UNIT NO.

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND MEASUREMENT

Q no. 1: What is physics? Define its branches.

PHYSICS:
“Physics is that branch of natural science which deals
with matter, energy and their inter-actions.”
The main branches of Physics are as follows.
MECHANICS:
This branch of physics is mainly concerned with the laws of motion and
gravitation.
THERMODYNAMICS:
Thermodynamics deals with heat and temperature and their relation to
energy and work.
ELECTRICITY:
Electricity is the study of properties of charges in rest and motion.
MAGNETISM:
Magnetism is the study of magnetic properties of materials.
ATOMIC PHYSICS:
Atomic physics deals with the composition structure and properties of the
atom.
OPTICS:
Optics studies physical aspects of light and its properties with the help of
optical instruments.
SOUND:
Sound is the study of production, properties and applications of sound
waves.
NUCLEAR PHYSICS:
Nuclear physics deals with the constituents,structure, behavior and
interactions of atomic nuclei.
PARTICLE PHYSICS:
Particle Physics studies the elementary constituents of matter and radiation,
and the interactions between them.
ASTROPHYSICS:
The study of celestial objects with the help of laws of physics is known as
Astrophysics.

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PLASMA PHYSICS:
The study of ionized state of mater and its properties is known as Plasma
Physics.
GEO PHYSICS:
The study of internal structure of earth is known as Geo physics.

Q no. 2: Describe the application of Physics in different fields of life. “OR”

Describe the Importance of physics in modern word. “OR” Describe
Importance of Physics in science technology and society.
APPLICATIONS/IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICS:
Today’s world is the world of science and technology.
Services of Physics are being used in the field of industry, commerce,
medical, engineering, research, defense, energy production, and daily life etc.
IN INDUSTRIES:
Now a days machineries and many other technical and
mechanical appliances are being used in industries. They worked upon the
basic principles of mechanics which is a branch of Physics.
IN COMMERCE:
Computer which has brought revolutionary changes in
commerce specially is electronic device and is manufactured according to the
integrated digital electronics which is also a branch of Physics.
IN MEDICAL:
In medical science Physics has played a vital role through the
invention of science instruments and devices e.g. X-ray machine, E.C.G., C.T.,
Ultra sound and other relative machines and surgical tools are being made
using basic principles of Physics.
IN DAILY LIFE:
In the modern world of today, man is using many appliances
or devices in his daily routine which are manufactured with the help of
Physical laws and principles. In our daily life we use house hold appliances,
entertainment devices, satellite controlling devices, business and other
communication devices etc.
IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICS IN SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY AND
SOCIETY:
Society’s reliance on technology represents the importance of physics
in daily life. Many aspects of modern society would not have been possible
without Importance of Physics in Science Technology and Society. The
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important scientific discoveries made in the past. These discoveries became
the foundation on which current technologies were developed.
Discoveries such as magnetism, electricity, conductors and others
made modern conveniences, such as television, computers, smart phones,
medical instruments, other business and home technologies possible.
Moreover, modern means of transportation, such as aircraft and
telecommunications, have drawn people across the world closer together all
rely on concepts of physics.

Q no. 3: Define measuring instruments with examples.

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS:
The devices or instrument are used for measuring different
Physical Quantities are called Measuring Instruments.
EXAMPLES:
Stop Watch, Vernier Calliper, Screw Gauge, Physical Balance,
Measuring Cylinder etc.

Q no. 4: Define Physical Quantities with its classification.

PHYSICAL QUANTITY:
A physical quantity can be expressed as the combination of a
magnitude expressed by a number – usually a real number – and a unit.
Physical quantities are classified into two categories:
1. Fundamental quantities
2. Derived physical quantities.

Q no. 5: Define fundamental Physical Quantities by drawing a

chart.
FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICAL QUANTITY:
Physical quantities which cannot be explained by other physical
quantities are called fundamental physical quantities.
There are seven fundamental physical quantities and are listed in table
along with their units.
FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES AND THEIR S.I UNITS:
FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES S.I UNIT SYMBOL OF UNIT
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
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Temperature kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd

Q no. 6: Define derived physical quantities by drawing a chart.

DERIVED PHYSICAL QUANTITIES:
Physical quantities which are explained on the basis of fundamental
physical quantities are called derived physical quantities.
DERIVED QUANTITIES AND THEIR UNITS:

Derived quantities S.I Unit Symbol of Unit

Volume Cubic meter m3
Velocity Meter per second m-1s
Force Newton N
Density Kilogram per cubic meter Kg/m3
Acceleration Meter per second square m/s2

Q no. 7: What is length Define the standard of length.

LENGTH:
The length is defined as the minimum distance between two points
lying on same plane.
The meter (m) is the SI unit of length and is defined as:
The length of the path traveled by light in vacuum during the time
interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.
The basic measurement of length can be obtained with the help of a
meter rod or an inch tape.
1000m = 1km
100cm = 1m
1cm = 10mm
1inch = 2.53cm
12 inch = 1 ft
1 yard = 3 ft

Q no. 8: Write a note on Meter Rule.

METER RULE:
A meter rule is a device which is used to measure length of different
objects. A meter rule of length 1m is equal to 100 centimeters (cm). On
meter rule each cm is divided further in to 10 divisions which are called
millimeters (mm). So, a meter rule can measure up to 1mm as smallest
reading. It is made up of a long rigid piece of wood or steel.
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 The zero-end of the meter rule is first aligned with one end of the
object and the reading is taken where the other end of the object meets the
meter rule.

Q no. 9: Write in detail about Vernier Calliper.

VERNIER CALLIPER:
It is a device for the measure of small length, as diameter of
cylinder, inner and outer diameter of cylinder depth and height of cylinder up
to 0.01 cm with great accuracy. This apparatus has one main scale and a
vernier scale. It has two screws on for sliding the vernier scale and the other
is used as a lock. One fine slim road is for measuring depth is also present.

VERNIER CONSTANT (LEAST COUNTS OF VERNIER):

Least count of Vernier Calliper is defined as the least length
which a Vernier Calliper can measure. The Least Count of Vernier Calliper is
0.1 mm or 0.01 cm.
ZERO ERROR AND ITS CORRECTION:
On closing the Jaws, if the Zero of main Scale is coincide with
the zero of vernier scale, then the vernier Calliper has no zero error and no
correction is required. If the zero of main scale and vernier does not coincide
then there is an error known as zero error and correction is required.
TYPES OF ZERO ERROR:
Zero error has two types:
1. Negative Zero Error and 2. Positive Zero Error
NEGATIVE ZERO ERROR:

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 If on closing the jaws, zero of vernier scale crosses the zero of
main scale and it goes to left of zero of main scale i.e. it give some reading in
negative in sense. The error is called “Negative Zero Error”.
POSITIVE ZERO ERROR:
If on closing the jaws, zero of vernier scale remains in the
right of zero of main scale i.e. it gives some reading in positive sense then
the error is called “Positive Zero Error”.
ZERO CORRECTION:
When an object is measured by a Vernier Calliper having
Negative Error, then the amount of error is added to the reading. When an
object is measured by a Vernier Calliper having Positive Error, then the
amount of error is subtracted by the measured reading.

Q no. 10: Write about Micrometer Screw gauge.

MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE:
Micrometer Screw Gauge is used to measure up to 0.001 cm or
0.01 mm. It consists of a solid U-shaped frame of metal. It has a fixed end
which is plane, round and very hard metallic. Through the other end passes a
fine and accurately cut screw having a plane round end. A cap on the screw
and it carries on its inner edge a circular scale having 50 or 100 divisions.
There is another scale graduated in millimeter on the nut of the screw which
is called the linear main scale.

PITCH OF SCREW GAUGE:

It is the distance between the two consecutive threads of the
linear screw. It is measured by the distance travelled by the circular scale on
the main scale during one complete rotation of the circular scale.

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Q no. 11: Define the Standard of Mass.
STANDARD MASS (KILOGRAM):
The mass of cylinder of specific dimension of platinum iridium
alloy kept in the International Bureau of Weights and Measurement near
Paris is taken to standard kilogram.
MULTIPLES: SUB-MULTIPLES:
1kg =1000 gm gm =103 1mgm =1/1000 gm
=10-3 gm
1Mg =1000000 gm =106 gm 1𝜇gm =1/1000000 gm
=10 gm
-6

1Gm =1000000000 gm =109 gm 1ngm =1/1000000000 gm

=10-9 gm
1000g = 1kg
1g = 1000mg
1g= 1000000mg
1g=1000000000ng
1g=0.002lb
Q no. 12: How do we measure mass. Write about Physical
Balance.
Mass of an object is measured by means of a device, which is called
“Physical Balance”.
PHYSICAL BALANCE:
It consists of a horizontal beam resting at the middle point on a
the central knife edge. Two similar pans are suspended on two more knife
edge near each end of the beam. A long pointer capable of swinging on a
scale is attached to the middle of the beam. The physical balance is leveled
on a table by means of levelling screws. The object is placed on the left pan
and the standard masses on the right pan.

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Q no. 13: Write a note on Electronic Balance.
THE ELECTRONIC BALANCE:
The digital mass meter is an electronic instrument configured with
integrated circuits and it works on the principal of balancing the forces.
The device is turned on and set to zero then object is placed on the plate. The
reading on the screen gives the mass of object. The electronic balance is
available in different ranges of measurement such as micro gram, milligram
and kilogram etc.

Q no. 14: Define the standard of Time.

STANDARD OF TIME (SECOND):
One second is exactly equal to the time interval of
9,192,631,770 vibrations of Cs-133. This unit of time is obtained through Cs
atomic clock. One such clock is at National Bureau of standard Washington
USA.
The multiples and sub multiples units of meter are as follows:
MULTIPLES: ALSO SUB MULTIPLES:
1 Minute = 60 Sec 1ks = 103 s 1mSec = 10-3
Sec
1 Hour = 3600 Sec 1Ms = 106 s 1𝜇Sec = 10-6
Sec
1 Day = 86400 Sec 1Gs = 109 s 1nSec = 10-9
Sec

Q no. 15: What is stop watch write its types.

STOP WATCH:
A stopwatch is used to measure the time interval between two events.
There are two types of stopwatch. Mechanical stopwatch and Digital
stopwatch.

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MECHANICAL / ANALOGUE STOPWATCH:
A mechanical stop watch can measure a time interval up to 0.1 second.
It has a knob that is used to wind the spring that powers the watch. It can
also be used as a start stop and reset button. The watch starts when the knob
is pressed once. When pressed second time, the watch stops While the third
press brings the needle back to zero.
DIGITAL STOPWATCH:
A digital stop watch can measure a time interval up to 0.01 second. It starts
to indicate the time lapsed as the start/stop button is pressed. As soon as
start/stop button is pressed again, it stops and indicates the time interval
recorded by it between start and stop of an event. A reset button restores its
initial zero setting. Now a days almost the mobile phones have a
stopwatch function.

Q no. 16: What do you meant by human reaction time.

HUMAN REACTION TIME:
As analogue or digital or watch is operated by human manually i.e.,
they have to be started or stopped by hand. This causes a random error in
measurement of time i.e called human reaction time. For most people
human reaction time is about 0.3- 0.5 s. Therefore for more accurate
measurement of time intervals light gates can be used.

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Q no. 17: What do you meant by prefixes Draw a chart to show
prefixes.
PREFIXES:
The Physical quantities are described by the scientist in terms of
magnitudes and units. Units play a vital role in expressing a quantity either
base or derived. Prefixes are useful for expressing units of
physical quantities that are either very big or very small.
A unit prefix is a specifier. It indicates multiples or fractions of the
units.
1 hour = 60 min
1 hour = 3600 sec
1min=60sec
1sec=1000ms
1sec=1000000ms

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Q no. 18: Write a note on scientific notation.
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION:
Scientific notation or the standard form is a simple method of writing
very large numbers or very small numbers. In this method numbers are
written as powers of ten. Thus calculation of very large or very
small numbers becomes easy.
Numbers in Scientific Notation are made up of three
parts: The coefficient, the base and the exponent.
1. The coefficient must be equal to or (Not zero) greater than one
2. The base must be 10
3. The exponent can be negative or positive.
RULE EXAMPLE
1 All non-zeroes are significant 2.25 (3 significant figures)
2 Leading zeroes are not significant 0.00000034 (2 significant
figures)
3 Trailing zeroes are significant only if 200 (1 significant figure)
an explicit decimal point is present 200. (3 significant figures)
2.00 (3 significant figures)
4 Trapped zeroes are significant 0.00509 (3 significant figures)
2045 (4 significant figures)

Q no. 19: Why do we use a measuring cylinder.

MEASURING CYLINDER:
Measuring cylinder is an apparatus used to find the volume of
liquids. It is made of glass cylinder with a scale in a cubic centimeters or
millimeters. When a liquid is poured it rises to a certain height in the cylinder.
The level of liquid in the cylinder is noted and the volume of the liquid is
obtained. In order to read the volume correctly we should keep the eye in
level of the meniscus of the liquid surface and the cylinder must be on a
horizontal table.

Q no. 20: Define density. Write the concept of Measuring the

Density.
DENSITY:
The term density of a substance is defined as mass of substance (m)
per unit volume (V). It is denoted by Greek letter ρ (rho).
ρ = mV
The S.I unit for density is kg/m3 kgm-3. Sometimes dens of substances
is given in gm/ cm3. The density of Aluminum is 2.70 gm/cm3 which is equal
to 2700 Kg/m3.
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MEASURING THE DENSITY:
It is to be noted that there are two ways of finding the density of a
substance either mathematically or experimentally by taking density of water
at 4oC as a reference which is sometimes known as relative density or
'Specific gravity'. It has no unit, it is a number whose value is the same as
that of the density in g/cm3.
relative density = density of substance
density of water

Q no. 21: What is significant figures. Write rules for counting these
figures.
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES:
The number of digits about which we are reasonably sure is
called the “Significant Figures”. OR
“In any measurement the accurately known digits and the first doubtful digit
are known as “Significant Figures”.
RULES OF COUNTING SIGNIFICANT FIGURES:
Following are the rules for counting the significant figures:
1. In whole number values, all the digits except zeros at the right side are
recognized as significant figures.
2. In decimal number values, the zeros at the right side of the number are
counted as significant figures but the zeros at the left side are not taken as
significant figures.
3. Power or exponents to a certain base are not taken as significant figures.
4. In addition and subtraction process, the result should be rounded off to
contain as many as decimal places as contained in the value of least
number of decimal figures.
5. In multiplication and division process, the result should be rounded off to
contain as significant figures as contained in the factor of least significant
figures.

EXAMPLES:
In 3453 all are S.F In 00034 only 3 and 4 are S.F
In 3400 only 3 and 4 are S.F In 25 x 105 only 2 and 5 are S.F
In 34.4506 all are S.F In 20.05 x 108 there are 4 S.F
In 30.4050 all are S.F In 25 x 10-5 there are 5 S.F

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UNIT NO.2

KINEMATICS

Q no. 1: What is Mechanics. Write divisions of Mechanics.

The branch of physics which is related with the study of motion of
objects is called Mechanics.
It is divided in two parts
1. Kinematics
2. Dynamics
KINEMATICS:
The branch of Physics deals with the description of motion of an object
without reference to force or agents causing the motion is known as
“Kinematics”. It is derived from a Greek word “Kinema” meaning “Motion”.

DYNAMICS:
It is a branch of Physics which deals with the causes of motion of an
object. How the motion is produce? What are the factors which will affect
the motion? etc. The word “Dynamics” is taken from a Greek word
“Dynamic” meaning “Power”.

Q no. 2: Define Rest and Motion. Define how Rest and Motion are
Relative.
REST:
A body is said to be in rest if it does not change its position with
respect to its surroundings.
MOTION:
A body is said to be in motion if it changes its position with respect to
its surroundings.
REST AND MOTION ARE RELATIVE STATE:
No body in the universe is in the state of absolute rest or absolute
motion. If a body is at rest with respect to some reference point at the same
time, it can also be in the state of motion with respect to some other
reference point.
For example, A Passenger sitting in a moving bus is at rest because
passenger are not changing their position with respect to other passengers or
objects in the bus as shown in fig 2.3. But for another observer outside the
bus noticed that the passengers and objects inside the bus are in motion as
they are changing their position with respect to observer standing at the
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road. Similarly a passenger flying on aeroplane is in motion when observed
from ground but at the same times he is at rest with reference to other
passengers on board.

Q no. 3: Describe types of Motion in detail.

TYPES OF MOTION:
There are three types of motion.
1. Translatory motion (linear, circular and random)
2. Rotatory motion
3. Vibratory motion

TRANSLATORY MOTION:
When all points of a moving body move uniformly along the same
straight line, such motion is called translatory motion.
EXAMPLE:
A train is moving along a straight track in Fig 2.4. you can observe that
every part of the train is moving along that straight path. This is called
translator motion.
LINEAR MOTION:
Motion of a body along a straight line is called linear motion.
EXAMPLE:
The motion of a bus in a straight line on road is called linear motion.
CIRCULAR MOTION:
Motion of a body along a circular path is called circular motion.
EXAMPLE:
An artificial satellite moving around the Earth along circular path is an
example of circular motion.
RANDOM MOTION:
Irregular motion of an object is called random motion.
EXAMPLE:
The motion of butterfly, house fly, dust and smoke particles along
zigzag paths are examples of random motion. The motion of the particles of a
gas or a liquid known as the Brownian motion which is an example of random
motion.
ROTATORY MOTION:
The motion of the body around a fixed axes which passes through body
itself is called spin or rotatory motion.
EXAMPLE:

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 The motion of a wheel about the axle, the motion of a rider on the
Ferris wheel are some examples of rotatory motion.
VIBRATORY MOTION:
Back and forth motion of a body about its mean position is called
vibratory or oscillatory motion.
EXAMPLE:
There are many examples of vibratory or
oscillatory motion in daily life. for example, motion of the clock’s pendulum.

Q no. 4: Distinguish between Translatory, Rotatory and Vibratory

motion.
DISTINGUISH BETWEEN TRANSLATORY, VIBRATORY AND
ROTATORY
TRANSLATORY ROTATORY VIBRATORY
MOTION MOTION MOTION
A body moves The spinning of The body move
along a straight a body about its back and forth
line. axis. aboutmean
position.
Movement of an The motion of an The body moves
object from one objectabout up and down.
place to another. fixed point.
All particles of The motion of a An object repeat
the rigid body rigid body about its motion itself.
move with the afixedaxis.
same velocity at Every particle of
every instant of body move in a
time. circular path.

Q no. 5: Write difference between Distance and Displacement.

DISTANCE DISPLACEMENT
1 Distance is the measure of path Displacement is the measure of
traveled between two points. straight lined path between two
points.
2 It is a scalar physical quantity. It is a vector physical quantity.
3 It is completely defined by It is completely defined by
magnitude and suitable unit. magnitude, suitable unit and
direction.

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 4 Distance may occur in curved or Displacement can never be
straight path. curved it is always a straight line.

Q no. 6: What is speed. Write types of speed.

SPEED:
Speed is defined as the distance covered per unit time, OR
The rate of change of distance is called “Speed”.
It is a scalar quantity and denoted by V. Its unit is m/s. Where
𝑽 = 𝑺/𝒕
TYPES OF SPEED:
There are two main types of speed for a moving body.
1. Uniform Speed 2:Average Speed
UNIFORM SPEED:
If a body covers equal distances in equal time intervals then its speed
is said to be “Uniform Speed”.
AVERAGE SPEED:
If the speed of a body is not constant or uniform then its speed is said
to be “Average Speed”. It is denoted by V avg.

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑆

Where 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔. = OR 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔. =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡

Q no. 7: What is Velocity. Write types of velocity.

VELOCITY:
Speed of a body in a particular direction is called “Velocity”. OR
The rate of change of displacement is called “Velocity”.
It is a vector quantity and denoted by V. Where 𝑉 = 𝑆/𝑡
EXAMPLES:
A car moves towards east with a speed of 5m/s.
An airplane flies towards north with a speed of 100m/s.
TYPES OF VELOCITY:
There are three main types of velocity:
1:Variable Velocity 2:Uniform Velocity 3:Average Velocity
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VARIABLE VELOCITY:
If velocity of a body is not constant or a body does not cover equal
displacement in equal interval of time then are velocity is called “Variable
Velocity”.
UNIFORM VELOCITY:
If velocity of a body is constant or a body covers equal displacement in
equal interval of time the velocity is called “Uniform Velocity”.
AVERAGE VELOCITY:
If the velocity of a body is variable velocity then their average is called
“Average Velocity”. It is denoted by V. Where 𝑉 = 𝑆/𝑡

Q no. 8: Write difference between speed and velocity.

SPEED VELOCITY
1 Speed is the rate of change of Velocity is the rate of change of
distance. displacement.
2 It is specified by magnitude and It is specified by magnitude,
suitable unit. suitable unit and direction.
3 It is a scalar physical quantity. It is a vector physical quantity.

Q no. 9: What is Acceleration Write types of Acceleration.

ACCELERATION:
The rate of change of velocity is called “Acceleration”. It is a vector
quantity and denoted by “a”. Its S.I. Unit is m/s2.
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Where 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒

△𝑉
If ∆V = Change in Velocity and ∆t = time interval then: 𝑎=
△𝑡

𝑉𝑓− 𝑉𝑖
Here 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑓 – 𝑉𝑖 , hence 𝑎=
△𝑡
Vi is the initial velocity and Vf is the final velocity of the moving body.
EXAMPLES:
If the velocity of a car increases from 10m/s to 60m/s in 10 seconds
then it has acceleration and its value is 5m/s2.
TYPES OF ACCELERATION:
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 There are four types of acceleration:
1:Positive Acceleration 2:Negative Acceleration
3:Uniform Acceleration 4:Average Acceleration
POSITIVE ACCELERATION:
If the velocity of a moving body increases with the passage of time
then the acceleration of the body is called “Positive Acceleration”.
NEGATIVE ACCELERATION OR RETARDATION:
If the velocity of a moving body decreases with the passage of time
then the acceleration of the body is called “Negative Acceleration” or
“Retardation”.
AVERAGE ACCELERATION:
The between total change in velocity and time is called “Average
Acceleration”. It is denoted by aavg.
△𝑉
Where 𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑔. =
△𝑡

Q no. 10: Define Scalars and Vectors with examples and

differences.
SCALARS:
Physical Quantities which are completely specified by their magnitude
and suitable units are known as “Scalars”.

EXAMPLES:
Mass, Volume, Density, Length, Speed etc.
VECTORS:
Physical Quantities which are completely specified by their magnitude,
units along with a proper direction are known as “Vectors”.

EXAMPLES:
Weight, Force, Velocity, Torque, Acceleration etc.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SCALARS AND VECTORS:

SCALARS VECTORS
1 Physical Quantities which are Physical Quantities which are
completely specified by their completely specified by their
magnitude and suitable units are magnitude, units along with a
known as “Scalars”. proper direction are known as
“Vectors”.
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 2 They are usually represented by They are usually represented by
simple numbers. specific length of straight lines
with arrow heads.
3 They can be add, subtract or They are added, subtracted or
multiply by general rules of multiplied by special vector
simple mathematics. methods.

Q no. 11: Define first equation of Motion OR Prove vf = vi + at

Suppose a body moves with uniform acceleration “a” and its velocity
changes from initial velocity “Vi” to final velocity “Vf” in time interval “t”,
then change in velocity will be “V”.
Where △ 𝑽 = 𝑽𝒇 − 𝑽𝒊
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
Since 𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒍
𝑽𝒇 − 𝑽𝒊
𝒂=
𝒕
𝑽𝒇 − 𝑽𝒊
Multiplying both sides by “t”, 𝒕 ×𝒂=𝒕 ×
𝒕
𝒂𝒕 = 𝑽𝒇 − 𝑽𝒊
By changing the sides 𝑽𝒇 − 𝑽𝒊 = 𝒂𝒕
By arranging the above equation 𝑽𝒇 = 𝑽𝒊 + 𝒂𝒕
The above equation is 1st equation of motion, which shows relation among
Vf, Vi, a and t.

Q no. 12: Derive second equation of motion OR

Prove s = Vit +1/2 at2
Suppose a body moves with uniform acceleration “a” and its velocity
changes from initial velocity “Vi” to final velocity “Vf” in time interval “t”,
then the average velocity will be “Vavg.”.
𝑽𝒊 + 𝑽𝒇
𝑽𝒂𝒗𝒈. = … … . (𝒊)
𝟐
In the man time distance covered by the moving body “S”
𝑺 = 𝑽𝒂𝒗𝒈. × 𝒕 … … . (𝒊𝒊)
Putting the value of Vavg. From eq. (i) in the above equation.
𝑽𝒊 + 𝑽𝒇
𝑽𝒂𝒗𝒈. =
𝟐
Putting this value of Vavg. in equation (ii)
𝑽𝒊 + 𝑽𝒇
𝑺= ×𝒕 … … . (𝒊𝒊)
𝟐
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 𝒕
𝑺 = (𝑽𝒊 + 𝑽𝒇 ) ×
𝟐
According to the first equation of motion 𝑽𝒇 = 𝑽𝒊 + 𝒂𝒕
Putting this value of Vf. in equation (iii)
𝒕
𝑺 = (𝑽𝒊 + 𝑽𝒇 + 𝒂𝒕) ×
𝟐
𝒕
𝑺 = (𝟐𝑽𝒊 + 𝒂𝒕) ×
𝟐
𝟐𝑽𝒊 × 𝒕 𝒕
By opening the bracket 𝑺= + 𝒂𝒕 ×
𝟐 𝟐
𝒂𝒕𝟐
By simplifying 𝑺 = 𝑽𝒊 𝒕 +
𝟐
𝟏
Or 𝑺 = 𝑽𝒊 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟐
The above equation is 2nd equation of motion, which shows relation among
S, a, Vi and t.

Q no. 13: Derive third equation of motion OR

Derived 2aS = vf2 – vi2
Suppose a body moves with uniform acceleration “a” and its velocity
changes from initial velocity “Vi” to final velocity “Vf” in time interval “t”,
then the average velocity will be “Vavg.”.
𝑽𝒊 + 𝑽𝒇
𝑽𝒂𝒗𝒈. = … … . (𝒊)
𝟐
In the mean time distance covered by the moving body “S”
𝑺 = 𝑽𝒂𝒗𝒈. × 𝒕 … … . (𝒊𝒊)

Putting the value of Vavg. From eq. (i) in the above equation.
𝑽𝒊 + 𝑽𝒇
𝑽𝒂𝒗𝒈. =
𝟐
According to the first equation of motion 𝑽𝒇 = 𝑽𝒊 + 𝒂𝒕
According to the above equation 𝑽𝒊 + 𝒂𝒕 = 𝑽𝒇
𝒂𝒕 = 𝑽𝒇 − 𝑽𝒊
𝑽𝒇 − 𝑽 𝒊
Or 𝒕= … … . (𝒊𝒊𝒊)
𝒂
Putting the value of Vavg. and t from eq. (i) and eq. (iii) in eq. (ii).
𝑽𝒊 + 𝑽𝒇 𝑽𝒇 − 𝑽𝒊
𝑺= .
𝟐 𝒂
(𝑽𝒇 +𝑽𝒊 )(𝑽𝒇 − 𝑽𝒊 )
Or 𝑺=
𝟐𝒂
Since (a+b) (a-b) = (a2-b2) then we can write the above equation as
follows:
𝑽𝒇 𝟐 − 𝑽𝒊 𝟐
𝑺=
𝟐𝒂
By arranging 𝟐𝒂𝒔 = 𝑽𝒇 𝟐 − 𝑽𝒊 𝟐
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The above equation is the 3rd equation of motion, which shows relation
among S, a, Vf and Vi.

Q no. 14: Define Gravity and acceleration due to gravity.

The attraction of the earth on the thrown object is called
“Gravitational Attraction” or “Gravity” and the change in velocity of the
object, as a result of this attraction, is known as “Acceleration due to
Gravity”. It is represented by “g” and its value is 9.8 m/s2 directed downward
towards the centre of the earth.
So the equation for the bodies moving freely under gravity can
be written as: 𝑽𝒇 = 𝑽𝒊 + 𝒈𝒕
𝟏
𝑺 = 𝑽𝒊 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟐
𝟐𝒂𝒔 = 𝑽𝒇 𝟐 − 𝑽𝒊 𝟐
All bodies having different mass fall with same acceleration and same
velocity and takes same time if they are dropped from same height.

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UNIT NO.3

DYNAMICS

Q no.1: Define force and newton.

FORCE:
Force is an agent which changes or tends to change the existing state
of a body. It is a vector physical quantity and denoted by “F”. Its S.I. unit is
Newton (N). Where 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
Here “m” is mass and “a” is acceleration of the body.

DEFINITOION OF NEWTON:
Newton is the S.I unit of “Force”. It is defined as “A force which
produces an acceleration of one meter per second on a mass of one kilogram
is called “Newton”. It is denoted by “N”. Where 𝑵 = 𝑲𝒈/𝒎𝟐

Q no.2: Define Momentum and Law of conservation of

Momentum.
MOMENTUM:
“Momentum” of a body is defined as the product of mass and
velocity of the body”. It is a vector quantity and denoted by “P”.
Where P=m×v
S.I. unit of momentum “P” is kgm/s or Newton Second “Ns”.

EXAMPLE:
A stone of 500gm is thrown with a velocity of 100m/s then its
momentum “P” will be: P = 0.5 × 100
P = 50kgm/s
A car of mass 1000kg is moving with a velocity of 2m/s then its also
clear that momentum “P” will be:
P = 1000 × 2
P = 2000kgm/s
By the above example we can easily understand momentum. It is also clear
that momentum depends upon the mass and velocity of the moving body.
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LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM:
According to this law “The momentum of an isolated system always
remains constant”.

DERIVATION FOR LAW:

Consider a system consisting of two balls of masses m1 and m2 moving in
straight line, with velocities u1 and u2. On colliding with each other they
move with velocities v1 and v2 respectively.
The total momentum of the system before collision is “Pi”
Pi = m1u1 + m2u2
After collision the momentum of the system is “Pf”
Where Pf = m1v1 + m2v2
According to the law of momentum:
Pi = Pf
Thus m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
Above equation shows that the total momentum of the system remains
constant.

Q no.3: Prove that rate of change of Momentum is equal to force.

MOMENTUM IN TERMS OF FORCE:
We can also say that the change in momentum is equal to the force
multiplied by the time interval for which it was applied. Consider a body of
mass m, moving with initial velocity vi . A force F acts on the body to produce
acceleration a, therefore the final velocity after time t will become vf . Note
that if p = mv and m is constant, then the change in velocity changes the
momentum of body.
Pi =mvi
Pf =mfv
and pf – pi = (mvf – mvi) change in momentum
pf – pi = m (vf -vi ) divide both sides by t
p f – p i = m vf – vi
t t
Since rate of change of velocity is acceleration
vf - vi = a Therefore pf - pi = ma
t t
according to Newton’s second law of motion F=ma therefore,

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 pf - pi = F
t
∆p = Ft

Q no.4: What are Safety measures in a vehicle to prevent from

fatal injuries.
SAFETY DEVICES:
The equation is important when it comes to consider a number of
safety features in our lives. If you are moving, you have momentum. To stop
moving, a force must be applied. According to the equation if you take longer
time to stop, smaller force will be used to slow down you.
Observe a car to identify the safety measures taken to reduce the risk
of injuries in case of road accident. The car bumpers and grills are designed
to provide extra time to reduce speed before any collision.
You can find some crumple zones or bumpers on front and backside.
Seat belts are provided to hold the passengers from moving suddenly. There
are extra cushions and air bags as well. These measures provide extra time to
change momentum of the passenger inside it. This means that force acting
on the passenger is less to prevents from risk of fatal injuries. Fragile objects,
glassware and sensitive electronic components are packed in safety bags and
Styrofoam packing to reduce the effect of sudden shock.
The helmets protect from direct strike on head and provide extra time
to reduce speed before something strikes to it.
Different safety helmets are used by workers, riders and sportsmen.

Q no.5: Define Newton’s First Law of Motion with examples.

NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION:
“Every object continues its state of rest, or state of uniform motion in a
straight line, unless it is acted upon by an external force”.

EXAMPLES:
1. A book lying on the table or things in a cupboard will remain there for
ever in the same position unless some one comes and removes them.
2. If we roll a ball on the floor we observe that after covering some
distance it stops. There are some forces which stop the motion of the
ball. If they do not act upon the ball, it will never stop and will continue
its motion uniformly in a straight line.

Q no.6: What is inertia? Why Newton’s first Law of motion is called

“Law of Inertia”?
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INERTIA:
The tendency of a body by virtue of which it continues its existing
state, whether of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line is known as
“Inertia”.

EXPLANATION WITH EXAMPLES:

When a bus suddenly starts moving, a person standing in it would fall
in the backwards direction because the lower part of the body of the person is
in the contact with the bus and is carried forward by the motion of the bus.
But the upper part of the body of the person remains at rest due to inertia
and so the person falls in the backwards direction but if the moving bus
suddenly stops the person falls forwards.

NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION IS CALLED LAW OF

INERTIA:
According to the Newton’s First Law of Motion “Every body continues
its state of rest, or state of uniform motion in a straight line” and according to
Inertia “it is the tendency of a body by virtue of which it continues its existing
state (rest or motion)”.
Actually the first law exists due to inertia, if a body has not inertia it
can not move uniformly in straight line. So the first law of motion is called
“Law of Inertia”.

Q no.7: Define Newton’s Second Law of Motion and derive its

expression.
NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION:
“When a force acts on an object, it produces an acceleration in its own
direction which is directly proportional to the magnitude of the force and
inversely proportional to the mass of the object”.

EXPLANATION WITH EXAMPLES:

When an object moves with a certain acceleration it can be
accelerated more and more by increasing the force. Moreover objects one
heavier one than the other acquires less amount of acceleration where the
lighter one acquires more acceleration by the application of same force and
the direction of acceleration is parallel to applied force.

DERIVATION OF EXPRESSION:

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 The acceleration of a body increases by increase in force. So the
relationship between the applied force and the acceleration produced in an
object can be mathematically expressed as:
𝒂 ∝𝑭 … … … . (𝒊)
Also the acceleration produced by the same or constant force
decreases by increase in mass. So the relation between the acceleration and
mass will be:
𝟏
𝒂 ∝ … … … . (𝒊𝒊)
𝒎
𝑭
Combining eq. (i) and (ii) we get: 𝒂 ∝
𝒎
𝑭
⟹ 𝒂=𝒌 ×
𝒎

Where “k” is the constant of proportionality

𝑭
Taking k =1 ⟹ 𝒂=
𝒎

⟹ 𝑚𝒂 = 𝑭
⟹ 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
Above expression explains Newton’s Second Law of Motion
mathematically.

SINGLE ISOLATED FORCE:

An independent and free force, is called “Single Isolated Force”. It is
neither dependent nor any force depends on it.

Q no.8: Define Newton’s Third Law of Motion with examples.

NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION:
“For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction” OR “Every
action has reaction equal in magnitude but opposite in direction”.
According to Newton’s Law if a body A acts on body B
Then Action of A = Reaction of B
Action = Reaction
Action = -Reaction

EXAMPLES:
1) A book placed on a table applies a force on the table equal to its
weight, it is an action. Table applies a force equal to weight but
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 opposite direction, it is reaction. As a result of action and reaction
book remain in rest.
2) In the engine of a rocket, gases formed due to the combustion of the
fuel, rush out with great speed through jet on the back side of the
rocket, it is an action of rocket. As a result the rocket moves onward.

Q no.8: Define and give differences between Mass and Weight.

MASS:
The quantity of matter in a body is called its “Mass”. It is a Scalar
quantity. It is denoted by “m”
𝑭
Where 𝒎= S.I unit of mass is kilogram (kg) .
𝒂
WEIGHT:
Weight is a force with which earth attracts a body towards its center.
It is a Vector quantity and directed towards the center of earth. It is denoted
by “W”
Where W = m g S.I unit of weight is Newton (N).

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MASS AND WEIGHT:

MASS WEIGHT
Weight is a force with which
Quantity of mass in a body is called earth attracts a body towards
1 mass. It is denoted by `m`. its center.
2 It is a scalar quantity. It is a vector quantity.
3 Formula for mass is : m=F/a Formula for weight is : W=m g
Mass of a body remains constant Weight of a body differs from
4
every where. place to place.
5 Its S.I unit is kilogram (kg). Its S.I unit is Newton (N).

Q no.9: Write down the advantages, disadvantages and methods

of reducing friction.
ADVANTAGES OF FRICTION:
Some great advantages of friction are as follows:
1. Friction helps us in walking, running, pushing and pulling things.
2. Friction helps in stopping different objects.
3. We can not join or combine parts of a machine with nuts and screws
without friction.
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 4. We can no move easily our different body parts in the absence of
friction.
5. We can not hold any thing without friction.
DISADVANTAGES OF FRICTION:
Some important disadvantages of friction are as follows:
1. It wastes a lot of energy, especially in machines.
2. It reduces the efficiency of a machine.
3. It reduces the life time of our useful machines and appliances.
4. Sometimes it makes our work difficult and hard.
5. It reduces the speed of work also.
METHODS FOR REDUCING FRICTION:
Some methods of reducing friction are as follows:
1. Various parts of machines which are moving over one another are
properly lubricated.
2. In machines the sliding parts are usually replaced by rolling, this is
done by using ball bearings.
3. Where sliding is unavoidable a thick layer of greasing material is used
between the sliding surfaces.
4. The front of the fast moving objects e.g. cars, airplanes, made oblong
to minimize air friction.

Q no.10: Define Uniform Circular Motion and Centripetal

Acceleration.
UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION:
“If body moves in a circular path and moves with a uniform
speed it is said to be in a uniform circular motion”. But a body executing
uniform circular motion never passes uniform velocity due to change in
direction.
CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION:
“The body having uniform circular motion posses’
acceleration. This acceleration is called centripetal acceleration”. OR
“The rate of change of velocity of a body in a circular path is
called centripetal acceleration”. It is denoted by ac. Its S.I unit is m/s2.
𝑽𝟐
Where 𝒂𝒄 =
𝒓
EXAMPLES:
Motion of electrons around nucleus, motion of planets around the
Sun,
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movement of vehicles around the round about etc.

Q no.11: Define Centripetal force and derive an expression for it.

CENTRIPETAL FORCE:
The force which keeps a body in a circular path at the time of
circular motion is called “Centripetal Force”. It is directed towards center of
circle. Its symbol is “Fc” and S.I. unit is “Newton”.
𝒎𝑽𝟐
Where 𝑭𝒄 =
𝒓
EXAMPLE:
In the case of whirling a stone with the help of a string one provides
centripetal force by his hand.
DERIVATION OF EXPRESSION:
Suppose a body of mass “m” moving in a circle of radius “r” with
centripetal acceleration “a” provided by the centripetal force “F”.

Then according to the Newton’s second law of motion: F = ma

For circular motion Fc = m dc

𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐
Since 𝒂𝒄 = then 𝑭𝒄 = 𝒎 ×
𝒓 𝒓
𝒎𝑽𝟐
Or 𝑭𝒄 =
𝒓

Above equation shows that Centripetal Force depends upon mass, velocity
and radius of the path.
IMPORTANCE OF CENTRIPETAL FORCE:
Centripetal force is necessary for circular motion. For example, a car
running on a circular curve remains in balance due to centripetal force
provided by the frictional force of wheel and road. If the centripetal force is
not enough, the car will skid off the road away from the center of the circle it
may cause to an accident.

Q no.12: What is centrifugal force write applications of centrifuge.

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE:
Centrifugal force is the tendency of an object to leave the circular path
and fly off in a straight line. Thus it is defined as:
A force that acts outward on a body which moves along a curved path
is called centrifugal force.

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 1. It is always directed away from center of curvature.
2. The magnitude of centrifugal force is equal but opposite in direction
to centripetal force.
APPLICATION OF CENTRIFUGE:
Centrifuge appliances are used to separate heavier particles from lighter
particles in liquids e.g. Sugar crystals are separated from molasses. Blood
analysis is carried out through a centrifuge process in laboratory. Cream
separator is used to separate the cream from skimmed milk. An
ultracentrifuge is used for separating small particle from large molecules. Gas
centrifuge is used for separation of isotopes.

Q no.13: Write a note on Road Banking, Cream Separator, Dryer.

ROAD BANKING:
The outer edge or bank of the road is raised to a certain height at the
curved part of roads. This provides the centripetal force against the tyres of
vehicle hence prevents from skidding.
CREAM SEPARATOR:
The milk plants in country are using high speed spinners to separate
cream from milk. The skimmed milk is heavier whereas the cream is lighter.
When the milk is spun at high speed the heavy particles are pushed towards
the walls of the spinner. These particles push the lighter particles of cream to
the center where from it is collected through a tube.
DRYER:
Now a days built-in dryer is available in most of washing machines. It
spins the wet clothes hence the water droplets are thrown away from the
perforated walls of the dryer and clothes get dry instantly.

Q no.14: What is friction? Write types of Friction.

FRICTION:
The force that resists relative motion between two surfaces is called
friction.
Friction is self adjusting. It can increase to a certain value known as
limiting force (Fs). It is proportional to s normal force R.
Fs∝R
The ratio between limiting force and normal reaction R is constant that
is represented by coefficient of friction 𝜇 Thus,
Fs = 𝝁 R
Or
𝝁 = FS
R
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when a body is placed on a surface its weight w acts downward then
according to Newton's third law of motion R = W, here w = mg by putting the
value
R = mg in eq. (3.6) we get
F = 𝝁 mg

Q no.15: Write advantages , disadvantages and methods for

reducing friction.
ADVANTAGES OF FRICTION:
Some great advantages of friction are as follows:
1. Friction helps us in walking, running, pushing and pulling things.
2. Friction helps in stopping different objects.
3. We can not join or combine parts of a machine with nuts and screws
without friction.
4. We can no move easily our different body parts in the absence of
friction.
5. We can not hold any thing without friction.
DISADVANTAGES OF FRICTION:
Some important disadvantages of friction are as follows:
1. It wastes a lot of energy, especially in machines.
2. It reduces the efficiency of a machine.
3. It reduces the life time of our useful machines and appliances.
4. Sometimes it makes our work difficult and hard.
5. It reduces the speed of work also.
METHODS FOR REDUCING FRICTION:
Some methods of reducing friction are as follows:
1. Various parts of machines which are moving over one another are
properly lubricated.
2. In machines the sliding parts are usually replaced by rolling, this is
done by using ball bearings.
3. Where sliding is unavoidable a thick layer of greasing material is used
between the sliding surfaces.
4. The front of the fast moving objects e.g. cars, airplanes, made oblong
to minimize air friction.

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UNIT NO.4

TURNING EFFECTS OF FORCES

Q no.1: Define like an unlike Parallel forces.

LIKE PARALLEL FORCES:
The forces that act along the same direction are called like parallel
forces.
UNLIKE PARALLEL FORCES:
The forces that act along opposite directions are called unlike parallel
forces.

Q no.2: Define Resultant force write name of methods of Addition

of forces.
RESULTANAT FORCE:
Single force that has the same effect as the combined effect of the
forces to be added is called resultant force.
Two different methods are used for the addition of forces (i.e., in
general addition of vectors):
1. Graphical Method
2. Analytical Method

Q no.3: Write Graphical method (Head to tail Rule) for addition of

vectors.
GRAPHICAL METHOD:
This method is used for addition of one-dimensional vector quantities.
In this method head to tail rule of vector addition is used for the addition of
forces.
HEAD TO TAIL RULE:
Figure shows head to tail rule of vector addition.
Step 1
Choose a suitable scale
Step 2
Draw all the force vectors according to scale. Vectors A and B in this
case.
Step 3
Now take any vector as first vector and draw next vector in such a way
that its tail coincides with head of the previous. If number of vectors is more
than two then continue the process till last vector is reached.
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Step 4
Use a straight line with arrow pointed towards last vector to join the
tail of first vector with the head of last vector. This is the resultant vector.

Q no.4: Define Resolution of vectors. Write method to resolve

vectors into its components.
RESOLUTION OF VECTORS:
The process of splitting of a vector into mutually perpendicular
components is called resolution of vectors.
Figure shows a force F represented by a line segment OA which makes
an angle with x-axis. Draw a perpendicular AB on x-axis from A. The
components OB= FX and BA = FY are perpendicular to each other.
They are called the perpendicular components of OA = F. Therefore,
F = F X + FY
The trigonometric ratios can be used to find the magnitudes FX and FY.
In right angled triangle DOBA.
FX = OB = cos𝝑
F OA

Fx = F cos 𝝑
Also,
Fy = BA = sin𝝑
F OA

Fy = F sin 𝝑

Q no.5: Write methods of Determination of force from its

perpendicular components.
DETERMINATION OF FORCE FROM ITS PERPENDICULAR
COMPONENTS:
This is opposite to the process of resolution. If the perpendicular
components of a force are known then the process of determining the force
itself from the perpendicular components is called composition. Suppose F
and F are the perpendicular components of x y the force F and are
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represented by line segments OP and PR with arrowhead respectively as
shown in figure 4.8.
Applying the head to tail rule:
OR = OP + PR
Here OR represents the force F whose x and y – components are Fx and Fy
respectively.
Thus,
F = F x + Fy
In order to find the magnitude of F apply Pythagorean theorem to right
angled triangle OPR i.e.,
(OR)2 = (OP)2 + (PR)2 or F2 = Fx2 + Fy2
Therefore,

F = √𝐅x2 + 𝐅y2
The direction of F with x-axis is given by
tan 𝝑 = PR = Fy
OP Fx
𝝑 = tan-1 Fy
Fx
R

F
FY

O P
FX

Q no.6: Define Torque (or) Moment of force write factors on

which it depends also write its formula and unit and define
principle of moment.
TORQUE OR MOMENT OF FORCE:
The turning effect of force is called moment of force or Torque.
FACTORS:
It depends upon:
1. The magnitude of force.
2. The perpendicular distance of the point of application of force from
the Pivot or fulcrum.
FORMULA AND UNIT:
Moment of force about a point = Force x Perpendicular distance from
point.
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 Or
r=Fxd
depending on their direction, SI unit of the torque or moment of force is
newton - metre (Nm). Moments are described as clockwise or anticlockwise.
PRINCIPLE OF MOMENT:
The sum of the clockwise moments about a point is equal to the sum
of the anticlockwise moments about that point.

Q no.7: Define centre of Mass or Centre of gravity. Write centre of

gravity of some regular shaped objects and method of finding
center of gravity of irregular shaped thin lamina.
CENTRE OF MASS OR CENTRE OF GRAVITY:
A body behaves as if its whole mass is concentrated at one point,
called its centre of mass or centre of gravity, even though earth attracts
every part of it.
CENTER OF GRAVITY OF SOME REGULAR SHAPED OBJECTS:
The Center of gravity of regular shaped uniform objects is their
geometrical Center.
1. The Center of gravity of uniform rod is its mid point.
G

2. The Center of gravity of uniform square or a rectangular sheet is the

point of intersection of its diagonals.
G

3. The Center of gravity of solid or hollow sphere is the Center of the

sphere.

4. The Center of gravity of uniform circular ring is the center of ring as

shown in figure 4.14e.
5. The Center of gravity of uniform circular disc is its center as shown in
figure 4.14d
6. The Center of gravity of a uniform solid or hollow cylinder is the mid-
point on its axis as shown in figure 4.14f.
7. The Center of gravity of a uniform triangular sheet is the point of
intersection of its medians as shown in figure 4.14g.
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CENTER OF GRAVITY OF IRREGULAR SHAPED THIN
LAMINA:
Step 1: Make three small holes near the edges of the lamina farther apart
from each other.
Step 2: Suspend the lamina freely from one whole on retort stand through a
pin as shown in figure 4.15a.
Step 3: Hang a plumb line or weight from the pin in front of the lamina as
shown in figure 4.15b.
Step 4: When the plumb line is steady, trace the line on the lamina.
Step 5: Repeat steps 2 to 4 for second and third hole. The point of
intersection of three lines is the position of center of gravity.

Q no.8: Define “Couple” and “Torque” of couple and derive

mathematical expression.
COUPLE:
A pair of equal, parallel and unlike forces having different
lines of action is called a “Couple”. When a couple acts on a body, it rotates
along its axis. A couple can not be balanced by a single force. It can only be
balanced by an equal and opposite couple.
EXAMPLES:
1. When we turn on or off a tap we use couple by means of finger and
thumb.
2. For controlling steering wheel we use couple by means of right and left
hands.
3. The moving coil in a galvanometer is rotated by a couple.
4. The coil or armature in an electric motor is rotated by a couple.
TORQUE (MOMENT) OF A COUPLE:
“Torque or Moment of Couple is equal to the product of one of the
forces and the perpendicular distance between the lines of action of two
forces. This perpendicular distance between the two forces is called the “Arm
of Couple”.
MATHEMATICAL EXPLANATION:
Suppose two equal, unlike forces, each of magnitude “F” acting at
points “A” and “B”. the Torque or Moments of two forces are given by as
under:
a) The moment of force “F” at point “A” = F × OA
b) The moment of force “F” at point “B” = F × OB

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Both these moments have the same direction, so that the total moment of
force of the two forces is equal to the sum of two moments:
Thus Moment of Couple = F × OA + F × OB
= F (OA + OB)
= F × AB

Q no.9: What is Equilibrium . Write types of equilibrium.

EQUILIBRIUM:
When a body does not possess any acceleration neither linear nor
angular it is said to be in equilibrium.
EXAMPLE:
A book lying on table in rest, a paratrooper moving downwards with
terminal velocity, a chair lift hanging on supporting ropes.
TYPES:
There are two types of equilibrium.
1. Static Equilibrium
2. Dynamic Equilibrium
STATIC EQUILIBRIUM:
A body at rest is said to be in static equilibrium.
EXAMPLE:
A wall hanging , buildings, bridges or any object lying in rest on the
ground are some examples of static equilibrium.
DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM:
A moving object that does not possess any acceleration neither linear
nor angular is said to be in dynamic equilibrium.
EXAMPLE:
Uniform downward motion of steel ball through viscous liquid and
jumping of the paratrooper from the Helicopter.

Q no.10: Describe conditions of equilibrium.

CONDITIONS FOR EQUILIBRIUM:
A body must satisfy certain conditions to be in equilibrium. There are
two conditions for equilibrium:
FIRST CONDITION FOR EQUILIBRIUM:
According to this condition for equilibrium sum of the all forces acting
on a body must be equal to zero.
MATHAMATICALY:
Suppose n number of forces F1, F2, F3, ………., Fn are acting on a body
then according to first condition of equilibrium:
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F1 +F2 +F3 +………………+Fn = 0 or
ΣF = 0
EXAMPLE:
A basket of apples resting on the table or a clock hanging on the wall
are at rest and hence satisfy first condition for equilibrium. A paratrooper
moving down with terminal velocity also satisfies first condition for
equilibrium.
SECOND CONDITION FOR EQUILIBRIUM:
Sum of all clockwise and anticlockwise torques acting on a body is zero.
Mathematically,
Σ𝝅 = 0

Q no.11: Describe states of equilibrium.

STATES OF EQUILIBRIUM:
There are three states of equilibrium:
1. Stable equilibrium
2. Unstable equilibrium and
3. Neutral equilibrium
A body may be in one of the above states of equilibrium.
STABLE EQUILIBRIUM:
Suppose a box is lying on the table. It is in equilibrium. Tilt the box
slightly about its one edge. on releasing it returns back to its original position.
This state of body is known as stable equilibrium.
EXAMPLE:
A body is in stable equilibrium if when slightly displaced and then
released it returns to its previous position.
CONDITIONS:
1. A body is in stable equilibrium when.
2. Its Centre of gravity is at lowest position.
3. When it is tilted its Centre of gravity rises.
4. It returns back to stable state by lowering its centre of gravity.

UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM:
A body is said to be in unstable equilibrium when slightly tilted does
not return back to its previous position.
EXAMPLE:
Take a paper cone and try to keep it in vertical position on its vertex. it
topples down on releasing. This state of body is known as unstable
equilibrium.
CONDITIONS:
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 A body is in unstable equilibrium when:
1. Its Centre of gravity is at highest position.
2. When it is tilted its Centre of gravity is lowered.
3. Its previous position cannot be restored by raising its.
NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM:
A body is said to be in neutral equilibrium when displaced from
previous position remains in equilibrium in new position.
EXAMPLE:
Consider a ball placed on a horizontal surface. It is in equilibrium.
When it is displaced from its previous position it remains in its new position
still in equilibrium. This is called neutral equilibrium.
CONDITIONS:
A body said to be in neutral equilibrium when:
1. Its Center of gravity always remains above the point of contact.
2. When it is displaced from its previous position its Centre of gravity
remains at same height.
3. All the new states in which body is moved are the stable states.

Q no.12: Define stability by giving example.

STABILITY:
A body whose center of gravity is above its base of support will be
stable if a vertical line projected downward from the center of gravity falls
within base of support.
EXAMPLE:
1. A sewing needle fixed in a cork. The forks are hanged on the cork to
balance it on the tip of the needle. The forks lower the centre of mass
of the system. If it is disturbed will return back to original position.
2. A perched parrot. it is made heavy at tail which lowers its centre of
gravity. it can keep itself upright when tilted. In general, larger the
base and lower the centre of gravity, more stable the body will be.

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UNIT NO.5

FORCE AND MATTER

Q no.1: Define elastic behavior of solids explain how forces Acting

on solids.
ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF SOLIDS:
Solids have definite shapes and sizes, however it is possible to change
their shapes and sizes by applying external forces. When the external force is
removed, the object tends to return to its original shape and size. This
behavior is called elastic behaviour.
Solids can be stretched, squashed, bend or twisted. These figures show
the different ways in which elastic behavior of solid objects can be
demonstrated. A sufficiently large force will permanently deform or break an
object.

Q no.2: Define concept of stretching springs by giving examples

how solids are deformed.
STRETCHING SPRINGS:
As springs are designed to stretch a long way when force is applied,
therefore it is easy to measure changes in their lengths.
how solids are deformed?
Consider a spring hung from a rigid support, so that its top end is fixed.
Weights are hung on other end of the spring. These are called load. As load is
increased, the spring is stretched and its length increases.
When the load is removed, the spring returns to its original length. This
is called elastic change. When the load is increased in regular steps the length
of the spring also increases simultaneously. If the load is increased greatly,
the spring will change its shape permanently.

Q no.3: Define extension of spring perform an experiment to

show relation between load and extension.
EXTENSION OF SPRING:
The length of spring increases as the force (load) increases; Fig 5.3 (b).
This increase in length of spring is known as extension. Hence
Length of stretched spring = Original length + Extension

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EXPERIMENT:
Let’s carry out an experiment to stretch a spring of original length
20cm. Table shows recorded result of this experiment. The first column
shows the increase in load in regular steps. Second column shows the
increase in length of stretched spring. Third column shows the value of
extension, due to change in length in each step.
OBSERVATION:
Table for load and extension
0.0 20 0.0
2.0 21 1.0
4.0 22 2.0
6.0 23 3.0
8.0 24 4.0
10 25 5.0
12 26 6.0
14 28 8.0
16 30 10

Table shows how a spring stretches as the load on it increases.

Dependance of extension on load, shown in.
RESULT OF GRAPH:
you can see that the graph has two parts.
1. At first, the graph slopes up steadily. This shows that the extension
increases in equal steps as the load increases. This behaviour can also
be observed in table.
2. Then the graph bends. This happens when the load is greater enough
to damage the spring permanently. As a result the spring will not
return to its original length.

Q no.4: State Hooke’s law with its application.

HOOKE'S LAW:
Within elastic limit, the displacement produced in the spring is directly
proportional to the force applied.
Mathematically if ‘F’ is the applied force and ‘x’ is the displacement
(extension) in the spring then the equation for Hooke's law may be written
as:
F𝜶x
or F = kx
where k is spring constant (stiffness of spring).

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APPLICATIONS:
Hooke's law is applicable to all kinds of deformation and all types of
matter i.e., solids, liquids or gases within certain limit. This limit tells the
maximum force or stress that can be safely applied on a body without
causing permanent deformation in its length, volume or shape. In other
words, it is a limit within which a body recovers its original length, volume or
shape after the deforming force is removed.

Q no.5: Define pressure with formula and unit. Also describe the
concept of high and low pressure.
PRESSURE:
The force acting normally per unit area on the Do You Know! surface of
a body is called pressure.
Thus, Pressure = Force
Area
P=F
A

UNIT:
As the force is measured in newtons (N) and area in square meters
(m2). Therefore in SI system unit of pressure is newton per square meter
(Nm–2). It is also known as Pascal (Pa):
1 Pa = 1 Nm-2
HIGH PRESSURE:
The pressure under the studs on the soles of football shoes is high
enough to sink into the ground, which gives extra grip. Ice skates have blades
in the part that is in contact with ice. Therefore the skater's weight is
concentrated on a small area. The effect of this high pressure melts ice just
below the blades. This gives the thin film of water, which provide lubrication
for the skate to skim over the ice. As the skate moves on, the water re-
freezes.
LOW PRESSURE :
On very cold days, the pressure may not be enough to melt the ice,
and skating is impossible. An elephant has broad soles to reduce the pressure
exerted on the ground. Wide shoulder pads of school bag reduce pressure on
the student's shoulder.

Q no.6: Define pressure in fluids by giving example.

PRESSURE IN FLUIDS:
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 The pressure exerted by fluids is known as fluid pressure. It acts in all
directions. This is because the molecules of fluids move around in all
directions, causing pressure on every surface they collide with.
EXAMPLE:
A swimmer in swimming pool experience the pressure by water which
pushes the swimmer from all sides Fig 5.8. The arrows represent the
direction and magnitude of the forces exerted at various points on the
swimmer. Note that the net underneath force is larger due to greater depth,
giving a net upward or buoyant force that is balanced by the weight of the
swimmer.

Q no.7: Write factors affecting pressure.

FACTORS AFFECTING PRESSURE:
1. Pressure P is proportional to the depth, the deeper one dives into
water, greater will be the pressure. Twice the depth means twice the
pressure.
2. Pressure also depends upon the density of the material. If a material is
five times denser than water, the pressure will be five times greater.
At a depth h in a fluid of density ρ, the pressure p can be written as:
Pressure = depth x density x acceleration due to gravity
p = dpg

Q no.8: State Pascal’s law and write demonstration of Pascals law.

PASCAL'S LAW:
The pressure applied externally at any point of a liquid enclosed in a
container is transmitted equally to all parts of the liquid in container.
DEMONSTRATION:
It can be demonstrated with the help of a water filled glass vessel
having holes around its surface. When you apply force through the piston the
water rushes out of the holes with the same pressure. The force applied on
the piston exerts pressure on water. This pressure is transmitted equally
throughout the liquid in all directions. In general, this law holds good for
fluids both for liquids as well as gases.

Q no.9: What are Hydraulic Machine. Write its applications.

HYDRAULIC MACHINE:
The machine in which force is transmitted by liquids under pressure is
known as hydraulic machine. By the application of relatively small force they
produce a greater force.

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APPLICATIONS:
A hydraulic machine works on passcal’s principle. Hydraulic brakes, car
lifts, hydraulic jacks, forklifts, and other machines make use of this principle.

Q no.10: Write construction and working of Hydraulic Press. With

diagram.
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF HYDRAULIC PRESS:
A hydraulic press is made of two pistons connected by a liquid-filled
pipe.
A force of magnitude F1 is applied to a small 1 piston of surface area A1.
The pressure is transmitted 1 through an incompressible liquid to a larger
piston of surface area A2. Because the pressure must be the same 2 on both
sides,
P = F1 = F2
A1 A2
Therefore, the force F2 is greater than the force F1 by a factor A2 /A1.
By designing a hydraulic press with appropriate areas A1 and A2 , a large
output force can be applied by means of a small input force.
Each side of this equation is the work done by the force. Thus, the
work done by F1 on the input piston equals to the work done by F2 on the
output piston. Thus the principle of conservation of energy applies in the
hydraulic press.

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UNIT NO.6

GRAVITATION

Q no.1: State Newton’s law of universal Gravitation with

mathematical expression.
NEWTON’S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION:
“Every body in this universe attracts every other body with a force
which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between their centers”.
DERIVATION OF EXPRESSION:
Suppose two spherical bodies A and B having masses “m1” and “m2”,
where distance between their centers is “r”.
Then the force of attraction between them according to the “Law of
Universal Gravitation “F” will be 𝑭 𝜶 𝒎𝟏 × 𝒎𝟐 …… (a)
𝟏
And 𝑭𝜶 …… (b)
𝒓𝟐
𝒎𝟏 × 𝒎𝟐
Combining (a) and (b) we get 𝑭𝜶
𝒓𝟐
𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
Or 𝑭=𝑮
𝒓𝟐
Here “G” is the constant of proportionality and is known as “Universal
Gravitational Constant”. In S.I units its value is 6.67 × 10-11 Nm2/kg2.
According to the above equation it is clear that force of attraction depends
upon the masses of the bodies and the distance between them.

Q no.2: Write difference between “g” and “G”.

“g” “G”
1 “g” is acceleration due to “G” is universal gravitational
gravity of earth. constant.
2 It varies place to place. It never varies.
3 It is maximum at surface of It remains constant everywhere.
earth.
4 It may be zero. It never be zero.
5 Its value is 9.8 m/s2. Its value is 6.67 × 10-11 Nm2/kg2.

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Q no.3: Write characteristics of Gravitational force.
GRAVITATIONAL FORCE:
Gravitational force has following characteristics:
1. It is always present between every two objects because of their
masses.
2. It exists everywhere in the universe.
3. It forms an action-reaction pair.
4. It is independent of the medium between the objects.
5. It is directly proportional to the product of the masses of objects.
6. It is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the
centres of the objects.
7. Hence it follows the “Inverse Square Law”.

Q no.4: Explain how Newton’s Law of gravitation is consistent

with Newton’s third law of Motion.
LAW OF GRAVITATION AND NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION
According to Newton's law of gravitation, every two objects attract
each other with equal force but in opposite direction. As shown. From the
figure:
m1 Mass of body A 1
m2 Mass of body B 2
F12 Force with which body A attracts body B.
F21 Force with which body B attracts body A 21
Then according to this law
F12 = - F21
This shows that, the two forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction. Now, if F12 is considered as “Action Force” and F21 as “Reaction
Force”. Then by using above equation, it is concluded that “Action equals to
reaction but in opposite direction”.
Recall that, above statement is in accordance with the Newton's third
law of motion which states that “To every action there is always an equal and
opposite reaction”.
Hence, Newton's law of gravitation is consistent with Newton's third
law of motion.
EXAMPLE:
For example, according to Newton's law of Universal gravitation the
Earth pulls the Moon with its gravity and the Moon pulls the Earth with its
gravity. Therefore they form an action-reaction pair, which is in
accordance with Newton's third law of motion.

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Q no.5: Explain gravitational field as an example of field of force.
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD:
Gravitational field can be described as:
“A gravitational field is a region in which a mass experiences a force
due to gravitational attraction”.
The gravitational field strength “g” is approximately 10 Newton per
kilogram 10Nkg--1. The gravitational field strength “g” is different at different
planets. For example, the gravitational field strength “g” on the surface of
Moon is approximately 1.6 Newton per Kilogram 1.6Nkg--1. Acceleration due
to gravity “g” at different planets is shown in the table.

Planet Value of g ms-2

Earth 10
Moon 1.62
Venus 8.87
Mars 3.77
Jupiter 25.95
Sun 274
Mercury 3.59
Saturn 11.08
Uranus 10.67
Neptune 14.07

Q no.6: Define weight as the force on an object due to a

gravitational field.
WEIGHT:
The weight of an object is the measurement of gravitational force
acting on the object.
Weight 'W' of an object of mass 'm', in a gravitational field of strength
'g' is given by the relation:
W = mg
Like other forces weight is also measured in Newton's (N). Spring
balance is used to measure weight of an object.

Q no.7: Calculate Mass of earth using law of gravitation.

MASS OF EARTH:
Mass of Earth can not be measured directly by placing it on any
weighing scale. But it can be measured by an indirect method. This method
utilizes the Newton's law of universal gravitation. Let us consider; Fig, in
which a small ball is placed on the surface of Earth.
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m Mass of the ball.
ME Mass of Earth.
G Universal gravitational constant.
RE Radius of earth; which is also the distance. between the ball and
centre of earth.
Then according to Newton's law of universal gravitation, the
gravitational force F of the Earth acts on the ball is:
F = G mME
R2E
Whereas the force with which Earth attracts the ball towards its centre
is equal to the weight of the ball. Therefore
F = W = mg
Comparing equation (6.3) and (6.4); we get:
mg = G mME
R2E
Re-arrangment of above equation gives.
ME = gR2E
R2E

Numerical values of the constants at right hand side of equation (6.5) are:
g = 10Nkg-1
R = 6.38 x 106m
G = 6.673 x 10-11 Nm2 kg-2
Substituting these values in equation (6.5), we get:
ME = 10Nkg-1 x (6.38 ´ 106m)2
6.673 x 10-11 Nm2 kg-2
ME = 6.0 x 1024 kg.
Thus, mass of Earth is 6.0 x 1024 kg.

Q no.8: Define satellites. Write difference between Natural and

Artificial Satellites.
SATELLITES:
A satellite is an object that revolves around a planet.
Satellites are of two types:
1. Natural satellites.
2. Artificial satellites.
NATURAL SATELLITES ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES
The planet which revolves around The object which are sent into space
another planet naturally is called by scientists to revolve around the
“Natural Satellite”. Earth or other planets are called
“Artificial Satellite”.
E.g Moon is a natural E.g. Sputnik-1, Explorer-1
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 satellite because it revolves are amongst the artificial
around the Earth naturally. satellites.

Q no.9: Write a note on artificial satellite.

ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES:
Artificial satellites are used for different purposes like
1. For communication.
2. For making star maps.
3. For making maps of planetary surfaces.
4. For collecting information about weather.
5. For taking pictures of planets, etc.
Artificial satellites carry instruments, passengers or both to perform
different experiments in space.
Artificial satellites have been launched into different orbits around the
Earth. There are different types of orbits like:
1. For communication.
2. Low- Earth orbit.
3. Medium- Earth orbit.
4. Geostationary orbit.
5. Elliptic orbit.
These orbits are characterized on the basis of different parameters
like, their distance from the Earth, their time period around the Earth etc. An
artificial satellite which completes its one revolution around the Earth in 24
hours is used for communication purpose. As Earth also completes its one
rotation about its axis in 24 hours, therefore the above satellite appears to be
stationary with respect to Earth. Its orbit is therefore called “Geostationary
orbit”. As it is used for communication purpose, therefore it is known as
“Communication Satellite”.

Q no.10: Derive equation for speed of satellite.

The curved path along which a natural or artificial satellite revolves
around a planet is called an “orbit”. Rockets are used to put satellites into
orbits in space. The Newton's law of gravitation has an important role in the
motion of satellite in its orbit, because the gravitational pull of Earth on the
satellite provides the centripetal force needed to keep a satellite in orbit
around some planet.
Let us consider the motion of a satellite which is revolving around the
Earth.
m Mass of the satellite.
M Mass of Earth.
R Radius of Earth
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h Height(altitude) of satellite from the surface of Earth.
r=R+h Radius of orbit.
Then, as we already discussed:
Centripetal force = Gravitational force
Or Fc = FG

∵ FC = mv2 and
r

FG = GmM
r2
Substituting the values of F and F in equation (i):
mv2 = GmM
r r2

v2 = GM [∵ r = R + h]
r

v2 = GM
R+h
𝑮𝑴
v=√
𝑹+𝒉

Q no.11: Derive equation of time period of satellite.

The time required for a satellite to complete one revolution around the
Earth in its orbit is called its time period “T”. The time period of a satellite can
be calculated as:
∵T=2𝜋r
v
The velocity of satellite is given by equation (6.6) as:
𝑮𝑴
v=√
𝑹+𝒉

Substituting it in equation (i)

∴ T = 2𝜋r ∵r=R+h
𝑮𝑴
√
𝑹+𝒉

𝒓
∴ T = 2𝜋r √𝑮𝑴

𝒓3
∴ T = 2𝜋 √𝑮𝑴

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 Equations (6.7) gives the expression for the time period of a satellite
orbiting around the Earth. Thus, Newton's law of gravitation helps to describe
the motion of a satellite in an orbit around the Earth.

Q no.12: Derive equation for critical velocity of satellite.

The orbital velocity is defined as:
The velocity required to keep the satellite into its orbit is called
“Orbital Velocity”
The gravitational pull of Earth on a satellite provides the necessary
centripetal force for orbital motion. Since this force is equal to the weight of
satellite, ‘Ws = mg’, therefore
FC = Ws
and, Ws = mgh
where,
m Mass of the satellite.
g Acceleration due to gravity at height ‘h’ from the surface of Earth.

The centripetal force ‘Fc’ on the satellite is:

Fc = mv2
r
Substituting the values of ‘Fc’ and ‘Ws’ in equation (i):
mv2 = mgh
r

∴ v2 = ghr

∴ v = √𝒈h 𝒓

∵r=R+h

∴ v = √𝒈h(𝑹 + 𝒉)

If satellite is orbiting very close to the surface of Earth then: h << R

In this case orbital radius may be considered equal to radius of Earth.
Therefore, R+h=R
Also gh = g
and v = vc
Where,
vc Critical velocity.
g Acceleration due to gravity on the surface of Earth.
In terms of above factors equation (6.8) becomes:
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 vc = √𝒈𝑹
This is known as “Critical velocity”. It is defined as:
The constant horizontal velocity required to put the satellite into a
stable circular orbit around the Earth.
It is also known as orbital speed or proper speed.
If
g = 10ms-2
R = 6.38x106m
Then equation (6.9) becomes.
vc = √𝒈𝑹 = √𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔 -2𝑿 𝟔. 𝟑𝟖 𝑿 𝟏𝟎6𝒎
vc = 7.99 X 103ms-1
Or vc = 8.0 kms-1

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UNIT NO.7

PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Q no.1: Define Molecular theory of matter Explain the states of

matter on its basis.
MATTER:
Any thing possesses mass and volume is known as ‘Matter’.
Water, air, stone, book, chair, wood, plastic, etc are the examples of matter.
MOLECULAR THEORY OF MATTER:
The theory about the nature, properties and characteristics of
matter and its different states is known as ‘Molecular Theory of Matter’.
Main points about this well known theory are as follows:
1. Matter is made up on molecules.
2. Molecules are made up of two or more atoms.
3. Molecules of matter are always being in continuous motion.
4. Molecules of matter have specific force of attraction among them. It
depends upon their molecular distances.
5. Motion of molecules may be vibratory, translatory or random.
6. The molecules and atoms possess kinetic energy.
7. Kinetic energy of molecules depends upon the rate of motion and
temperature of the matter.
8. State of matter depends upon the kinetic energy and force of
attraction among the molecules.

STATES OF MATTER:
Matter exists in three different states in nature, which are
Solids, Liquids and Gases. Their brief detail is as under:
SOLIDS:
Solids are that state of matter which has specific shape and
volume but low kinetic energy. Molecules of solids have least distance among
them that is why they have maximum force of attraction. They can only
vibrate around their mean positions. At certain temperature they melt and
convert into liquids.
LIQUIDS:
Liquids are that states of matter which has no specific shape
but fixed volume and higher kinetic energy than gases. Their molecules have
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distance among them that is why they have less force of attraction among
them. Liquids keep their level even. They can evaporate at any temperature.
They can change into solids and gases at a certain temperature.
GASES:
Gases have no specific shape and volume. Their molecules
have greater distance among them than the molecules of solids or liquids.
That is why force of attraction among them is very low. They accept pressure
and exert pressure. Molecules of gases have great kinetic energy, they always
be in motion which is free but elastic. They can change into liquids at certain
temperature.

Q no.2: Define Brownian motion with examples.

BROWNIAN MOTION:
The way of motion of molecules of matter is called “Brownian
Motion”. OR The zigzag random motion of molecules is known as “Brownian
Motion”. It was first observed by prominent scientist Robert Brown in 1927.
EXPLANATION WITH EXAMPLE:
Molecules of matter always be in continues motion. In 1927 a
scientist Robert Brown observed that the tiny pollen grains were moving
continuously and freely in water in zigzag path. He concluded that this zigzag
motion is due to the zigzag random motion of water molecules. By repeating
this with other liquids and gases he said that molecules of liquids and gases
move continuously and randomly. Due to this work of Robert Brown the way
of motion of molecules of matter is called “Brownian Motion”.

Q no.3: What is pressure. Describe the concept of low pressure

and high pressure.
PRESSURE:
Pressure is defined as the force per unit area. The number of collisions
is proportional to the number of molecules. If the number of molecules is
doubled then number of collisions will also be doubled. Hence the pressure is
also doubled. Of molecules is doubled then number of collisions will also be
doubled. Hence the pressure is also doubled.
Blowing up a balloon is an example of pressure. If more air is pushed
into the balloon it will be inflated more. Because air molecules apply pressure
on the rubber walls of balloon hence it gets inflated.
Pressure of a gas can also be increased by compressing it. This is done
by reducing the size of the gas container. The gas molecules have been
compressed into a smaller volume so they will collide more frequently with

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the walls of container and creates more pressure. If the gas is compressed to
half its original volume its pressure will be doubled.

Q no.4: Define volume with examples.

VOLUME:
The space occupied by substance is known as volume.
For example, the smell of a perfume quickly spreads through the room
as soon you spray it at your body or clothes. Because, the molecules move
freely and randomly at high speeds through out the room. Volume of a gas
can also be increased by decreasing its pressure. This could be done by
reducing the load on the piston of the gas container. As the gas molecules are
in random motion they quickly covers the whole space and the volume
increases. If the gas is compressed to half its original volume its pressure will
be doubled.

Q no.5: Define pressure volume relationship in gases.

PRESSURE - VOLUME RELATIONSHIP IN GASES:
Robert Boyle, an English physicist and chemist in 1662, studied the
relationship between pressure and volume of a gas.
The results of a Boyles experiment are shown below:
p𝜶1 or V 𝜶 1
V P
1. If pressure of the gas is double its volume becomes half. If pressure
increases by three times then volume becomes one-third and so on.
2. The graph between “p” and “V” between “p” and 1/V” are shown
below:
3. The graph between “p” and “V” shows that if pressure increases then
volume decreases and vice-versa, i.e.
4. The graph between “p” and “1/V” shows a straight line passing
through the origin.
5. At constant temperature the product of pressure and volume is
constant. i.e.
pV = constant
6. Using above result, at constant temperature, we can write Initial
pressure x initial volume = Final pressure x final volume.
p1 V1 = p2 V2
Thus Robert Boyle conclude his law known as 'Boyle's law' which states that;
The volume of a fixed mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its
pressure, provided its temperature remains constant.

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UNIT NO.8

ENERGY SOURCES AND TRANSFER OF ENERGY

Q no.1: Define work also given its expression.

WORK:
The term work in Physics does not have the same meaning as
it understood in every daily life. In Physics the work is done when a force
produces displacement in a body.
“Work is said to be done when a force acts on a body and
moves it through some distance along the direction of force”.
EXPRESSION FOR WORK:
If work done is denoted by “W”, force by “F” and displacement by “S”. Then
the mathematical expression for work is given by W = F . S

SPECIAL CASES:
1. If force F acts on a body and produces displacement “d” in its own
direction (direction of force), work done will be “W”. Where W = F . d
2. If force “f” acts on a body at an angle 𝜃, with the direction of motion of
the body then work “W” is defined as the product of the magnitude of
the displacement “d” and of the component of the force in the
direction of displacement. W = (Fcos𝜽) . d
W = F d cos𝜽
TYPES OF WORK:
There are two types of work:
1. Positive work [Link] work
POSITIVE WORK:
The type of work in which applied force and displacement made by the
object have same direction is called “Positive Work”. Simply 𝜃 = 0°.
NEGATIVE WORK:
The type of work in which applied force in opposite directionto the
direction of displacement is called “Negative Work”. Simply 𝜃 = 180°.
UNITS OF WORK:
1. In S.I. system the unit of work is “Joule” which is denoted by (J).
2. In M.K.S. system its unit is “Joule” and denoted by (J).
3. In C.G.S. system its unit is “Erg”.
4. In B.E. system its unit is “Foot Pound”.
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JOULE:
Joule (J) is the S.I. unit of work and it is defined as “The work done by a
force of one Newton in moving a body through a distance of one meter in the
direction of force”. 1 Joule = 1Nm

Q no.2: Define kinetic energy with factors.

KINETIC ENERGY:
Energy possessed by an object due to its motion is called kinetic
energy.
Mathematically kinetic energy is given as:
K.E = ½ mv2
As we know that kinetic energy is due to the motion of object. Therefore for
an object of mass m moving with speed v kinetic energy depends upon:
1. The mass m of the object- the greater the mass, the greater its K.E
2. The speed v of the object- the greater the speed, the greater the K.E

Q no.3: Define potential energy with examples.

POTENTIAL ENERGY:
The energy that a body possesses by virtue of its position, shape or
state of a system.
FOR EXAMPLE:
1. A body raised to a height “h” above the ground has gravitational
potential energy.
2. A stretched spring has elastic potential energy due to its stretched
position (condition).

S.I. unit of potential energy is Joule (J). It is also defined as the work done
stored in a body in lifting it to a height “h”. The potential energy changes only
when its position relative to ground changes; otherwise it remains same.
Mathematically potential energy is given as

P∙E = mgh

Q no.4: Derive gravitational potential energy P.E = mgh.

Derivation of Gravitational Potential Energy P.E=mgh
To derive the expression for gravitational potential energy, let us
consider an object of mass “m”which is raised up through height “h” from
the ground Fig 8.5. The work done in lifting it to height “h” is stored in it as its
gravitational potential energy “P∙E”, i.e.
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 P∙E = Work done
P∙E = W
P∙E = F∙d
P∙E = (mg) ∙ h
Therefore equation becomes:
P∙E = mgh

Q no.5: Write a note on conversion of energy.

CONVERSION OF ENERGY:
Energy neither be created nor it can be destroyed but it can be
converted from one form to other form. This is called law of conservation of
energy.
Conversion of Energy from one form to another
[Link] Fuel Energy:3
Fossil fuel energy is formed from decayed plants and animals that have
been converted to crud oil, coal, natural gases or heavy oils by exposure to
heat and pressure in the Earth's crust over hundreds of millions of years.
Fossils fuels have stored chemical energy. This energy is converted by
oxidation through burning. Thus on burning a fossil fuel like charcoal,
produce heat energy and light energy.
ii. Hydroelectric Energy:
Hydro electricity is the term referring to electricity generated by hydro
power by using gravitational force of falling or flowing water.
Most common type of hydro electric power plants uses a dam on a
river to store water in a reservoir. Water releases from the reservoir flows
through a turbine, spinning it, which in turn runs a generator to produce
electricity.
iii. Solar Energy:
The energy radiated from the sun is known as solar energy. This is the most
available source of energy throughout Pakistan. There are many devices
which are capable of absorbing solar energy, which is then converted into
electrical energy or heat energy. These devices may be photovoltaic solar
panels and solar cells. Which convert the sun rays into electricity for different
uses; Fig 8.9(a). Also solar heaters are used to convert solar energy “sun rays”
into heat energy to heat water tanks and indoor spaces; Fig 8.9(b). Burning
charcoal Hydroelectric energy.
iv. Nuclear Energy:
The energy released during a nuclear reaction such as fission or fusion
reaction. All radioactive materials store nuclear energy. For example
Uranium, Solar energy (Solar Panel ) Solar energy (Solar heater) Radium etc.
It is released from the nucleus in the form of radiation in addition to heat and
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light. A nuclear power plant utilize nuclear energy to produce steam to turn a
turbine and generate electricity; Fig 8.10.
v. Geothermal Energy:
Geothermal energy is stored in the Earth as its natural heat. Deep in
the Earth, there is hot molten part called magma. Water close to magma
changes to steam due to high temperature. This thermal energy is conducted
to the surface of Earth. This energy is called geothermal energy; Fig 8.11(a).
A geothermal power plant utilizes geothermal energy to drive an
electrical generator; Fig 8.11 (b). Geothermal well can be built by drilling
deep near hot rocks at different places, where hot molten or magma is very
close, water is then pushed down into the well. The rocks quickly heat the
water and change it into steam. The steam is used for heating purpose or to
generate electricity.
vi. Wind Energy:
The energy obtained by the wind is called wind energy. It is generated
by wind mills (Fig 8.12). A wind mill consists of a turbine which rotates due to
wind. Kinetic energy is produced due to the motion of turbine. Wind turbines
convert this kinetic energy into the mechanical power. A generator converts
that mechanical power into electricity.
Application
1. It is being used as source of energy for sailing ships in oceans.
2. It is being used by wind mills to pump water.
3. It is being used by wind mills to grind grain.
4. It is used to turn wind turbines to produce electricity.
ii. Biomass Energy
Biomass is the organic material that comes from plants and animals.
Biomass consists of stored energy from Sun, garbage, wastes, sugarcane etc.
Solid biomass, such as wood, organic material and garbage, can be burned
directly to produce heat; Fig 8.13 (a, b, c). Biomass can also converted into
gas called biogas and into liquid biofuels such as ethanol and biodiesel.
viii. Tidal Energy
It is a form of hydro power that converts the energy obtained from
tides into useful form of power; mainly electricity as the Earth uses the
gravitational forces of both the moon and the sun every day to move vast
quantities of water around the oceans and seas producing tides and in this
way energy is produced called tidal energy.

Q no.6: Define Renewable and non Renewable energy source.

RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCE:
The renewable sources can be consumed and used again and again.
Solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy and geothermal energy are
renewable sources. Since very earlier age, people have tried to consume
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renewable sources of energy for their survival. Such as wind and water for
milling grain and solar for lighting.
NON-RENEWABLE SOURCES:
Non-renewable resources are limited and will finish once used. Coal,
petroleum and natural gases are nonrenewable sources. About 150 years ago
scientists invented new technology to extract energy from the ancient
fossilized remains of plants and animals. These super-rich but limited sources
of energy (coal, oil and natural gas) replaced wood, wind and water as the
main sources of fuel. They are being used at a faster rate than they can be
restored again and, therefore cannot be renewed.

Q no.7: Define efficiency with example and formula.

EFFICIENCY:
Every machine needs some energy to perform work. Whatever energy
given to a machine is called input and the work done by the machine is called
output.
EXAMPLE:
We give electric energy as input to the electric motor in washing
machines and in drilling machines.
A system in which some energy ‘E ’ is supplied 1 to it as ‘input’ and the
system returns back some energy ‘E ’ as output has some efficiency. This
efficiency is 2 defined as
The ratio of output to the input is called Efficiency.
Efficiency is denoted by “h”. As it is the ratio of two energies therefore
it has no unit. No machine is 100% efficient because some energy is always
wasted in the form of heat, sound or light etc.
Efficiency = Energy as output (E2)
Energy as input (E1)

∴ 𝜂 = E2 x 100
E1

Q no.8: Define Power with formula and unit.

EFFICIENCY:
When you run up and cover distance in 5 seconds or take slow walk up
the same distance in 20 seconds. You are doing the same amount of work,
However, you are doing it at different rate. When you run up, you are
working much faster and you have a higher power then when you walk up.
This quantity that tells us the rate of doing work.
Thus, power is defined as:
The rate of doing work. or
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The amount of energy transferred per unit time.
Mathematically,
Power = P = work done
time taken
Since work and time are scalar quantities. Therefore, power is also a scalar
quantity.
UNIT OF POWER:
In SI system unit of power is Joule = Watt
sec
Thus SI unit of power is watt which is defined as:
The power of a body is said to be one watt if it does work at the rate of one
Joule per second.

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UNIT NO.9

THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Q no.1: Define Heat and Temperature and Write their differnces.

EFFICIENCY:
HEAT:
Heat is a form of energy which flows from a hot body to a cold body,
total internal energy of a body is known as ‘Heat’. Its S.I. unit is Joule (J).
TEMPERATURE:
The average of internal energy mostly Kinetic Energy of a body is
called its ‘Temperature’. Its S.I. unit is Kelvin (K). OR
The degree of hotness and coldness of a body is called temperature’.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HEAT AND TEMPERATURE:

HEAT TEMPERATURE
1 Heat is the sum of all energies Temperature is the average of all
which a body possesses. energies possesses by a body.
2 Heat depends on the amount of Temperature does not depend
substance. upon the amount of substance.
3 It is an extensive property. It is an intensive property.
4 It is measured by means of a It is measured by means of a
calorimeter. thermometer.
5 S.I unit of heat is Joule. S.I unit of temperature is Kelvin.

Q no.2: What is Thermometer Describe its scales and types.

THERMOMETER:
This device is used for the measurement of accurate temperature of
a body. It is made up of glass and contains any suitable liquid or gas.
SCALES OF TEMPERATURE:
There are three scales of temperature:
1. Celsius Scale or Centigrade Scale
2. Fahrenheit Scale
3. Kelvin Scale
CENTIGRADE OR CELSIUS SCALE:
On this scale lower fixed point is taken as 0˚ C. The interval between
these two fixed points is divided into 100 equal parts. Each part is called
Degree Centigrade or Degree Celsius and is denoted by ˚C.
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FAHRENHEIT SCALE:
On this scale lower fixed point is taken as 32 ˚F and the upper fixed
point is taken as 212 ˚F. The interval between these two fixed points is
divided into 180 equal parts or units. Each unit is called Degree Fahrenheit
and is denoted by ˚F.
KELVIN OR ABSOLUTE SCALE:
On this scale 272 and 373 are taken, the lower and upper fixed points
respectively. The interval between these two fixed point is divided into 100
equal parts. Each part is called Degree Kelvin or Degree Absolute and is
denoted by K.
INTERCONVESRION OF SCALES:
There are following four inter-conversions of three scales:
1. Conversion from Centigrade to Absolute Scale: TK = 273 + TC
2. Conversion from Absolute to Centigrade Scale: TC = TK - 273
3. Conversion from Centigrade to Fahrenheit Scale:TF = 9/5(TC + 32)
4. Conversion from Fahrenheit to Centigrade Scale:TC = 5/9 (TF -32)

TYPES OF THERMOMETER:
There are three types of thermometer:
1. Ordinary Thermometer
2. Clinical Thermometer
3. Maximum and Minimum Thermometer
ORDINARY THERMOMETER:
It is most common type of thermometer used in a laboratory or
scientific purposes. Its range is 10˚C to 110˚C. it consists of a glass stem with
a capillary tube, having a small bulb at one end filled with a liquid (mercury
or alcohol). On rising or falling of temperature the liquid expands or contracts
in the capillary tube which indicates temperature on the scale.
CLINICAL THERMOMETER:
It is used in houses, clinics and hospitals to measure the temperature
of human body. It has a limited range of temperature 35˚C to 43˚C or 95˚F to
110˚F. It has consists of a glass stem with a capillary tube and bulb, filled with
mercury or alcohol. Temperature scale is marked on the glass stem to
indicate the temperature.
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM THERMOMETER:
This thermometer is used to record the maximum and minimum
temperature reached over a period of time. It consists of a bulb, ‘A’ filled
with alcohol, a ‘U’ shaped tube containing mercury, a bulb ‘B’ partially filled

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with alcohol and two steel indexes I1 and I2. There are temperature scale on
each limb of the ‘U’ tube.

Q no.3: Define Heat capacity and specify heat capacity and write
effects due to large specific heat and water.
HEAT CAPACITY:
Heat capacity is a term in physics that describe how much heat is
added to a substance to raise its temperature by 1oC.
Mathematically where C = Q where Q = amount of heat absorbed and
∆T
∆T is change in temperature.
Heat capacity depends upon the nature of material.
EXAMPLE:
Two beakers contain equal masses of water and oil are heated by the
same gas burner for three minutes. Then it is observed that the temperature
of oil may rise twice than water.
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY:
Hence specific heat capacity can be defined as:
Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance
through 1 oC is called specific heat capacity of that substance.
C = ∆Q
m∆T
Its SI unit is joule per kilogram per Kelvin (Jkg-1 K-1).
Effects due to large specific heat of water:
We know that water has a large specific heat, dueto this quality it plays
an important role in everyday life.
1. The large amount of water in oceans and lakes help to maintain the
temperature ranges in their surroundings.
2. Water with coolant is used to reduce the temperature of engine
through radiator of vehicle.
3. Water also help to maintain our body temperature.

Q no.4: Define Heat of fusion and heat of veporization.

HEAT OF FUSION:
The heat absorbed by a unit mass of a solid at its melting point in order
to convert solid into liquid without change of temperature is called “heat of
fusion”.
HEAT OF VAPORIZATION:
When a beaker filled with water placed on a burner to boil, the
temperature of water gradually raises until it reaches 1000C. At this
temperature it starts to boil, that is to say that bubbles of vapor formed at
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the bottom and start to raise to the surface and then escape in the form of
steam. At this stage the temperature of water (liquid) and of water vapors
(gas) is same. Thus the heat energy which is required to convert water from
liquid to vapor state is know as “heat of vaporization”.
Therefore heat of vaporization is defined as:
The amount of heat energy required to change the state of a substance
from liquid to vapor form, without changing its temperature is called “heat of
vaporization”.

Q no.5: Describe experiments to determine latent heat of fusion

and latent heat of vaporization of ice and water by sketching
temperature time graph.
Convert Ice (Solid) into Water liquid:
EXPERIMENT:
Take a container and place it on a stand. Put small pieces of ice in the
container. Suspend a thermometer in the container to measure the
temperature. Take a stop watch to measure accurate time at different stages.
Now place the container on the burner. The ice will start melting after
absorbing heat. The temperature will remain same up to 0oC until all the ice
melts. Note the time t and t , which the ice takes to 1 2 melt completely into
water at 0oC. Supply heat continuously to water at 0oC, again note the time,
Its temperature will start to increase. Note the time, which water in
container takes to reach its boiling point at 100oC from 0oC. Draw a
temperature-time graph as shown in graph. Calculate the heat of fusion of
ice.
EXPERIMENT:
(ii)Convert Water (Liquid) into steam (Gas)
It is continuity of previous experiment. The container now contains
boiling water we continue to supply heat to water, till all the water convert
into steam. Note the time during which water in container completely
changed into steam at its boiling point, using the temperature-time graph no
9.1 calculate the heat of vaporization of water.

Q no.6: Define evaporation. Write difference between boiling

point and evaporation.
EVAPORATION PROCESS:
The process in which the water changes from liquid to gas or vapor
form is known as “evaporation”.

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Difference between boiling point and evaporation:
Evaporation Boiling
1 It takes place without supply having It only takes place without on
external heat source. supply external heat source.
2 It occurs at any temperature below It occurs only at certain
boiling point. temperature called “Boiling point”.
3 It causes cooling. It do not causes cooling.
4 It is relatively slow. It is relatively fast.
5 It takes place only at the liquid It takes place
surface. throughout the liquid.
6 No formation of bubbles. Bubbles are formed.

Q no.7: How evaporation causes costing write factors which

influence surface evaporation.
EVAPORATION CAUSES COOLING:
When evaporation occurs, the molecules of water with greater Kinetic
energy escape from its surface. So the molecules of water with lower Kinetic
energy are left behind. This results in a decrease in the temperature of water.
Hence, evaporation causes cooling.
You feel cold when come out directly under a heavy wind after taking
bath. This is due to the reason Difference between evaporation and boiling
that water molecules with greater Kinetic energy escape from your skin
surface, while the molecules with lower Kinetic energy are left behind. This
lowers the temperature of water at your skin and you feel cold.
Some liquids have low boiling point due to which they change from
liquid to vapor very easily at ordinary temperature, these liquids are called
‘volatile liquids’.
For Example methylated ether has low boiling point. If little amount of
methylated spirit is taken on our hand it evaporates rapidly and our hand feel
instantly cold. To change spirit from liquid to vapor it requires latent heat
which is obtained from our hand thus our hand losses heat and we feel cool.
Water also causes the hand to become cold but it is not felt as spirit.
The water has high boiling point then spirit so it evaporates slowly at the
temperature of our hand and hence it does not cause the cooling effect.
Factors which Influencing Surface Evaporation:
1. Temperature: With the increase in temperature the rate of
evaporation also increases.
2. Wind Speed: Rate of evaporation also increases with the increase in
wind speed.
3. Surface area of liquid: Rate of evaporation increases with the increase
in surface area of liquid.
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 4. Humidity: The rate of evaporation decreases with increase in humidity.
5. Nature of liquid: Nature of liquid also effect the rate of evaporation.
Liquid with lower boiling point have grater vapor pressure and
evaporate more rapidly.
6. Solute Concentration: Salty water evaporates more slowly than pure
water.

Q no.8: Define thermal expansion and expansion of solid.

THERMAL EXPANSION:
The expansion of substance on heating is called thermal expansion.
EXAMPLES OF THERMAL EXPANSION:
1. Expansion in railway tracks in summer.
2. Expansion in electric wires in summer.
3. Expansion in bridges in summer.

EXPANSION OF SOLID:
The molecules of solid materials vibrate at their mean positions. So,
when a solid is heated, its molecules vibrate with greater amplitudes due to
increase in their kinetic energy. As a result the solid expands its length
and volume.

Q no.9: Define linear expansion and derive its expression.

LINEAR EXPANSION:
The expansion in length of a solid object on heating is called linear
expansion.
Suppose a rod of some material with original length L, at initial
temperature T, is heated through a certain temperature T’, then its length
increase and becomes L’.
Therefore
Change in temperature = ∆T = T’ – T -------(i)
Change in length = ∆L = L’ – L ---------------(ii)
It has been experimentally proved that change in length is directly
proportional to the original length and change in temperature. Therefore
∆L = (constant) L ∆T -----------------------(iii)
This constant is denoted by a, and is called coefficient of linear
expansion. It depends upon the nature of the material. Therefore equation
(iii) can be written as
∆L = 𝛼 L ∆ T
Q no.10: Define volumetric expansion and derive its expression.
VOLUMETRIC EXPANSION:
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 The expansion in volume of a solid object on heating is called volume
expansion.
DERIVATION:
It is three dimensional expansion as it occurs along the length, width
and height of the object (Fig 9.9). Consider a solid body having volume V, at
some initial temperature T. When the body is heated its temperature
changes from T to T¢ and its volume becomes V’.
Therefore
Change in temperature = ∆T = T’ – T
Change in volume = ∆V = V’– V
It has been experimentally proved that change in volume is directly
proportional to the original volume and change in temperature.
∆V = (constant) V ∆T
This constant is denoted by “β” and is called coefficient of volume
expansion. It depends upon the nature of material.
Therefore equation (iii) can be written as:
∆V = βV ∆T
As linear expansion occurs in one dimension, where as volume
expansion occurs in three dimensions. Hence, coefficient of volume
expansion “b” is three times than coefficient of linear expansion “a”:
Therefore:
𝛽= 3𝛼

Q no.11: Draw a chart to show Co-efficient of linear expansion.

Substance Coefficient of expansion
per degree centigrade
Aluminium 25 x 10-6
Brass or Bronze 19 x 10-6
Brick 9 x 10-6
Copper 17 x 10-6
Glass (Plate) 9 x 10-6
Glass (pyrex) 3 x 10-6
Ice 51 x 10-6
Iron or steel 11 x 10-6
Lead 29 x 10-6
Quartz 0.4 x 10-6
Silver 19 x 10-6

Q no.12: Write application and consequences of thermal

expansion.
Application and Consequences of thermal expansion:

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Thermal expansion of solids is useful in some situations of daily life and in
some situations it creates problems:
APPLICATIONS:
BIMETAL THERMOSTAT:
Bimetallic thermostat is used to control temperature of ovens, irons
water heaters, refrigerators, air conditioners and so on. It is designed to bend
when it becomes hot. Two metals with different coefficient of linear
expansion are joined firmly to make it . When it is heated, metal with large
value of coefficient of linear expansion more than the other, causing the strip
to bend. In this way, it cuts off the current supply. The current supply to the
circuit is restored again when it cools down.
RIVETS:
Rivets are used in shipbuilding and other industries to join metal
plates. A red-hot rivet is passed through holes in two metal plates and
hammered until ends are rounded. The rivet contracts on cooling and pulls
the two plates tightly together.
A metal rim can be fixed on a wooden wheel of a bull cart. The
diameter of metal rim is set little bit smaller than the diameter of wooden
wheel. The diameter of metal rim increases on heating and can easily be put
over the wooden wheel. It contracts on cooling and holds wooden wheel
tightly.
1. CAR RADIATOR COOLANT:
Engine coolant is used in car radiator in place of pure water because
water has greater volume expansion it can expand enough to damage the
engine or radiator.
2. MERCURY IN THERMOMETER:
Mercury expands on heating and contracts on cooling. It do not stick to
the walls of thermometer. Therefore Mercury is placed in long sealed
capillary tube in thermometer. Change in the temperature is measured by
the position of mercury in capillary tube which has calibrated marks with oF,
oC or K scale.
3. RAIL TRACKS:
The rail tracks are made up of metals and hence they expand in summer
due to hot weather. Hence, small gaps are left at the joints of sections of
tracks. This allows the tracks to expand safely. If these gaps are not left
between the tracks, the tracks buckled and train would be de-tracked
(derailed).

Q no.13: Explain Real and Apparent expansion of liquids.

REAL AND APPARENT EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS
Consider a flask, filled with water up to level “a”. The flask is placed on
a burner, Heat start to flow through the flask to water. So, the flask expand
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first Due to expansion of flask, the level of water falls from point “a”, level L
to point “b”, level L . So, when water get heated, it start to expand from a
point “b” beyond its original level.
GAPS BETWEEN RAIL TRACKS:
Thus expansion of water appear from level “L ” 1 point “a” to level “L ”
point “c” is called “apparent 3 expansion of water”. But in real sense, the
water on heating has expanded from level “L ” point “b” to level 2 “L ” point
“c” which is the “real expansion of water”. 3 Real expansion = L to L i.e from
point “b” to “c”.

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