PHYSICS NOTES

Notes on Reflection of Light

1. What is light?

Light is a form of energy that helps us see objects around us. When light from a source
enters our eyes after being reflected from an object, we are able to see that object.

2. How do we see objects?

We see an object when light rays from a source fall on it, get reflected, and enter our
eyes. This reflection makes vision possible.

3. What is reflection of light?

Reflection of light is the phenomenon in which light rays bounce back after striking a
smooth, shiny surface such as a mirror.
It occurs in such a way that light returns into the same medium in which it was
travelling.

4. Give an example of reflection in daily life.

When you look in a mirror and see your image, or when sunlight shines on water and
produces a glare, both are examples of reflection of light.

5. What is a reflecting surface?

Any surface that can reflect light is called a reflecting surface.

A smooth, shiny surface like polished metal, mirror, or still water reflects light well.

6. What is a mirror?

A mirror is a smooth and highly polished surface that reflects most of the light falling on
it.
It is usually made by coating one side of a glass sheet with a thin layer of silver or
aluminium.

. What are the types of mirrors?

1. Plane mirror – flat reflecting surface.

2. Spherical mirror – curved reflecting surface (concave or convex).

This chapter mainly deals with plane mirrors.

8. Define the following terms related to reflection:

Term Definition

Incident ray The ray of light that falls on the reflecting surface.

Point of incidence The point at which the incident ray strikes the mirror.

The ray of light that bounces off the mirror from the point of
Reflected ray
incidence.
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A line drawn perpendicular to the reflecting surface at the point

Normal
of incidence.

Angle of incidence
The angle between the incident ray and the normal.
(∠i)

Angle of reflection
The angle between the reflected ray and the normal.
(∠r)

9. State the laws of reflection.

1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

(∠i = ∠r)

2. The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal all lie in the same plane.

10. Describe an activity to verify the laws of reflection.

Aim: To verify that ∠i = ∠r.

Materials: Mirror, pins, scale, protractor, white sheet.
Procedure:

• Draw a normal line on the sheet.

• Draw an incident ray making an angle with the normal.

• Fix pins along the incident ray and view their images through the mirror.

• Draw the reflected ray by joining points of reflected pins.

• Measure ∠i and ∠r using a protractor.

Observation: ∠i = ∠r.
Conclusion: Laws of reflection are verified.

11. What is the reflection of a ray of light falling normally on a mirror?

When a ray of light falls perpendicularly (i.e. along the normal) on a mirror, it is reflected
back along the same path.

12. What is meant by regular and irregular reflection?

Type Description Example

Occurs when light falls on a smooth surface Plane mirror,

Regular reflection
and reflects in one direction. calm water

Irregular reflection Occurs when light falls on a rough surface Wall, paper,
(diffused) and reflects in many directions. rough metal

13. What is the speed of light?

Light travels at a very high speed:

• In air or vacuum: 3 × 10⁸ m/s

• In water: 2.25 × 10⁸ m/s

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• In glass: 2 × 10⁸ m/s

14. What are the characteristics of a good mirror?

1. It should not absorb light.

2. It should reflect maximum light.

3. It should have little or no transmission of light.

15. What is a plane mirror?

A plane mirror is a smooth, flat reflecting surface that forms an image by reflection.
Example: Looking glass, dressing mirror, etc.

16. How is an image formed in a plane mirror?

The image forms when reflected rays appear to come from behind the mirror.
These rays diverge from the mirror, and when extended backward, they meet behind it,
forming a virtual image.

17. What is the difference between real and virtual images?

Feature Real Image Virtual Image

Formed by Actual meeting of reflected rays Apparent meeting of rays

Seen on screen Can be obtained on screen Cannot be obtained on screen

Example Image on cinema screen Image in a mirror

18. What are the characteristics of the image formed by a plane mirror?

1. The image is virtual and erect.

2. The image is of the same size as the object.

3. The image is laterally inverted (left appears right).

4. The image is formed as far behind the mirror as the object is in front.

19. What is lateral inversion?

Lateral inversion is the phenomenon in which the left side of an object appears as the
right side and vice versa in its mirror image.
Example: The word AMBULANCE is written reversed so that drivers can read it correctly
in their rear-view mirrors.

20. What are the uses of plane mirrors?

1. Used as looking mirrors in homes and shops.

2. Used in solar cookers and solar heaters.

3. Used by barbers and dentists to view reflected images.

4. Used in periscopes and kaleidoscopes for multiple reflections.

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5. Used on stage and in decorative lighting to create illusions.

21. What is dispersion of light?

Dispersion of light is the splitting of white light into its seven colours (VIBGYOR – Violet,
Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red) when it passes through a prism.
This happens because each colour bends differently while passing through glass.

22. What is a rainbow and how is it formed?

A rainbow is formed by the dispersion of sunlight through water droplets in the

atmosphere after rain.
Each droplet acts like a small prism, splitting white light into its seven colours.

23. What are primary colours?

Primary colours are the basic colours of light that cannot be obtained by mixing other
colours.
They are Red (R), Green (G), and Blue (B).

24. What are secondary colours?

Secondary colours are obtained by mixing two primary colours in equal intensity.

Combination Secondary Colour

Red + Green Yellow

Red + Blue Magenta

Green + Blue Cyan

When all three primary colours (R + G + B) are mixed, they produce white light.

25. What is colour addition?

The process of obtaining new colours by mixing light of different colours is called colour
addition.
Example: Used in television and computer screens.

26. What is colour subtraction?

When white light falls on an object, some colours are absorbed and others are reflected.
The colour that we see is the colour of the light reflected by the object.
This phenomenon is called colour subtraction.

Example:

• A red shirt looks red because it reflects red light and absorbs all others.

• A white object reflects all colours, appearing white.

• A black object absorbs all colours, appearing black.

27. Why do objects appear coloured?

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Objects appear coloured because they reflect some colours and absorb others from white
light.
The reflected colour determines the colour of the object.

28. Difference between colour addition and colour subtraction

Aspect Colour Addition Colour Subtraction

Process Mixing of coloured lights Absorption of certain colours

Result Produces new colours Removes some colours

Example TV screen, stage lights Coloured objects in sunlight

29. What is the correct order of colours in a rainbow?

The seven colours in order are:

Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red (VIBGYOR).

Notes on Heat
1. What is heat?

Heat is a form of energy that can change the state or temperature of a substance.
It flows from a hotter object to a colder one until both are at the same temperature.

This energy in transit is called heat energy.

2. What is the unit of heat energy?

The practical unit of heat is the calorie.

• 1 calorie = Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by

1°C.

• 1 kilocalorie (kcal) = 1000 calories.

• 1 calorie = 4.186 joules (J).

• SI unit of heat = joule (J).

3. What is temperature?

Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.

It determines the direction of flow of heat — from higher to lower temperature.

4. How is temperature measured?

Temperature is measured with an instrument called a thermometer.

5. What are the units of temperature?

• Degree Celsius (°C)

• Degree Fahrenheit (°F)

• Kelvin (K) (SI unit)

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6. What is the principle of calorimetry?

When two objects at different temperatures are placed in contact:

Heat lost by the hotter object = Heat gained by the colder object.

7. What is a thermometer?

A thermometer is an instrument used to measure temperature.

8. What are liquid-in-glass thermometers?

Thermometers using mercury or alcohol as the liquid are called liquid thermometers.
They work on the principle that liquids expand on heating and contract on cooling.

9. What is a mercury thermometer and what are its ranges?

• Has a bulb, capillary tube, and scale.

• Range: −10°C to 110°C.

• Mercury expands uniformly, does not stick to glass, and is clearly visible.

10. What are the scales of temperature?

Lower Fixed Point Upper Fixed Point

Scale Inventor Divisions
(°C) (°C)

0°C (melting point 100°C (boiling point of

Celsius Anders Celsius 100
of ice) water)

Gabriel
Fahrenheit 32°F 212°F 180
Fahrenheit

Kelvin Lord Kelvin 273 K 373 K 100

11. What are the relations between temperature scales?

𝐾 = °𝐶 + 273
9
°𝐹 = × °𝐶 + 32
5
5
°𝐶 = (°𝐹 − 32)
9

12. What is Kelvin scale known as?

Kelvin scale is called the absolute scale of temperature because 0 K (−273°C) is the
absolute zero, the lowest possible temperature.

13. What is the effect of heat on substances?

1. Change in temperature: Heating increases temperature; cooling decreases it.

2. Change in state: Heat can change matter from one state to another.

3. Change in dimensions: Solids expand on heating and contract on cooling.

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14. What is change of state?

Change of state is the process by which a substance changes from one physical state to
another — solid ↔ liquid ↔ gas — by heating or cooling.

15. Explain the various changes of state.

Process Change Description

Melting Solid → Liquid Ice melts to water at 0°C.

Freezing Liquid → Solid Water freezes into ice at 0°C.

Boiling Liquid → Gas Water boils to steam at 100°C.

Condensation Gas → Liquid Steam condenses to water.

Sublimation Solid → Gas Camphor, iodine change directly to gas.

Deposition Gas → Solid Vapours change directly to solid (frost).

16. What is thermal expansion?

The increase in size or volume of a substance on heating is called thermal expansion.

17. What are the types of thermal expansion?

Type Description Example

Linear expansion Increase in length Metal rod

Area (Superficial) expansion Increase in surface area Metal sheet

Cubical (Volumetric) expansion Increase in volume Solid block, liquid

18. Why do solids expand on heating?

When solids are heated, particles vibrate faster and move apart slightly, increasing their
dimensions.

19. Give practical applications of thermal expansion in solids.

1. Sagging of wires: Electric wires are left loose to allow expansion in summer.

2. Bridges and rail tracks: Girders and tracks are given expansion gaps.

3. Steel rims on wheels: Heated to fit tightly when cooled.

20. Explain thermal expansion in liquids and gases.

• Liquids: Show cubical expansion only.

• Gases: Expand much more than solids or liquids because their particles are far
apart.

21. What is transfer of heat?

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The flow of heat from a hot object to a cold one or from one part of an object to another
is called transfer of heat.

22. What are the modes of transfer of heat?

1. Conduction

2. Convection

3. Radiation

23. What is conduction?

Conduction is the process by which heat passes from particle to particle without actual
movement of the material.
It mainly occurs in solids.

24. Define conductors and insulators.

Type Definition Examples

Conductors Allow heat to pass through easily Metals (copper, iron, aluminium)

Insulators Do not allow heat to pass easily Wood, plastic, rubber, air

25. Give uses of good conductors and bad conductors.

• Good conductors: Cooking utensils, boilers, heat exchangers.

• Bad conductors: Handles of utensils, thermos flasks, insulation in buildings.

26. What is convection?

Convection is the transfer of heat in liquids and gases by actual movement of particles.

Warm fluid rises (less dense), cool fluid sinks (denser), forming convection currents.

27. What are some examples of convection?

• Boiling water in a pot.

• Sea breeze and land breeze.

• Air circulation by heaters or air conditioners.

28. What are sea breeze and land breeze?

• Sea breeze: Daytime wind blowing from sea to land as cool air replaces rising warm
air over land.

• Land breeze: Nighttime wind blowing from land to sea as land cools faster than
sea.

29. What is radiation?

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Radiation is the process of heat transfer in which energy travels in the form of rays or
waves without any medium.
It travels at the speed of light (3 × 10⁸ m/s).

30. What are absorbing and reflecting surfaces?

• Black, dull surfaces: Absorb more heat (good absorbers).

• White, shiny surfaces: Reflect more heat (poor absorbers).

31. What are practical uses of black and white surfaces?

1. Bottom of cooking utensils painted black to absorb heat.

2. Inside polished to reflect heat uniformly.

3. Houses in hot regions painted white to keep them cool.

4. Solar cookers painted black inside for maximum absorption.

32. What is a thermos flask?

A thermos flask (Dewar flask) is a special container designed to keep liquids hot or cold
for long durations by preventing heat transfer.

Construction:

• Double-walled glass bottle with vacuum between walls (prevents conduction &
convection).

• Inner walls are silvered (reduce radiation).

• Plastic stopper and outer casing prevent further heat loss.

33. What are the differences between conduction, convection, and radiation?

Parameter Conduction Convection Radiation

Heat transfer without Heat transfer by Heat transfer by

Definition
movement of material movement of particles waves

No medium
Medium Solids Liquids & gases
needed

Speed Slow Faster Fastest

Direction Fixed (hot to cold) Upward flow All directions

Vacuum Not possible Not possible Possible

34. Explain practical applications of each mode of heat transfer.

Mode Applications

Conduction Cooking, ironing, soldering

Convection Sea breeze, chimneys, ventilation

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Radiation Solar heating, thermos flasks, heat from fire or Sun

Notes on Sound
1. What is sound?

Sound is a form of energy that produces the sensation of hearing in our ears.

2. How is sound produced?

Sound is produced due to vibrations of an object.

When the vibrating object stops vibrating, sound stops.

3. What are vibrations?

The rapid to and fro or back and forth motion of an object about its mean position is
called vibration.

4. What is the relation between vibration and sound?

Only vibrating bodies produce sound.

When vibration stops, sound stops.

5. How can you show that sound is produced by a vibrating object?

Activity:

• Place a ruler partly on the table and flick the free end.

• The ruler vibrates and produces sound.

• When vibration stops, sound stops.

6. What are the sources of sound?

Every vibrating object acts as a source of sound — for example, strings of a guitar,
membrane of a drum, vocal cords in humans, etc.

7. How do animals and human beings produce sound?

• Animals: Sound is produced by vibrations of their vocal cords.

• Humans: Have a voice box (larynx).

o Located in the throat region.

o Contains two vocal cords stretched across the voice box.

o Air from the lungs makes the cords vibrate, producing sound.

8. How do musical instruments produce sound?

Type Example How sound is produced

String instruments Guitar, sitar, violin Vibrating strings

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Percussion instruments Drum, tabla, dholak Vibrating membrane

Wind instruments Flute, trumpet, shehnai Vibration of air column

Reed instruments Harmonium, mouth organ Vibrating reeds

9. Does sound need a medium to travel?

Yes. Sound cannot travel in vacuum.

It requires a medium like air, water, or solid to propagate.

10. What experiment proves that sound needs a medium?

A ringing bell inside a glass jar loses sound gradually when air is pumped out.
This shows that sound cannot travel in vacuum.

11. Through which mediums can sound travel?

Sound can travel through:

1. Solids (fastest)

2. Liquids (medium speed)

3. Gases (slowest)

12. What are longitudinal waves?

Sound waves are longitudinal waves in which vibrations of particles in the medium are
parallel to the direction of wave propagation.

13. What are compressions and rarefactions?

• Compression (C): Region where particles are close together (high pressure).

• Rarefaction (R): Region where particles are far apart (low pressure).

14. What are the important terms related to sound waves?

Term Definition

Vibration To and fro motion of a body about mean position.

Wavelength (λ) Distance between two consecutive compressions or rarefactions.

Amplitude (A) Maximum displacement of the vibrating particle from mean position.

Time period (T) Time taken to complete one vibration.

Frequency (f) Number of vibrations per second. 𝑓 = 𝑇

1

SI unit of frequency: Hertz (Hz)

15. What are the types of sound based on frequency?

Type Frequency Range Example

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Infrasonic sound Below 20 Hz Earthquakes, elephant sounds

Audible sound 20 Hz – 20,000 Hz Human hearing range

Ultrasonic sound Above 20,000 Hz Bats, dolphins, sonar

16. What is the use of ultrasonic sound by bats?

Bats use ultrasonic sound to detect prey and avoid obstacles.

They emit ultrasonic waves which reflect back as echoes.

17. What are the characteristics of sound?

Sound has three main characteristics:

1. Loudness

2. Pitch

3. Quality or timbre

18. What is loudness?

Loudness depends on the amplitude of vibration.

Greater amplitude → louder sound; smaller amplitude → softer sound.

19. What is pitch?

Pitch is the characteristic of sound that helps distinguish a high or low tone.
Pitch depends on the frequency of vibration.
Higher frequency → higher pitch.

20. What is quality (timbre)?

Quality distinguishes sounds of same loudness and pitch produced by different sources
(e.g., guitar and violin).

21. What is the relation between amplitude, frequency, and sound?

Amplitude Frequency Sound Produced

Small Low Soft sound

Large High Loud sound

Low — Low-pitched sound

High — High-pitched sound

22. What is the speed of sound?

Speed of sound depends on the medium.

Medium Speed (m/s)

Carbon dioxide 260

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Air 340

Water 1498

Alcohol 1210

Glass 3980

Steel 5960

Aluminium 6420

Sound travels fastest in solids, slowest in gases.

23. How to calculate the speed of sound?

Distance travelled
Speed of sound =
Time taken

Example:
If sound takes 2 s to travel 680 m,
680
Speed = = 340 m/s
2

24. What is reflection of sound?

The change in direction of sound when it strikes a hard surface and bounces back is
called reflection of sound.

25. What are the laws of reflection of sound?

1. The angle of incidence = angle of reflection.

2. The incident wave, reflected wave, and normal all lie in the same plane.

26. What is an echo?

An echo is the sound heard again due to reflection from a distant obstacle.

27. What is the minimum distance for an echo to be heard?

Minimum distance between the source and the reflecting surface should be 17 m.

Distance = Speed of sound × Time = 340 × 0.1 = 34𝑚

Half of this distance = 17 m.

28. What is the difference between reflection and echo?

Reflection Echo

Sound heard immediately after reflection Sound heard distinctly after reflection
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Occurs from nearby surfaces Occurs from distant surfaces (≥17 m)

29. What is absorption of sound?

When sound falls on soft materials (like curtains, carpets), it is absorbed instead of
reflected.
This reduces noise.

30. What are good absorbers and reflectors of sound?

Good Absorbers Good Reflectors

Soft, rough, porous materials like foam, Hard, smooth materials like metal, tiles,
cloth, carpets concrete

31. What is a soundproof box?

A soundproof box has layers of cotton, cloth, or foam inside to absorb sound and
prevent it from escaping.

32. What is loudness measured in?

Loudness is measured in decibels (dB).

33. How is speed of sound related to thunder and lightning?

Lightning is seen before thunder is heard because light travels faster than sound.

Notes on Electricity
1. What is electricity?

Electricity is a form of energy that can be produced, controlled, and transmitted to

operate different appliances like fans, televisions, and refrigerators.

2. What are the various sources of electricity?

The main sources of electricity are:

1. Electric cell

2. Battery

3. Solar cell

4. Electric generator

5. Mains supply

3. What is an electric cell?

An electric cell is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
It is also called an electrochemical cell.

4. What are the main parts of an electric cell?

An electric cell has:

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• Two electrodes (conducting rods):

o Anode – positively charged electrode

o Cathode – negatively charged electrode

• Electrolyte – a chemical solution in which electrodes are dipped.

5. How does an electric cell produce electricity?

When chemical reactions occur inside the cell, chemical energy is converted into
electrical energy, and current starts flowing.

6. What are the types of electric cells?

1. Primary Cell – Cannot be recharged (chemical reaction is irreversible).

o Example: Dry cell

2. Secondary Cell – Can be recharged and reused (chemical reaction is reversible).

o Example: Lead-acid accumulator or storage cell

7. Why is a dry cell called “dry”?

Because the chemicals inside it are not in liquid form but are in a moist paste of
ammonium chloride and zinc chloride.

8. What are the components of a dry cell?

Part Material/Role

Outer covering Zinc container (acts as cathode)

Central rod Carbon rod (acts as anode)

Electrolyte Paste of ammonium chloride, POP, and flour of Plaster of Paris

Top seal Pitch and wax

9. What are the advantages of a dry cell?

1. Light in weight and small in size

2. Cheaper

3. Portable

4. Suitable for small devices

5. No leakage

10. What are the disadvantages of a dry cell?

• Cannot be recharged

• Has a limited life

11. What is a battery?

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A battery is formed when two or more cells are connected in series to provide a larger
amount of electrical energy.

12. What are the uses of a dry cell?

Used in:

• Radios

• Calculators

• Clocks

• Remote controls

• Torches

13. What is a solar cell?

A solar cell converts solar energy into electrical energy.

Many solar cells joined together form a solar panel.

14. What are the uses of solar cells?

Used in:

• Street lights

• Satellites

• Spacecraft

• Solar cookers and heaters

15. What is mains electricity supply?

Electricity that we use in homes is the mains supply, produced at power stations and
transmitted through wires to houses and industries.

16. What is an electric generator?

An electric generator (dynamo) converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

17. Who discovered the principle of electromagnetic induction?

Michael Faraday discovered that when a magnet moves inside a coil, electric current is
produced.

18. What constitutes an electric current?

The flow of charges (electrons) through a conductor constitutes an electric current.

19. How does the flow of charge occur?

Electrons flow from the object having excess electrons (negative) to the object having
fewer electrons (positive) through a conducting wire.

20. What is the unit of electric current?

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Ampere (A) – It is the amount of charge passing through a conductor in one second.

21. What are the components of an electric circuit?

1. Source of current (cell or battery)

2. Connecting wires

3. Switch (key)

4. Appliance (bulb or device)

22. What is a closed circuit?

When the circuit is complete and current flows, it is called a closed circuit.

23. What is an open circuit?

When the circuit is broken and current does not flow, it is called an open circuit.

24. What precautions should be taken before switching ON a circuit?

1. Do not touch wires with wet hands.

2. Ensure all connections are tight.

3. Use standard wires.

4. Switch ON only after checking connections.

25. What are electrical symbols?

Component Symbol

Cell Two parallel lines with one longer and the other shorter.

Battery Multiple cells joined

Wire Straight line

Switch (open) Break in line

Switch (closed) Continuous line

Bulb Circle with cross

Resistor Zigzag line

Ammeter Circle with “A”

Voltmeter Circle with “V”

26. What is a circuit diagram?

A pictorial representation of an electric circuit using symbols is called a circuit diagram.

27. What are the types of circuit connections?

Type Description
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Series Circuit Components connected one after another. If one stops, all stop.

Parallel Circuit Components connected side by side. Each works independently.

28. What are conductors and insulators?

Type Definition Examples

Conductors Materials that allow current to flow easily. Copper, iron, aluminium

Insulators Materials that do not allow current to flow. Plastic, wood, glass, rubber

29. What is magnetism?

Magnetism is the property of a substance by which it attracts magnetic materials like

iron, cobalt, and nickel.

30. What are natural and artificial magnets?

• Natural magnets: Found in nature (lodestone).

• Artificial magnets: Made by humans in different shapes (bar, U-shaped).

31. What are the properties of a magnet?

Property Description

Attractive Property Attracts magnetic substances.

Directive Property Always aligns in north-south direction.

Poles exist in pairs Poles cannot exist separately.

32. What are magnetic poles?

The ends of a magnet where magnetic strength is maximum are called north pole and
south pole.

33. What is the sure test of magnetism?

Repulsion is the sure test of magnetism.

34. What is the law of magnetism?

Like poles repel; unlike poles attract.

35. What is a magnetic field?

The region around a magnet where its effect can be felt is called a magnetic field.

36. Who discovered electromagnetism?

Hans Christian Oersted discovered that when electric current passes through a
conductor, a magnetic field is produced around it.

37. What is a solenoid?

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A solenoid is a long coil of insulated wire wound around a cylinder.

It behaves like a magnet when current flows through it.

38. What is an electromagnet?

An electromagnet is a temporary magnet made by passing electric current through a

solenoid with a soft iron core.

39. What determines the polarity of an electromagnet?

The Clock Face Rule:

• Current clockwise → South pole

• Current anticlockwise → North pole

40. What are the factors affecting the strength of an electromagnet?

1. Number of turns in the coil

2. Amount of current flowing through the coil

41. What are the uses of electromagnets?

Used in:

• Electric bells and motors

• Loudspeakers

• Cranes to lift heavy loads

• Separation of iron from impurities

• MRI machines in hospitals

42. What is an electric bell?

An electric bell works on the principle of electromagnetism.

43. How does an electric bell work?

1. When switch is pressed, current flows → electromagnet attracts armature.

2. Hammer strikes gong → sound produced.

3. Contact breaks → circuit opens → armature returns.

4. The process repeats rapidly producing continuous ringing.