its
absence.

It has been determined that the ability to distinguish differences in intensity is

more accurate by reducing the intensity within the field.

Applications of visual inspection for metals

Metals are the most common targets of Non-Destructive Testing.
Information related to visual and optical inspection can be easily found.
available for all phases of manufacturing and service processes. The
33
metal processes can be divided into different stages for each phase of
manufacture and use. These are: primary forming processes (solidification),
secondary forming processes, finishing or completion processes, processes of
union and service.

Primary forming processes

All metal parts are initially manufactured through the processes of

solidification or casting. The pouring of molten metal into molds, to produce
useful articles, it is one of the oldest methods for metal forming.

Metals like iron, steel, aluminum, and bronze are melted and poured into
molds, and they are allowed to solidify before being processed later.
With the purpose of producing useful or necessary forms, casting is carried out
using various different techniques. These processes involve a large segment of
the metal industry. The castings produced range from small parts of
precision up to heavy sections of machinery weighing several tons.

Almost any metal can be cast into molds from its liquid state. The
The casting process requires a model or pattern (that has the desired shape) and
a mold made from the model. The mold must be manufactured to withstand the
heat of molten metal, whether it is sand, plaster, ceramics, or metal. Wood is the
most used for the manufacturing of the models, but can also be used
metal and wax. The different casting methods are:

Sand casting
Centrifugal casting
Investment casting (lost wax)
Of permanent molds
By injection (Die casting)
All processes are susceptible to generating discontinuities, so
Castings are visually inspected for defects.
commonly produced during solidification. The location and appearance of
the discontinuities vary with the process.

Visual inspection is also frequently carried out in primary forms of

metals such as ingots, blooms, slabs, and billets. These items are
routinely subjected to spectrographic analysis to determine their
chemical composition and a metallographic analysis to determine the structure of
grain and surface conditions.
34
There are a variety of specifications for cast products, which include
acceptance criteria for visual inspection, published by the Society
American Standards for Testing and Materials (ASTM), the Society of Engineers
Automotive manufacturers (SAE), the military industry of the US and others that include standards
of specific industries.

The inspections of finished cast products usually include the

manual visual inspection (using only mirrors and magnifiers) for
locate cast iron discontinuities, verify the marking and cleanliness. The
surface texture can be determined using profile or contour gauges,
but it is usually inspected by comparison against visual standards.

The use of remote visual inspection or borescopy is common for inspection.

surfaces or internal areas of hollow parts. Occasionally, a requirement arises.
inspection applying a chemical attack to verify the size and direction of the
crystalline structure. Some simple shapes that are produced in large
quantities are inspected using machine vision technology.

Secondary forming processes

Secondary forming processes are based on plastic deformation when

to work metal to produce parts. A "formed" metal is any part of
metal that has been shaped by a force while in a solid state.

Most metals can be worked to shape them either cold

or in hot. The temperature of the metal, while being worked on, will affect
directly the properties of the finished parts.

The 'hot work' is any shaping or processing of metal above its

recrystallization temperature.

Cold work is any shaping or forming of metal below the

recrystallization temperature.

The purpose of hot and cold work is the same for all metals. The
hot-worked metals will be soft and almost stress-free, due to
that the metal will recrystallize after forming and before cooling.

35
Hot worked metal is not as strong as the same material if it is
I would have worked in cold. Cold forming increases strength and hardness.
of metal. The structure of the metal is forced into its shape and cannot
to recrystallize after the forming operation has been completed, as in the
hot work case.

Cold-worked steel will have a uniform and smooth finish. The strength and
dureza que puede ser desarrollada por el formado en frío depende del metal
particularly and the forming method used. Cold working is the only way to
any pure metal and some alloys can be hardened.

Most of the formed products are made from one or more of the
following methods:

Rolled
Forged
Stretched or drawn
Extrusion
Perforated

All parts start as a foundry, when the metal is melted into shape.
a ingot. The next stage is when the ingot is hot rolled to
to form billets. The latter are reduced by rolling or other methods of
shaped, whether cold or hot.

Rolled

It is a process where the metal is passed between two rollers to reduce the metal to
designated thicknesses. With rolling, profiles and shapes can be obtained.
special

Forged

It is done by heating the metal until it is plastic or soft and then pressing it.
the hammer in specific shapes. The forging enabled a metal to retain the flow
of grain, so that it makes it stronger than an equivalent part that has been
cut or machined.

Stretching or drawing

36
It is a method for shaping a piece, pulling it and making it pass through.
from a die or mold, so that the piece takes on the shape of the section
transversal of the die. A series of dies can be used, each one more
smaller than the one that precedes it. The process begins with the hot metal and continues.
cooling during the stretching. In the last die it can be a cold work of
metal. Wires are usually made this way

Extrusion

It is a process where the parts are formed by pushing the metal through a
die or mold. The metal is shaped in a manner similar to that of toothpaste when
is forced through the tube. The metal takes the shape of the cross-section of the
opening. With this process, very complete shapes can be manufactured. Some of
these shapes cannot be manufactured by any other method. Aluminum, copper and
magnesium is often extruded. Long lengths of seamless pipe
(fluxing) are made by extrusion.

Perforated

It is a process in which a hot metal bar is rolled along between

rollers, so that the center opens when it is pushed over a mandrel. The
A mandrel opens the center to a given diameter to form tubing (flux). So
the pipeline is stretched through a

die or mold to give it the desired size and finish.

The formed products are inspected visually and optically for
check length, width, diameter, thickness, flatness, surface finish and for
detect surface discontinuities.

The surface discontinuities and their appearance vary depending on the type of
material and the process. Products with relatively simple shapes are easy
to inspect with high-speed automated inspection systems,
using various light sources, CCD cameras, and signal processing.

Finishing or finalization processes

The finishing processes include machining and treatment operations.

thermal.

37
Most machining operations involve the removal of metal by
mechanical means in order to achieve a desired configuration. The
Machining operations include milling, turning, drilling, sawing,
sanded and polished.

Most of the features produced during machining processes

are dimensionally inspected, including the verification of the finish
superficial. Computer-controlled machines sometimes have
automatic testers that allow them to inspect their own dimensions
work.

The surface roughness can be inspected manually using a

visual comparison caliper or profile or contour gauge or, in some
cases, through automatic systems using optical techniques.

The heat-treated parts are inspected dimensionally for

determine if distortion occurs, in addition to being visually inspected
to check for discoloration and contamination. It is common to check the
effectiveness of thermal treatment with a hardness test.

Documentation of the visual inspection

Drawings

Drawings or sketches were the first method of documentation for the

visual inspection and they are still being used. Only one is required.
pen or pencil and a sheet of paper, but the lack of recording equipment makes it that the
communication of the results depends completely on the skill of the
inspector to include the details in the drawing.

If drawing is preferred as a method of documentation, establish some plan or

The procedure for its preparation will help to achieve a uniform level in the
information. The drawings prepared earlier, of the object that will be
inspected, they are invaluable. Depending on the complexity of the object.
inspected and the required details, could be projections in two
dimensions (orthographic) or in three dimensions (pictorial). A header can
identify the item by serial number, part number, location, etc.
Instructions describing the monitoring requirements can be included.
necessary. A scale and the positions of the features may be appropriate.

38
more important. For large objects, it can be part of the drawing a matrix of
coordinates.

When any characteristic about a drawing is reported, whether it is

discontinuities or defects, the location of the anomaly must be clearly
described so that the area of interest can be located. It is usually located
a feature of the piece that can be easily identified and is recorded
distance from that feature to the anomaly, should also be
including the greater and lesser dimensions or a description of the indication.
All drawings are included as part of an inspection report and should
be signed by the inspector and include the date.

Photography

Photography is a common way to document the results of the

inspections. In all types of photography, a tape is commonly included
measuring tape, ruler, or some accessory for sizing, to have a reference
dimensional in the photographic image.

The most common cameras are 35 mm SLR (single lens reflex) systems.
instant film systems, digital cameras, and video cameras.

35 mm SLR systems

The modern 35 mm SLR camera is a sophisticated and flexible photographic system.

that is relatively easy to use and capable of providing high results
quality, a disadvantage is the delay in observing the image due to the time of
processed. One advantage includes the high degree of automation available, the great
variety of lenses, the lighting equipment, and the available variety of types of
movie.

The cameras measure the exposure directly outside the plane of the image
providing accurate and simple presentations. Furthermore, they coordinate
automatically flash exposures.

In some applications, it is required that the photography be taken with large

amplification amounts, because it is used in the proximity of the object. In a
A camera reducing the aperture of a lens decreases the amount of light transmitted.
but the depth of field increases. The depth of field can be
39
defined as the total definition of focus in a photograph. When one tries to
to photograph an object, only a single plane passes through the object
focused, which corresponds to the main focus plane. When working
with high magnifications, this effect is very significant. In a 35mm camera
mm, diaphragm lenses are used to have control over the aperture
from the main plane of focus or depth of field.

Light sources for photography deserve special considerations. Obtaining the

correct exposure in units with a common directional flash is simple, but the
the direction and intensity of light may require careful planning to
illuminate the area of interest with high intensity, light diffusers and reflectors
they can help reduce unwanted glare and reflections. For
For distances very close to the camera, it is recommended to use a ring flash.
special, which is mounted at the end of the camera lens.

The size of the negative directly affects the quality of any amplification.
photographic. The larger the size of the negative, the better quality it will have.
any amplification.

Selecting the film speed is another important decision. Several factors

influence this decision, among which the amount of light can be mentioned
available about the object that will be photographed and how many prints there will be
obtained from the negative of the film. High-speed films require
Less light produces grainy prints, this condition increases
with the increase in the size of the print.

Slow films are used when very fine details need to be obtained.
The condition for using a slow film is that it requires more light.
object to be photographed.

There are two systems to identify film speed, in America.

used the ASA number, and in Europe the DIN number.
Most boroscopes, metallurgical microscopes, and other equipment
inspection includes adapters so that 35 mm cameras can be
adjusted, in these circumstances an automatic camera simplifies the calculations
exhibition.

Instant film systems

40
Instant camera and film systems, similar to those manufactured by
Polaroid produces positive images in a relatively short period of time.
time. The agents for development and fixation are found as part of the
packaging of the film and produce an image with reasonable quality for
to be observed in about a minute. Instant films are found
available in black and white and come in a variety of speeds.

View cameras (landscape)

View cameras are larger and more fragile than 35 mm cameras.

The variety of lenses and other accessories available is limited. Because a
View camera is focused by adjusting the length of the bellows that are present.
between the lens plane and the film, they are capable of focusing extremely
search.

Normally, the plane of the lens and the film can be altered, allowing
focus the camera angle to be adjusted and provide depth of
effective field.

Digital cameras

Digital cameras, similar in size and features to 35mm cameras

they have been available since 1995. They use a digital recording medium such as
a computer disk instead of a movie. The cameras currently
available resolution of the obtained images is lost, but the quality is improved
quality. Digital images can be easily imported by software
word processors in order to produce documentation clearly
attractive. In addition, the digital image allows for its analysis.

Photogrammetry

Photogrammetry is a technology used to obtain quantitative measurements.

of physical objects recording measurements and interpreting photographic images.
The science of photogrammetry has been developed as an exact and rapid means
to make topographic maps. The rapid development of photogrammetry in
cartography is due to the development of global positioning technology for
satellite (GPS) and that allows for the quick and accurate assessment of the position of the
view. When photogrammetry is used for inspection, the principles
those involved are the same but the scale is greatly reduced.
41
In industrial applications, photogrammetry is used to determine topographies.
at macroscopic or microscopic scales.

Normally, two photographs of slightly different viewpoints are taken.

different. It is important that the exact position of the view is known with
relationship to the inspected surface and the relationship between each of the views.
The two photographs are viewed through a stereoscope as a pair.
stereo that provides a three-dimensional image. The difference in
Parallax can be measured and the contour or slope of the surface is determined.
using a parallax bar and a stereoscope.

Another photogrammetry technique uses a single viewpoint but changes

the position of the lighting between views. The change in shadows is measured and
turns into information about the topography. The position of the view and the
positions of the lighting must be known.

Replication

Replication is a method for copying the topography of a surface by

medium of casting or printing a material onto the surface. It is a
technique commonly used to duplicate surfaces that are inaccessible in
metrology and Non-Destructive Testing.

The replication of a surface can involve direct or indirect methods. In

the direct method or single-stage method, a replica of the surface is obtained and
subsequently examined under the microscope.

In the indirect method, a final replica or second replica of a

obtained previously.

Single-stage replicas are commonly made using acetate to

replication as a means to assess the surface condition, to carry out a
surface fracture analysis and microstructure analysis.

An acetate tape can be used along with acetone to moisten it.

apply to the surface and subsequently the acetate hardens as the
solvent. Then, it is carefully removed from the surface, and the acetate
it contains a negative image, or replica, that can be examined directly
with an optical microscope or, after certain preparation, in a microscope of

42
electron beam sweeping. The double-sided tape is used to adhere the replica to
a glass base for the replica of the surface to be flat and undistorted.

To enhance the contrast of the acetate tape, shading can be done or

exposure to steam. Metal is deposited onto the tape at a sharp angle. The
exposure to metal varies the thickness and creates a shadow that adds contrast.
Replica with acetate tape is used with or without shading for the
fatigue analysis and for the evaluation of the microstructure and of the micro
efforts.

Silicone replicas are used in metrology for analysis.

quantitative of small bites and other negative surface conditions.

Son comúnmente utilizadas en combinación con comparadores ópticos para

determine the profiles of the surfaces where access is available from two sides and not
perpendicular access to the surface is possible.

Although the resolution of silicone materials is lower than techniques with

acetate tape, is reasonably accurate up to magnifications of 50X.

There are some significant advantages of the replication technique over the use of
microscopes in the field:

A permanent record is obtained.

A better resolution and greater amplifications can be used

Surface contamination is minimized.

The time spent in an uncomfortable or high-stress environment is minimized.

risk

A scanning electron microscope can be used.

Inspection planning

Before starting an inspection, the requirements must be determined.

same. A systematic inspection plan saves time and ensures that the
the inspection will be complete and appropriate for the material to be evaluated. As
As part of a planning process, the following questions should be
considered:
43
What standards, codes, or specifications apply? This includes the
material requirements, process and inspection procedures, and the
qualification requirements for staff, as well as the requirements of
calibration and quality system.

What requirements exist for the records, documenting that all the
Are the requirements of standards, codes, and specifications being met?
records should be generated in a specific format or should be printed
previously existing forms? The documentation graphic (drawings,
Is sketching, photography, or video tape recommended or required?

How is tracking or tracing maintained? Most of the items that

require inspection include worksheets to identify them, their
manufacturing and its lifespan. The procedure should be established for
verify the identification of the records and physically of the item.

What knowledge and skills are required from the inspector? The staff
those who carry out the inspection have the appropriate knowledge of the materials and
manufacturing processes, including the discontinuities produced
commonly? Does the staff fully understand the applicable part of
the standards, codes and specifications? Does the staff know how to use the
Required tools? Does the staff understand the requirements to maintain the
records?

Are the physical stresses to which the article will be subjected known during its
service life? This is very valuable information for the inspector, but in
occasionally it is not available.

What special tools or techniques are required? for to carry outthe

inspections? What acceptable alternatives are there if the preferred team o
Recommended is not available?

Is the lighting suitable for the inspections that are intended to be carried out?
How much control is there over the lighting? Is the required lighting
Laptop? Are specialized lighting techniques required?

Is access to the areas to be inspected appropriate? Should it

Are scaffolds or ladders to be used?

44
Make sure that the personal protective equipment is available and is
used to carry out the inspections.

This is a basic checklist for planning the inspection, which could be reviewed and
modified depending on the specific circumstances.

Sequence of the visual inspection

A typical observation sequence (inspection / examination / test) y

evaluation could be as follows:

An indication is observed.

The indication is interpreted to determine whether it is relevant (indicative of a

discontinuity or anomaly

The relevant indication is compared with an appropriate criterion in a standard

Code, procedure, client specifications or requirements are determined if
exceeds that limit.

If the discontinuity exceeds the limits, it is now judged as a defect, which

it is harmful to the intended use of the part, component, or system, so
it must be rejected.

By the way, the anomalies are included in the ASME BPV Code, Section V,
Article 9, Visual Inspection. The Webster dictionary offers three definitions.
of anomaly. Two of them seem to be suitable for use.

Anomaly: Deviation from the common rule.

Irregularity: Something different, abnormal, peculiar, or that cannot be classified.

easily.

Specifically, Section V, Article 9 requires 'a minimum of 50 fc (540 lx)'

for the detection or study of small anomalies.

Visual inspection of welds

45
Any quality control program that essentially consists of
the visual inspection should include a continuous sequence of inspections,
carried out during all manufacturing phases.

Discovering and repairing any defects on time results in substantial reduction

of costs.

It has been shown that a visual inspection program that is carried out
before, during, and after the application of welding, results in the
discovery of most defects that would be detected later,
using more complex and costly testing methods.

The visual inspection begins with the inspection of the material before manufacturing.
with the purpose of detecting and eliminating conditions that tend to provoke
discontinuities in welding.

Since visual inspection provides better results when applied

during all stages of manufacturing, it is appropriate to create a list of
some characteristics that can be evaluated at various points of the
sequence.

Visual inspection before welding

Revisar la documentación applicable, such as drawings,

material specifications, product specifications, etc.
Verify the qualification of the welding procedure and personnel.
Establish checkpoints.
Establish a plan for recording results.
Develop a system for identifying rejections.
Check the welding equipment conditions.
Verify the quality and condition of the base metal and filler materials.
that will be used.
Check the preparations for the meeting.
Check the alignment and separation (gap) of the joint root.
Check the cleanliness of the joint.
Check the preheating when required.

46
Visual inspection during the application of welding

Verify that the variables comply with the procedure, for example, the
voltage, the current.
Check the quality of the individual welding steps.
Check the temperature between welding passes.
Check the cleanliness between welding steps.
Verify the placement and sequence of individual steps.
Verify the quality from the intermediate steps trying
to detect discontinuities.

Visual inspection after the application of welding

Check the final appearance of the weld.

Check the size of the weld.
Check the length of the weld.
Check the accuracy of the dimensions of the weld.
Perform any additional Non-Destructive Testing when required.

Sampling plans for visual inspection

In some cases, 100 may be required. percent of inspection of a

product. Otherwise, sampling procedures are specified. The
sampling is the selection of a representative portion of a batch of
production for inspection purposes. Conclusions can be obtained
based on the total quality of a complete production run
in (1) the result of the sampling test and (2) the statistical bases for
the sampling procedure. The specifications or procedures of
inspection usually details the sampling methods for the visual inspector.

Methods for sampling procedures

Some of the terms found in the inspection procedures

The types of sampling are 'complete', 'partial', 'specific', and 'random'.
Complete inspection

The complete inspection is the inspection of the entire production lot in

a prescribed manner. Sometimes, the complete inspection designates the
inspection of only the critical joints in each weld. The sampling
47
complete is used where the highest quality is required. It is expensive and consumes
time compared to partial sampling.

Partial sampling

Partial sampling is the inspection of a certain number less than the total of a
production run. The selection method for inspection and the type of
inspection are prescribed. The rejection criteria and disposal routine for
any inferior level welding must also be specified in the
procedure.

Specified partial sampling

For the specified partial sampling, a particular frequency or sequence

Sample selection is prescribed.

An example of specified partial sampling is the selection of every fifth.

unit, starting with the fifth unit. Because the producer knows which
units will be tested, you could pay more attention to the production of those
inspected units and the overall quality level of the production run
can is less than that indicated by the inspected units. This
it will invalidate the sampling.

Random partial sampling

Random partial sampling occurs when the selection of the test object is
totally random. For example, one in every five units of a run of
production is inspected and the inspector makes the selection of each of the
candidate units from the subgroups of five in one way random.
Then each of the five units has an equal chance of being chosen and
random partial sampling occurs.

Because the producer does not know which units will be tested, the same
care can be given to the production of all units and a quality results
of more uniform product.

Sampling plans for attribute testing.

48
The visual inspection for attributes (o characteristics) involves the
classification of the inspected object as defective or non-defective. The object
It can also be classified by the number of discontinuities by
one hundred units or a group of given requirements.

The final result of the inspections of welded joints is the identification of

discontinuities - Certain discontinuities may or may not be acceptable within
of the Code or specification requirements. Therefore, visual inspections
Typical welds can be classified as attribute tests.

The MIL-STD-105D document contains procedures and tables with plans

sampling for attribute inspection. The sampling plans are
relatively easy to use and interpret.

Conclusions

Sampling is used when 100 percent inspection is not economical or

Practice. When sampling procedures are used, there are always risks.
for the producer and the consumer.

When the sampling plan is provided in the procedure or specification, the

the visual inspector just needs to follow the procedure. The plans of
Sampling can be chosen for a specific risk of the standard MIL–STD–105D.

The complete inspection is used when the highest quality is required for
critical services. One or more of the other Non-Destructive Testing methods,
together with visual inspection, it can be specified for critical points.

Codes, standards, and specifications

The technician qualified as Level II or III in Non-Destructive Testing must be

familiar with the handling and interpretation of applicable documents
method in which it is qualified and the products that it must inspect.

The inspection of a component that is regulated or that is critical within the

industry, may be covered by multiple documents, such as codes,
standards and specifications.

49
There is a large number of organizations responsible for editing and reviewing.
from these documents, to mention a few: ASME (American Society of
Mechanical Engineers), AWS (American Welding Society), API (Institute
American Oil), etc.

Each inspection may be governed by one or more procedures that have

have been developed and structured to meet the rules or criteria of those
applicable documents.

To meet the objectives and requirements of these documents, the staff must
be able to understand the point of view that directs what is established in them; furthermore,
must be able to develop written procedures and interpret the results of
the inspection based on the requirements taken from the applicable documents
to the inspected product or material, and finally, it must ensure that whoever
carries out inspection activities, documented in procedures, complies
with the variety of applicable requirements and documents.

The way in which the requirements are established varies from document to document.
the document. Below is a brief description of these documents.

Código

It is a document that defines technical testing requirements, materials, processes.

manufacturing, inspection, and service that a part must comply with,
component or equipment.

Examples:

ANSI / ASME Code for Pressure Vessels and Boilers

ANSI Code / AWS D 1.1, for Welded Steel Structures
ANSI Code / API 570, for Piping Inspection
The codes are applied or followed mandatorily, only when established in
a sales contract, or in the manufacturing of a part, component or
team.

The American codes that carry the acronym ANSI are normative documents.
nationals in the United States. It is always important to remember that the
Codes do not combine or replace each other.

50
Example of the structure of a common usage code in the industry:

The ASME Code for Pressure Vessels and Boilers is subdivided into two
sections: for specific classes of components (pressure vessels,
boilers and piping); and support technology (welding, non-destructive testing and
materials).
As part of the Code, ASME has established rules and requirements for Non-Destructive Testing
Destructive in Section V, which has similar application to the documents of
ASTM, and at times uses some as a technical basis for the activities of
inspection.

Because the Code includes several levels of critical components,

the acceptance criteria, personnel requirements, and the definition of what it should be
Inspected is reserved for some other specific reference sections.
of the product, for example: Section III is for new nuclear constructions;
Section VIII is for the construction of new pressure vessels; and the
Section XI is for in-service inspection of nuclear facilities; all
define the acceptance criteria and the certification of the personnel, completely
separately from Section V.

Standard

It is a document that establishes and defines rules for:

Acquire, purchase, size, or evaluate a service, material, part, component or

product.
Establish definitions, symbols or classifications.

Examples:
ASTM standards, International ISO standards, Mexican standards.
The ASTM standards related to non-destructive testing emphasize
the way in which inspection activities must be carried out, but they leave the
acceptance criteria to be decided between the buyer and the seller of
service.

Specification

It is a document that describes, defines, and establishes:

In detail: a service, material, or product.

51
 Physical or chemical properties of a material.
The method of conducting tests, inspections, etc., and the applicable tolerances.
for acceptance or rejection.
How to purchase a service or material.

They contain conditions that must be established by the buyer, or that

they can be applied by the seller at their discretion.

Examples:

API specifications, particular specifications of the clients.

In the use of specifications and standards, it should be kept in mind that they are
mandatory only by mutual agreement between buyer and seller.

Inspection procedures

An Inspection Procedure is a document what define the

technical parameters, equipment and accessories requirements, as well as the criteria of
acceptance and rejection that apply to materials, parts, components or
teams, this in accordance with what is established in Codes, norms and
everything
specifications.
Even the most experienced technician will not be able to determine the condition of a product.
without the applicable information about the good or service, of how it is required to be a
product based on its quality and, therefore, how the product is going to be
inspected and evaluated.

Inspection procedures provide a series of benefits for the

usuarios:

Attachment to applicable documents (Codes, standards, or specifications)

Consistent quality level of the inspected product
Repetitive results
Homogeneous inspection technique
Homogeneous acceptance and rejection criteria
Avoid discrepancies between manufacturer and buyer in the inspection of
recepción de material, cuando el comprador está enterado y ha autorizado
the procedure for its application

52
In accordance with the applicable documents, the inspection procedures
They should preferably be prepared by a qualified level II or III technician.
and certified in the applicable inspection method. In addition, they must be reviewed.
y aprobados by a level III technician, qualified and certified in the method of
applicable inspection.

Before developing an inspection procedure, it is necessary to consider

some preliminary aspects:

Define them applicable documents for mutual agreement such

such as: customer specifications, drawings, order, etc.
Define the scope and specific requirements of the client
Verificar: notas técnicas, especificaciones y/o pedido
Determine the necessary equipment and accessories
Define the required quality levels.
Consider production or maintenance programs to determine the
critical inspection points: areas of interest, stage of the inspection,
preparation of surfaces, etc.
Selection and preparation of samples for qualification of the
procedure.

Results report

The inspection procedures must include or refer to a format of

Report of Results.

When reporting and documenting the inspection results, it is necessary to include the
complete and accurate information of the inspection carried out for the purpose of conducting it
reproducible. The above is due to the possibility of review by the
client and possibly by some external agency (audit, monitoring,
inspection, etc.)
Reviews can occur long after the inspection has taken place and
acceptance by the user. The lack of information and documentation
it can result in costly delays when trying to resolve the apparent or suspicious
presence of discontinuities.

The necessary documentation to minimize confusions during the

interpretation must include, but is not limited to, the requirements established by the
Code, standard, or specification that is applicable.

53
Acceptance and rejection criteria

The acceptance criteria are included in some documents. for

provide acceptable ranges, classes, grades, and quality levels.

The documents that contain criteria of acceptance y rejection

they present a method for the grading of certain materials or products.
Certain variables such as the alloy, the type of manufacturing are categorized.
the finish, the coating, the effort, the safety, and the function; these factors
should be considered in the design analysis before assigning a class or
product grade. The acceptance and rejection criterion establishes the size and type
of an acceptable discontinuity in a specified area. The product can be
divided by zones for allow different levels of qualification in
different positions on the product, if desired. However, in many
In cases, the acceptance criterion only has a discontinuity size above the
the defect must be removed or must be removed and repaired, or the piece must
be discarded.

54
 2.2.- Historical Framework.

Describe in detail and formally the background and progress.

scientific and/or technological factors that affect the study topic, the foundations
relevant theories and the particular problem with a critical analysis of the
current bibliography).
Gather information from other research (in theses, books, journals)
specialized, etc.) that have been carried out in the world regarding their
tema (5 en TSU; 10 en ING.).Obtener: tema, problema, objetivo, hipótesis,
results, and conclusions; with this information create paragraphs
narrative.

For the inclusion of graphs and tables, it must be done as indicated:

Chart Title
6

0
Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4

Series 1 Series 2 Series 3

Fig. 1 The title should be placed at the bottom center, with numbering.
sequentially, as close as possible to the place in the text where they are referred to by
first time (include figures such as drawings, graphs, and photos).

55
 Table 1. The table titles should be placed at the top of the table
centered, also with its own numbering

THEME

Knowledge and attitude about visual inspection with acetic acid in women
30 to 50 years, Tangarará I-2 health center, Sullana 2020

PROBLEM

The present research work is framed within the health problem that
it impacts the life of women and the family. The objective was to determine the relationship of
knowledge and attitude towards visual inspection with acetic acid in women
from 30 to 50 years old of the Tangarará I-2 Health Center, Sullana 2020

OBJECTIVE

Determine the relationship between knowledge and attitude towards visual inspection with
acetic acid, in women aged 30 to 50, Tangarará I-2 Health Center,
Sullana 2020

HYPOTHESIS

H0: There is no significant relationship between knowledge and attitude about the
visual inspection with acetic acid in women aged 30 to 50, Health Center
from Tangarará I-2, Sullana 2020. H1: There is a significant relationship between the
knowledge and attitude about visual inspection with acetic acid in women
from 30 to 50 years, Tangarará Health Center I-2, Sullana 2020.

RESULT

Table 1. Knowledge about the visual inspection exam with acetic acid
women aged 30 to 50 years, Tangarará I-2 Health Center, Sullana 2020.
Knowledge N %

Does Not Know 75 58.1

Meet 54 41.9
56
Total 129 100

Graph 1. Awareness of the inspection exam

Visual with acetic acid in women aged 30 to 50.

Graph 1. Knowledge about the visual inspection examination with acetic acid
in women aged 30 to 50 years, Tangarará I-2 Health Center, Sullana 2020.
Source: Table 1 Interpretation In table and graph 1. It was found that out of the
surveyed users aged 30 to 50 from the Health Center
Tangarará I-2, 58.1% (75) do not know about the inspection exam activity.
visual with acetic acid; 41.9% (54) of users are aware of the topic
visual inspection exam with acetic acid

CONCLUSIONS

It was observed that 58.1% (75) of the surveyed women have no knowledge.
about the visual inspection exam with acetic acid and the 41.9% (54) of the
surveyed users if they have knowledge about the IVAA.

In relation to the attitude variable towards the visual inspection exam with acid
The acetic of the surveyed women obtained 83.7% (108) of attitude.
57
unfavorable compared to the 16.3% (21) of favorable attitude of women who
participated in the study.

The chi-squared test was conducted, where it was shown that there is no
significant relationship between knowledge and attitude towards the exam of
visual inspection with acetic acid in women aged 30 to 50 years who
come from the Tangarará I-2 Health Center of the Marcavelica District; it
it evidenced that p = 1.141, whose value is greater than 0.05 which leads to discarding
the alternative hypothesis and contrast the null hypothesis of the research work.

THEME

Implementation of a vision system for missing rivet failures

PROBLEM

This work started due to a problem in a production line that assembles

pressure switches for automotive transmissions had serious problems
of quality because parts had been shipped with a lack of rivets and this
I generated a big problem with the client. To eliminate this problem, I...
implemented an automated vision system that detects the lack of riveting
the piece.
OBJECTIVE
Implement a vision system that detects missing rivets from a switch.
automotive pressure.
HYPOTHESIS

In the last 20 years, automatic vision systems have benefited from

constant development of vision systems, whose applications now encompass
a wide variety of various industrial products, such as wood, textiles,
stones, car parts, and agricultural products.
RESULTS
The system compares the selected area with the reference image and the more
the current image resembles the reference one more, it can be considered the
piece as good.

58
 Image 1. System evaluated with a pressure switch with all its
rivets

Image 1.1. Evaluated system with pressure switch with

missing rivet

Once the windows were created, tests were conducted to determine the
limit of the comparison condition. The comparison percentage was left at
80% and with this, the system validation was carried out. System validation. For the
system validation a study of repeatability by attributes was conducted for
determine the detection level of the system. For this study, 11 were taken
shows 6 pieces with all the rivets and 5 pieces with a missing rivet in
different positions. The pieces were placed in the machine to be evaluated by
the vision system.

59
 Image 1.2. Results of repeatability study

The results of the study show that there was no difference in the results of
inspection between the pieces placed in different nests and there was also no difference
between the obtained result and the expected result.

Image 1.3. Results of the study of agreements by attributes

CONCLUSIONS

After validation, the system was released to the production area for its
use, since its implementation there have been no customer complaints for lack of
rivets, this has reduced the PPM's from 6 to 1 in the last quarter of the year.

60
THEME

Statistical Model for the Validation of an Automatic Vision System

Continuous Production, for 100% Inspection in Graffiti Areas of Containers
of Glass
PROBLEM

In conventional assembly or manufacturing lines, the workpieces are

transported to various workstations via a conveyor belt
carrier. When a part arrives at the workstation, it is removed
from the band using a positioning mechanism and after being
processed is sent back to the conveyor belt to be taken to another station
of work where another process will be carried out, each time the handler
Take or place a workpiece on the conveyor belt, it must stop
part and then carry out the operation, this takes time that affects the
full time of the process and at the same time decreases the average efficiency
in production. For a continuous process such as the preparation of the
Glass, inspections of this type are simply unfeasible and illogical.
OBJECTIVE

Evaluation of the design and performance of an automatic vision system for the
100% inspection of the 'graphite zone' of glass containers in processes
continuous. Obtaining the statistically valid mathematical model that
through a model similar to experimental design, you will be able to determine the
usage parameters where the system is capable and reliable.
HYPOTHESIS

One of the areas of engineering that has currently seen great development is the
industrial automation. This discipline seeks to improve various aspects of the
industrial processes, replacing humans in tasks such as reduction
of risks in dangerous or repetitive tasks, minimize process times, the
detailed and precise inspection, all to protect the human being, eliminate error
human and consequently improve the quality of the products.
RESULTS
A statistically valid mathematical model was obtained that through a
structure similar to experimental design, will be able to determine the
usage parameters where a visual inspection system is capable and reliable
to detect two established types of defects. The conditions were generated under

61
which will govern the decision-making regarding capacity
system inspection.
CONCLUSIONS

Within the design work of an inspection team, the validation part

Statistics of successful functioning capacity is a fundamental element.
to be able to place the instrument in a real work environment. The
laboratory tests as a preliminary step to an installation and development of the work
in a real work environment situation are an approximate example of the
reality. The validation of a system of this type must be done under conditions
that resemble as closely as possible the conditions of a normal/real environment of
work, and it is the design team's task to generate these environmental characteristics,
and if possible, test the equipment on a real production line.
THEME

Modelado de sistemas para visión de objetos especulares. Inspección visual

automation in industrial production.
PROBLEM
This research addresses a vision problem taking into account the
Conditions of the perception tasks. In particular, structural defects in
The surfaces are characterized, whatever the shape of these surfaces.
The reflections and brightness usually cause the characteristics of objects.
measured by common vision systems (color, topography, shape, etc.) to be
hidden under normal conditions
OBJECTIVE

Provide a model for addressing the issues of the

visual inspection systems oriented towards surface treatment
specular and undefined curvature. The model must be general and may
systematically used in the conception of solutions for the
specific inspection problems.
Specify and create a simulator for automatic visual inspection of
specular surfaces that allow for contrasting the model and its correction.
The features of the simulator will allow evaluating architectures such as
alternative to preliminary tests on physical prototypes and open the

62
 path towards real implementation in a production system
contemplating all its particularities.

HYPOTHESIS
The simulator for visual inspection of specular surfaces is used in the
experimentation to validate the working hypotheses. Develop the aspects
related to the assessment of increased sensitivity and the generation of
architectures through a quantification and evaluation environment for them.
The generator allows determining the values of the magnitudes of the scene ρ in
those for whom sensitivity is adequate for perception. The study allows
extract the necessary conclusions for the development of the architectures in
Regarding the lighting to choose, the scale and the angle of perception of the
defects.
RESULTS
It was formally defined in the chapter related to simulation for
visual inspection, that the automatic generation of hypotheses of systems of
inspection would allow the selection of an element a from the set A (3.15) of the
possible architectures for a set of MI inspection motifs that
meets different criteria related to performance and cost. The
architecture was defined as an ordered set, consisting of a
work plan for the inspection of MI, of tuples that contained the
characteristics for performing the transformations ϒeФ and ϒe-Ф,c. The simulation,
as an environment for quantification and evaluation of the possible architectures of
vision allows for a preliminary study that will help discern the best
conditions under which to carry out the inspection of specular surfaces.
CONCLUSIONS
The essentially applied nature of the work documented in this report makes
waiting for the thesis to refer to the utilitarian aspects that largely
motivates the research conducted. However, the circumstance of addressing a
little addressed problem so far incorporates an intense component of
research and, therefore, formal rigor as the basis of the applied adaptations
that should be developed in the future.

63
THEME

Automated inspection of homogeneous surfaces through Artificial Vision

PROBLEM

Mass production was possible and organizations tended to be more

complex. At the beginning of the century, with the increase in complexity, it was seen that the
need to separate and form inspection departments. During the three
quarters of a century, the number of inspectors has increased
gradually, ensuring that they take responsibility for the quality of the
products. Inspectors have acted when they detected any anomaly in the
process. But often, this attitude meant that while locating
the poor quality of the product, some products had already been shipped and
received by the client.
OBJECTIVE
The general objective of this thesis is the development of Vision techniques and
Artificial intelligence leading to the characterization of defects in
flat and homogeneous surfaces, as well as the detection and classification of such
defects, so that the obtained information is integrable in real time
within the production process.
HYPOTHESIS

Automated inspection is necessary, as human inspectors are not

always conscious evaluators of the products. In fact, in the studies
carried out [Smith93], it has been observed that human visual inspection
has, at best, an effectiveness of 80%, and in addition this is
achieve with a rigorous check structure. In contrast to this data, the
inspection systems based on artificial vision tend to have lower costs
labor and with an objective, measurable, and improvable quality measure. Even with
for the main reason, the SIVA is presented as the perfect solution in environments
unhealthy.
RESULTS

The machine was delivered to ENCE on April 24, 1998. At the moments of
writing these pages the mentioned company is calibrating the results of the SIVA,
proceeding to compare the paste cleanliness of the human inspector with the given ones
by the machine. The preliminary results provided by ENCE.

64
 GRAPHIC2. Preliminary results of the SIVA

The correlation index of the data with the linear model gives an R value of 0.7.
The causes of the discrepancies between the inspector and the machine are due to
the following motivations. Firstly, the inspection surface used
for the operator and the machine are different. Secondly, the contrast between the
machine and the inspector is based on 186 sheets, which the machine detected
673 defects and the inspector 649, but the discrepancy is given by the
cataloging of defects. While SIVA classified 38 type A and 132 type B,
the inspector only found 6 A and 67 B. This discrepancy is due to the effect
forget, that the inspector eliminates by scraping the paper paste, action that is not performed by the
machine.
CONCLUSIONS
This thesis has addressed the issue of industrial inspection, which is
highlighted a growing need to incorporate inspection operations
within the production process. There are three important milestones at the outset
SIVA: la formación de imágenes, la detección de los defectos y la clasificación de
these. In image formation, one must address both the type of lighting that
be able to enhance the scene as much as possible, as well as the
selection of the sensors to be used. Regarding the detection of the defects, there

65
try to analyze the received images with the purpose of separating the
defective component regarding the background.

In order to verify the proposed analysis, experimental work has been carried out.
in the classification of local defects in cast aluminum. This problem has
served as a workbench for the design of the classifiers, both of
traditional techniques such as those proposed here. The conclusions
obtained is that the proposed method helps to introduce a priori knowledge,
making the most accurate and generalist classifiers, than those based on
both in rules and in learning with examples.
THEME
Development of a visual inspection application, using vision by
computer
PROBLEM

Many everyday activities have exceeded the limits of perception.

human eye; for this reason, the need was created in the industry to create a
system that allows to visually, precisely, and automatically supervise with
quality, its tasks. This is how computer vision or artificial vision is born.
OBJECTIVE
Implementar un proyecto que utilice un sistema de visión por computador.

Present the fundamentals of computer vision, the methods of

digital image capture, elements of a vision system
computer, as well as the process of handling and processing an image
digital.
HYPOTHESIS

Computer vision has clear advantages in tasks that are performed at

high speeds and in which there is a high degree of repetition, for example,
en el proceso de inspección visual de una línea de ensamblaje que trabaje sin
interruption.
The main differences between human vision and computer vision are
are concentrated in the following characteristics: the type of
image processing, the perspective of vision and recognition of
colors

66
RESULTS

The result of the analysis is presented graphically to users through

a screen representation of the study of the fifteen segments analyzed.

Image 2. Inspection result.

CONCLUSIONS
Computer Vision systems provide a way to implement
applications that require a visual inspection. Vision systems for
Computers have a high cost for visual inspection tasks with little
volume of information, but when applied to large volumes, it represents
an excellent option in cost and result.
THEME
Quality as a tool for competitiveness
PROBLEM
The problem we started with for the realization of this thesis is that
In Mexico, business owners often do not know audit systems that
They provided them in a clear manner the performance of their business and the opportunity.
to take improvement actions in those areas where performance is below
objective. This problem is relevant since in business training it is rare
a global overview of the business that relates to both the
supplies, the planning and management of the process, the manufacturing process
in itself, and the distribution of the product up to the satisfaction of the final customer.

Objective

The objective of this work is to integrate quality with competitiveness.

so that companies can obtain benefits that improve their situation
67
current and remain in the market.
HYPOTHESIS
The objective of this work is to develop the strategy for the small and
medium-sized company that integrates the structure of the National Quality Award and the
ISO 9000 standards towards improving competitiveness. To this end, it is proposed in
this work is the study and collection of data that may be useful in a
scope of this type of companies to implement a comprehensive program of
total quality and thus obtain the benefits that are reflected in the improvement of the
situation of these companies and their future development. Through this approach,
hope to have a better view of the company's state through
indicators that allow us to access all the factors involved in
el negocio y también poder manejar estos datos para mejorar el desempeño del
business.
RESULTS
In the present work, we begin with an overview of what Quality is.
Secondly, we look at the Quality assessments, exploring the content.
of the National Quality Award, and the ISO 9000 Standards which are Models of
World Class. For the total quality process to be effective, it is essential
to have the ability to turn quality philosophy into a strategy of
businesses. The philosophy of quality is fundamental but it is also important the
strategy because it becomes the way to apply philosophy.
CONCLUSIONS
The establishment of the above requires some time to implement and is
It's important to start awareness as soon as possible, first about the high
management and then towards all staff on the use of this tool for their
greater effectiveness and speed in implementation. As we have seen, everything changes.
continuously, which means that what satisfies us today, probably will not tomorrow.
For this reason, we must study and learn from our customers.
competitors, friends, and other sources today and always to be people
competent open to development and growth. It has also been seen that the
companies are facing new obstacles and one of those obstacles is the
international competition, which makes it difficult for companies to stay afloat. As
he said that the difficult part is not arriving but staying. With this thesis we have worked on
equipment to learn, grow, develop ourselves and thus contribute something and move forward.
achieving excellence for our Mexican companies. We aim with
this thesis will help entrepreneurs to better understand their businesses
thus achieving high performance and maintaining its position in the market,
68
through the generation of quality goods and services. Having with them a
well-defined philosophy and culture, in which all members of the company
share values oriented towards customer satisfaction, the follow-up of
continuous improvement of the product, as well as innovation and a targeted approach
to the productivity based on the work of the people that make up the company.
Thus contributing to creating individuals open to development and growth
continue.
THEME
Proposal to implement a quality management system in the company
Specialized Industrial Filtration S.A. de C.V. from Xalapa, Veracruz
PROBLEM

In this era of globalization where companies must have established

a series of requirements that must be met to provide services of
quality, it is essential to have the necessary tools that allow us to
reach optimal levels of customer satisfaction. The company that today
In a day, it fails to implement a Quality Management System in its systems or
processes face the problem of being unable to compete with companies
that have chosen to adopt a quality philosophy. 25 Companies that do not
they have an appropriate quality methodology established in their systems or
processes face the problem of having inconsistencies and
failures, show deficiencies in the optimization of their time and resources and in
Generally, they do not have any type of control.

OBJECTIVE

Make an improvement proposal for the company 'Industrial Filtration'

"Especializada, S.A. de C.V." that helps to optimize the existing processes for the
obtaining products with better quality and the reduction of losses that
currently being presented.
HYPOTHESIS
The project will have different stages that will determine the areas for improvement.
immediate and will define the scope of the investigation. The first of these will be
the diagnostic stage where the current situation of the
company. Here it will be determined whether there is a clear identification of its processes,
operating procedures and indicators to measure the performance of its
procesos. También si existe una política de calidad y los objetivos que se plantea
the organization, as well as references indicating the commitment of senior management
address and the other areas of the company. Subsequently, the stage will take place
69
of planning where the results of the diagnosis will be used to
design improvement actions aimed at increasing the improvement of the
Processes. Define an organizational structure, the processes, the responsibilities,
the procedures and methods necessary to meet the
objectives set by the organization.
RESULTS
Results were obtained through surveys, interviews, and direct observation.
of the current situation of the company 'Specialized Industrial Filtration, S.A.'
C.V." The company's organizational chart was restructured (Annex 3) and the list of
verification for the Quality Management System (Annex 5). Situation
organizational The number of staff in the organization is adequate only that it is not
there is an adequate link and relationship between the company's personnel. The
communication among the members of the company is very deficient, causing
occasions differences among the members of the same. There is also a lack of
specialized personnel in certain areas of the company and lack of supervision in
the quality area. Technical situation and infrastructure The operational area in
At times it is insufficient due to the magnitude of the orders, there is a good
infrastructure and has the most advanced technology equipment. Some
technical procedures are not followed, statistical techniques are not applied for the
control and improvement of processes, lack of control over inputs and there is little
supervision of results by the manager and the quality administrator.
Quality management system The company 'Specialized Industrial Filtration, S.A.'
"de C.V." is not integrated into a quality management system, the
administrative procedures of the quality system not found
documented or implemented in the different areas of it, do not exist
quality plans or indicators do not reflect better customer service since
Sometimes there is a delay in the delivery of orders due to various factors.
factors.
CONCLUSIONS
As a result of the study conducted in the company, the foundations are in place.
necessary to establish a plan for continuous improvement. The diagnosis made
show the deficiencies that are present in the company regarding quality
that is held in the same. There are points where a greater emphasis must be placed.
emphasis to achieve an improvement in quality and the proposed hypothesis is
fulfills due to the detection of the areas of the company that must be
establish the plans for continuous improvement. Having these results, the leaders
The company will be the ones to decide whether to implement actions that allow for the
improvement of the company or not. With the data obtained in this research
70
it was possible to obtain a preliminary overview of the current situation of the company,
which was not very encouraging because there is no properly functioning system
documented. The results of the diagnosis show that there is a
lack of necessary elements for the proper functioning of the company; without
embargo, in general, reflects a potential for opportunities that could be the
guidelines for undertaking improvement actions in the organization which are the
basis for the implementation of a quality management system in it.
THEME
Implementation of a quality management system for a laboratory
clinical analysis
PROBLEM

Having a quality management system (QMS) benefits companies

great benefits, which is why it is important to ensure that the staff of the same
they accept to change their mentality and work habits in their daily life, since in addition
from its normal process, which must be in accordance with what is described in its manuals
and procedures, it must be covered with a series of records that provide the
evidence and traceability of what has been done in the different processes. Therefore, in the
Carpermor Reference Laboratory must achieve the implementation of the QMS.
to obtain benefits for the customer and the company. In this case, the customers of
a reference laboratory, are laboratories that refer samples for their
analytical process, which is why patients are not received, nor is phlebotomy performed.

OBJECTIVE
Design and develop a quality management system for the processes
involved in the quality assurance plan of a clinical laboratory.

Implement a quality management system in the Laboratory of

Carpermor reference.
HYPOTHESIS
The clinical chemist has traditionally been concerned with the quality of his
analytical determinations, however, the current concept of quality involves
much more than that, includes everything from patient preparation to the quality of the
samples until the delivery of the results, going through various activities that
includes the documentation of all processes. The new role of the clinical chemist in
the quality aspects of a laboratory include its involvement in management
quality, that is why the following report of professional experience is presented.
RESULTS
71
The SGC was structured and implemented. In the follow-up after one year, it was found in the
pre-analytical stage where the indicators did not meet the established goals
there were deviations in the capture of customer data and the indicator of
clarifications with the client, although the deviations were minimal. In the stage
analytics on the indicators of tardiness and external quality evaluation
The final monthly average was within the established goal. For the phase
post-analysis a deviation was observed in the notification of critical results and
correction of results, which was resolved favorably. Regarding the SGC
An average of 10 non-conformities was found in the year.
CONCLUSIONES
A QMS was designed, developed, and implemented for the processes involved in the
quality assurance plan of a reference clinical laboratory and
improvements to the system were proposed based on the developed indicators

2.3.- Referential Framework.

Gather information from other research (in theses, books, journals)

specialized, etc.) that have been carried out in the world regarding their topic.
Here the information will be noted that is most directly related to
su proyecto, para que le sirva de [Link] tema, problema, objetivo,
hypothesis, results, and conclusions; with this information, write paragraphs
narratives.

THEME

Implementation of a vision system for missing rivet failures

PROBLEM

This work started due to a problem in a production line that assembles

pressure switches for automatic transmissions had serious problems
of quality due to the fact that parts had been shipped with missing rivets and this
I create a big problem with the client. To eliminate this problem, I
implemented an automated vision system that detects the lack of riveting
the piece.
OBJECTIVE
Implement a vision system that detects missing rivets from a switch.
automotive pressure.
72
HYPOTHESIS

In the last 20 years, automatic vision systems have benefited from

constant development of vision systems, whose applications now encompass
a wide variety of various industrial products, such as wood, textiles,
stones, car parts, and agricultural products.
RESULTS
The system compares the selected area with the reference image and the more
the current image resembles the reference one more it can be considered the
piece as good.

Imagen 1. Sistema evaluado con interruptor de presión con todos sus

rivets

Image 1.1. System evaluated with pressure switch with

missing rivet

Once the windows were created, tests were conducted to determine the
limit of the comparison condition. The comparison percentage was left at
73
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After validation, the system was released to the production area for its
use, since its implementation there have been no customer complaints about lack of
rivets, this has reduced the PPMs from 6 to 1 in the last quarter of the year.

Chapter 3. Research Methodology

3.1.- Type of Research.

(Exploratory, descriptive or experimental, as the case may be). Provide the definition.
corresponding through a narrative text.

75
3.2.- Participants.

Research subjects - people, things, situations, objects, or entities.

3.3.- Population.

Los sistemas de seguridad de la empresa, o el total de cosas, objetos, entes,

artifacts, systems or lines or whatever is being investigated.

3.4.- Sample.

The security system, the thing, the object, the entity, the system or line of
such department or line, which the researcher wants to modify.

3.5.- Instruments.

They are the means by which the data was collected such as: checklist, logbook,
record, checklist, etc.

They are defined and indicated how they will be used.

(They are not the measuring ones, like the voltmeter, ammeter, etc.)

3.6.- Procedure.

Describe in block diagram the proposed solution and describe in detail.

What does each block consist of.

Subsequently describe the design of devices and/or methods and protocols.

experimental and evaluation, with sufficient detail to allow for their
Reproduction. Use block diagrams or flow charts for its explanation.

In the case of electronic circuit design, use the final formulas for the
calculation of the values of the devices.

76
Avoid making mathematical demonstrations that are developed in
books and publications, in this case, just indicate the reference or include it in the
appendices. Ensure consistency in values and symbolism of formulas and
circuits.

Chapter 4. Results

It is the most relevant section of the project, as this is where

manifest the contribution and/or proposed improvement of the entire research work
(15 pages).

4.1.- Results.

Present the numerical results objectively with their statistical analysis.

Include tables and graphs or equivalents.

The processing of the information obtained from:

The functionality of the previous device.

77
The functionality of the current device.

Comparison of both results.

The contrast of these with what was said in the Hypothesis

4.2.- Discussion.

Analyze and interpret the meaning of the results including a discussion

objective and critical of unexpected problems or results. Indicate the coincidence (or
discrepancy) between the results and previous work.

Expose the theoretical implications and the applications.

Conclusions.

Establish the conclusions according to the objectives and hypotheses proposed and to
the obtained results.

Example: Derived from the comparison of results vs the hypothesis it is concluded

that the accident reduction index for the security system 'xyz' only
reduce by 10% monthly, so it is concluded that the hypothesis is proven.
partially.

Suggestions.

Briefly discuss the future of the study topic and what could not be covered or
I remain pending with the research work, indicating some lines that
they could continue to expand the results obtained.
78
Example: As a result of the results obtained from the creation of the prototype, object,
what, etc.; it is suggested that ............ in future research... (They should be considered
aspects that the researcher detected that could help or interfered with it
provided in the hypothesis.

Bibliography or Reference.

The references must appear in the same order in which they have appeared in
the text and at the end of the thesis.

The APA format must be used for all citations and bibliographic references.

They should be a balanced mix of:

Books, e-books, websites, articles from other theses, journals,

etc.

Refer to the current APA guide in the attached file.

Annexes
79
In this section, you should include the information that you use or mention in a way
recurrent throughout the development of the thesis, such as some graph, table, law, etc.

You must enumerate or identify each annex, as referenced in the document.

80