Question 1

What is a network ? What are its goals and applications ?

Answer

A network is an interconnected collection of autonomous computers that can share and

exchange information and resources.

Major goals and applications of networks are :

1. Resource Sharing — Through a network, data, software and hardware resources can
be shared irrespective of the physical location of the resources and the user.
2. Reliability — A file can have its copies on two or more computers of the network, so
if one of them is unavailable, the other copies could be used. That makes a network
more reliable.
3. Reduced Costs — Since resources can be shared, it greatly reduces the costs.
4. Fast communication — With networks, it is possible to exchange information at
very fast speeds.

Question 2

Briefly explain how Internet evolved.

Answer

In 1969, ARPANET was started by U.S. Department of Defense to connect computers at U.S.
defense & different universities. In 1980s, the National Science Foundation started NSFnet to
make a high capacity network to be used strictly for academic and engineering research.

In 1990s, many private companies built their own networks, which were later interconnected
along with ARPANET and NSFnet to form Internet. Later, the commercial Internet services
came into picture, which are running the Internet.

Question 3

Write a short note on ARPAnet.

Answer

ARPAnet (Advanced Research Projects Agency NETwork) is regarded as the first computer
network. It was started by the U.S. Department of Defense in 1969 with the goal of
connecting the computers at different universities and U.S. defense. It laid the foundations of
today's internet. The users of this system began exchanging data and messages on it. They
were also able to play long distance games and socialize with people who shared their
interests leading to its rapid expansion. The original ARPANET was shut down in 1990.

Question 4
How does Internet work ?

Answer

In Internet, most computers are not connected directly to the Internet. Rather they are
connected to smaller networks, which in turn are connected through gateways to the Internet
backbone.

Internet functions in the following manner:

1. At the source computer, the message or the file/document to be sent to another

computer is firstly divided into very small parts called packets.
2. Each packet is given a number serial wise e.g., 1, 2, 3.
3. All these packets are then sent to the address of destination computer.
4. The destination computer receives the packets in random manner. If a packet is
garbled or lost, it is demanded again.
5. The packets are reassembled in the order of their number and the original
message/file/document is obtained.

Every computer connected to the internet uses communication protocols — Transmission

Control Protocol(TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP).

Question 5

Write a short note on InterSpace.

Answer

InterSpace is a client/server software program that allows multiple users to communicate

online with real-time audio, video and text chat in dynamic 3D environments. It provides the
most advanced form of communication available on the Internet today.

The Interspace is a vision of what the Internet will become, where users cross-correlate
information in multiple ways from multiple sources. It is an applications environment for
interconnecting spaces to manipulate information.

Question 6

What is a network ? What are necessary network elements ?

Answer

A network is an interconnected collection of autonomous computers that can share and

exchange information and resources.

The necessary network elements are :

1. Hosts/Nodes
2. Servers
3. Clients
 4. Network hardware
5. Communication channel
6. Software
7. Network services

Question 7

How is circuit switching different from message switching ?

Answer

In circuit switching, a complete physical connection is established between the sender and the
receiver and then data is transmitted from the source computer to the destination computer.

In message switching, no physical copper path is established in advance between sender and
receiver. Instead when the sender has a block of data to be sent, it is stored in first switching
office, then forwarded later, one jump at a time until the data is delivered to the destination
computer. It works on the store and forward principle.

Question 8

How does transmission take place across networks?

Answer

Switching techniques are used for transmitting data across networks. The switching
techniques used are as follows:

1. Circuit switching — A complete physical connection is established between the

sender and the receiver and then data are transmitted from the source computer to the
destination computer.
2. Message switching — In this form of switching no physical copper path is
established in advance between sender and receiver. Instead when the sender has a
block of data to be sent, it is stored in first switching office, then forwarded later, one
jump at a time until the data is delivered to the destination computer.
3. Packet switching — A fixed size of packet which can be transmitted across the
network is specified. The message is divided into packets and packets travel across
hops.

Question 9

What are communication channels ? Discuss various communication channels available for
networks.

Answer

A communication channel is a means of communication between two devices or workstations

i.e., it refers to the medium used to carry information or data from one point to another.

Communication channels can be grouped in two categories:

 1. Guided media — These media include cables. There are three basic types of cables :
i. Twisted-Pair Cables — These cables consist of two insulated copper wires
twisted around each other. These are also used for short and medium range
telephone communication.
ii. Coaxial Cables — A coaxial cable consists of one or more small cables in
protective covering. These are more expensive than twisted pair cables but
perform better.
iii. Fiber-optic Cables — These cables are made of plastic or glass and are about
as thick as human hair. These cables are highly durable and offer excellent
performance but are expensive.
2. Unguided media — These include waves through air, water or vacuum. Unguided
communication media are as follows:
i. Microwaves — The microwaves are similar to radio and television signals
and are used for long distance communication. Microwave transmission
consists of a transmitter, receiver and the atmosphere.
ii. Radiowaves — The transmission making use of radio frequencies is termed as
radio-wave transmission.
iii. Satellites — Satellite communication use the synchronous satellite to relay the
radio signal transmitted from ground station.

Question 10(i)

Write some advantages and disadvantages of optical fibres.

Answer

Some advantages of optical fibres are:

1. It is immune to electrical and magnetic interference.

2. It is highly suitable for harsh industrial environments.
3. It guarantees secure transmission and has a very high transmission capacity.
4. Fiber optic cables can be used for broadband transmission.

Some disadvantages of optical fibres are:

1. Fiber optic cables are quite fragile and may need special care to make them
sufficiently robust.
2. Connecting either two fibers together or a light source to a fiber is a difficult process.
3. In order to incept the signal, the fiber must be cut and a detector inserted.
4. Light can reach the receiver out of phase.
5. Connection losses are common problems.
6. They are more difficult to solder.
7. They are the most expensive of all the cables.

Question 10(ii)

Write some advantages and disadvantages of coaxial cables.

Answer

Some advantages of coaxial cables are:

1. The data transmission characteristics of coaxial cables are considerably better than
that of twisted-pair cables.
2. They can be used as the basis for a shared cable network.
3. They can be used for broadband transmission.
4. They offer higher bandwidths — upto 400 Mbps.

Some disadvantages of coaxial cables are:

1. They are expensive as compared to twisted pair cables.

2. They are not compatible with twisted pair cable.

Question 10(iii)

Write some advantages and disadvantages of twisted pair cables.

Answer

Some advantages of twisted pair cables are:

1. It is simple.
2. It is easy to install and maintain.
3. It is physically flexible.
4. It has a low weight.
5. It can be easily connected.
6. It is very inexpensive.

Some disadvantages of twisted pair cables are:

1. It is incapable of carrying a signal over long distances without the use of repeaters.
2. It is unsuitable for broadband applications due to its low bandwidth capabilities.
3. It supports maximum data rates of 1 Mbps without conditioning and 10 Mbps with
conditioning.

Question 10(iv)

Write some advantages and disadvantages of radio waves.

Answer

Some advantages of radio waves are:

1. Its transmission offers mobility.

2. It proves cheaper than cables.
3. It offers freedom from land acquisition rights.
 4. It offers ease of communication over difficult terrain.

Some disadvantages of radio waves are:

1. Communication is highly insecure.

2. Its propagation is susceptible to weather effects like rains, thunder storms etc.

Question 10(v)

Write some advantages and disadvantages of micro waves.

Answer

Some advantages of micro waves are:

1. It proves cheaper than cables.

2. It offers freedom from land acquisition rights.
3. It offers ease of communication over difficult terrain.
4. Microwaves have the ability to communicate over oceans.

Some disadvantages of micro waves are:

1. It is an insecure communication.
2. Signals from a single antenna may split up and propagate by slightly different paths to
the receiving antenna. When these out-of-phase signals recombine, they interfere,
reducing the signal strength.
3. Its propagation is susceptable to weather effects like rains, thunder storm, etc.
4. Bandwidth allocation is extremely limited in case of microwaves.
5. The cost of design, implementation, and maintenance of microwave links is high.

Question 10(vi)

Write some advantages and disadvantages of satellites.

Answer

Some advantages of satellites are:

1. The area coverage is quite large.

2. The laying and maintenance of intercontinental cable is difficult and expensive and
this is where the satellite proves to be the best alterative.
3. The heavy usage of intercontinental traffic makes the satellite commercially
attractive.
4. Satellites can cover large areas of the Earth. This is particularly useful for sparsely
populated areas.

Some disadvantages of satellites are:

 1. Technological limitations preventing the deployment of large, high gain antennas on
the satellite platform.
2. Over-crowding of available bandwidths due to low antenna gains.
3. The high investment cost and insurance cost associated with significant probability of
failure.
4. High atmospheric losses above 30 GHz limit carrier frequencies.

Question 11

What are types of twisted pair cables ?

Answer

The types of twisted pair cables are as follows :

1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cable

2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cable

Question 12

What are types of coaxial cables ?

Answer

The types of coaxial cables are as follows :

1. Thicknet coaxial cable

2. Thinnet coaxial cable

Question 13

What are the types of fiber optic cables ?

Answer

The types of fiber optic cables are as follows :

1. Single mode fiber cable

2. Multimode fiber cable

Question 14

What is bandwidth ? How is it measured ?

Answer

Bandwidth refers to the width of allocated band of frequencies to a channel. It is the

difference between the highest and lowest frequencies of a transmission channel. Bandwidth
is directly proportional to the amount of data transmitted or received per unit time.
In digital systems, bandwidth is data speed in bits per second (bps), bytes per second (Bps),
mega bytes per second (MBps).

In analog systems, bandwidth is measured in cycles per second — kilohertz (kHz), megahertz
(mHz), gigahertz (GHz) and terahertz (THz).

Question 15

What do you understand by data transfer rates ?

Answer

The data transfer rate represents the amount of data transferred per second by
communications channel or a computing or storage device.

Data rate is measured in units of bits per second (bps), bytes per second (Bps), or baud.

Question 16

In initial years, a modem providing a data rates of 56 kbps for downloading and 14.4 kbps for
uploading was considered a good modem. How many bits per second could it download and
upload ?

Answer

For downloading: 56 kbps = 56,000 bits per second (1 kilo bit = 1000 bits)

For uploading: 14.4 kbps = 14,400 bits per second

So, the modem could download data at a rate of 56,000 bits per second and upload data at a
rate of 14,400 bits per second.

Question 17

Discuss and compare various types of networks.

Answer

Based on geographical spread, networks can be of four types:

1. LAN (Local Area Network) — Small computer networks that are confined to a
localised area such as a building or factory, are known as Local Area Networks
(LANs). LANs have geographical spread of upto 1 km.
2. WAN (Wide Area Network) — The networks spread across countries or on a very
big geographical area are known as WANs. The WANs link computers to facilitate
fast and efficient exchange of information at lesser costs and higher speeds. The
largest WAN in existence is the Internet.
3. PAN (Personal Area Network) — It is the interconnection of information
technology devices within the range of an individual person, typically within a range
of 10 meters. PAN could also be interconnected without wires to the Internet or other
networks.
 4. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) — MAN refers to a network that is spread over
an area as big as a city.

Based on component roles, network can be of two types:

1. Peer-to-Peer networks — Computers in peer-to-peer network can act as both servers

sharing resources and as clients using the resources. A peer-to-peer network has upto
ten computers.
2. Client/Server Networks — Server-based networks provide centralized control of
network resources and rely on server computers to provide security and network
administration. A client computer requests and utilizes network resources and a server
is dedicated to processing client requests. Bigger networks prefer to have this type of
network with centralized control.

Question 18

Identify the network type from the following characteristics :

1. used in personal space of a person

2. covers range of 10-15 metres
3. uses bluetooth/infrared or wifi etc. for connections.

Answer

The network type that matches the given characteristics is the Personal Area Network (PAN).

Question 19

Identify the network type from the following characteristics :

1. no outside connection
2. interconnected devices within a factory or a building
3. very high speeds
4. secure network

Answer

The network type that matches the given characteristics is the Local Area Network (LAN).

Question 20

Identify the network type :

1. Mostly used in homes

2. All computers are connected with each other
3. Data exchange without any dedicated servers
4. Limited number of computers

Answer
The network type that matches the given characteristics is the Peer-to-Peer Network (P2P).

Question 21

Identify the network type :

1. Big area geographically (countries/continents)

2. Result of interconnected networks

Answer

The network type that matches the given characteristics is the Wide Area Network (WAN).

Question 22

Explain various mostly used topologies.

Answer

The most used topologies are as follows:

1. Bus or Linear topology — In this topology, all devices on network are connected to
a single continuous cable called a bus. Transmission from any station travels the
length of the bus in both directions and can be received by all other stations. The
destination device, on identifying the address on data packet copies the data onto its
disk. When the data packet reaches at either end the terminator on that end absorbs the
signal, removing it from the bus. This topology can be used for smaller networks.
2. Ring Topology — In this topology, each node is connected to two and only two
neighbouring nodes. Data is accepted from one of the neighbouring nodes and is
transmitted onwards to another. Thus data travels in one direction only, from node to
node around the ring. After passing through each node, it returns to the sending node,
which removes it.
3. Star Topology — In this topology each workstation is directly linked to a central
node. Devices can be easily plugged or unplugged to the central node, as need
dictates. Any communication between the stations must pass through the central node.
4. Tree Topology — In this topology the network is shaped as an inverted tree with the
central root branching and sub-branching to the extremities of the network.
Transmission in this topology takes place in the same way as in bus topology.
5. Mesh topology — In this topology, each node is connected to more than one node to
provide an alternative route in the case the host is either down or too busy.
6. Fully Connected topology — When in a network each host is connected to other
directly i.e., there is a direct link between each host, then the network is said to be
fully connected. This characteristic is termed as full connectivity.

Question 23

Discuss the factors that govern the selection of a topology for a network.

Answer
The factors that govern the selection of a topology for a network are as follows:

1. Cruciality of Work — How crucial the continuity of work is a very important factor.
For instance, military networks must not fail at any cost thus fully connected topology
is preferred for military networks.
2. Cost — Keeping in mind the budget, the topology should be decided based on cost. A
linear bus topology network may be the least expensive way to install a network.
Fully connected is the most expensive way of creating a network.
3. Length of cable needed — Sometimes, length of cable must be saved. The linear bus
topology network uses shorter lengths of cable.
4. Future growth — If a network has to grow in future, then the topology must support
expansion. With a star topology, expanding a network is easily done by adding
another concentrator.
5. Communication Media — Sometimes, difficult terrains like hilly areas do not allow
use of regular cables. For such conditions, linear bus topologies are not possible. The
most common cable in schools is unshielded twisted pair, which is most often used
with star topologies.

Question 24(i)

Compare and contrast Star and Bus topologies.

Answer

Star topology Bus topology

All the devices in the network are connected by a All the devices in this network are connected t
central hub in the star topology. - which acts as the backbone.

The entire network would fail in case the central hub

The entire network would fail in case the netw
fails in the network.

It requires more cables. It requires less cables.

It is non-linear in [Link] is comparatively mu

It is linear in nature.
detect faults in the system.

The network only allows the addition of a limi

Various devices can be added using this configuration.
devices.

Data transmission is comparatively slower. Data transmission is comparatively faster.

Question 24(ii)
Compare and contrast Star and Tree topologies.

Answer

Star topology Tree topology

All the devices in the network are connected by a It is in the shape of an inverted tree with the central r
central hub in the star topology. and sub-branching to the extremities of the network.

It is less complex. It is more complex.

It is cheaper. It is expensive.

Failure of one node doesn't affect entire network

Failure of higher node can affect next level node perf
communication.

It is easy to install and maintain. It is difficult to install and maintain.

Data transmission rate is high. Data transmission rate is comparatively low.

Question 24(iii)

Compare and contrast Bus and Ring topologies.

Answer

Bus topology Ring topology

All the devices in this network are connected to a single cable - which All the nodes are connected in
acts as the backbone. ring or loop.

The addition of a new node dis

A new node can be easily added using a connector.
network.

The chances of data collisions are very high. The chances of data collisions

Node failure breaks the ring an

Failure of one node does not affect the entire network.
communication stops.

Long Answer Questions

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Communication
communications
Science
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communicate

Question 1

Internet is a network of networks. How did it come into existence ? How does it function ?

Answer

The seeds of today's Internet were planted in 1969, when U.S. Department of Defense
sponsored a project named ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency NETwork). The
goal of this project was to connect computers at different universities and U.S. defense. Soon
the engineers, scientists, students and researchers, who were part of this system, began
exchanging data and messages on it. The users of this system were also able to play long
distance games and socialize with people who shared their interests. ARPANET started with
a handful of computers but it expanded rapidly.

In mid 80's, another federal agency, the National Science Foundation, created a new, high-
capacity network called NSFnet, which was more capable than ARPANET. NSFnet allowed
only the academic research on its network and not any kind of private business on it. So many
private companies built their own networks, which were later interconnected along with
ARPANET and NSFnet to form Internet.

It was the Inter networking i.e., the linking of these two and some other networks that was
named Internet. The original ARPANET was shut down in 1990, and the government funding
for NSF discontinued in 1995. But the commercial Internet services came into picture, which
are running the Internet.

The Internet is a world-wide network of computer networks. In Internet, most computers are
not connected directly to the Internet. Rather they are connected to smaller networks, which
in turn are connected through gateways to the Internet backbone.

The Internet functions in the following way:

1. At the source computer, the message or the file/document to be sent to another

computer is firstly divided into very small parts called packets. A packet generally
contains some information.
2. Each packet is given a number serialwise e.g., 1, 2, 3.
3. All these packets are then sent to the address of destination computer.
4. The destination computer receives the packets in random manner. If a packet is
garbled or lost, it is demanded again.
 5. The packets are reassembled in the order of their number and the original
message/file/document is obtained.

Question 2

Discuss various types of networks. Can you imagine the relationship of a LAN with a WAN ?
What is it ? Discuss.

Answer

Based on geographical spread, networks can be of four types:

1. LAN (Local Area Network) — Small computer networks that are confined to a
localised area such as a building or factory, are known as Local Area Networks
(LANs). LANs have geographical spread of upto 1 km.
2. WAN (Wide Area Network) — The networks spread across countries or on a very
big geographical area are known as WANs. The WANs link computers to facilitate
fast and efficient exchange of information at lesser costs and higher speeds. The
largest WAN in existence is the Internet.
3. PAN (Personal Area Network) — It is the interconnection of information
technology devices within the range of an individual person, typically within a range
of 10 meters. PAN could also be interconnected without wires to the Internet or other
networks.
4. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) — MAN refers to a network that is spread over
an area as big as a city.

Based on component roles, network can be of two types:

1. Peer-to-Peer networks — Computers in peer-to-peer network can act as both servers

sharing resources and as clients using the resources. A peer-to-peer network has upto
ten computers.
2. Client/Server Networks — Server-based networks provide centralized control of
network resources and rely on server computers to provide security and network
administration. A client computer requests and utilizes network resources and a server
is dedicated to processing client requests. Bigger networks prefer to have this type of
network with centralized control.

LAN or Local Area Network refers to small computer networks that are confined to a
localised area of upto 1 km. WAN or Wide Area Network refers to networks spread across
countries or on a very big geographical area.

A Wide Area Network (WAN) can be a group of LANs that are spread across several
locations and connected together to look like one big LAN. The WANs link computers to
facilitate fast and efficient exchange of information at lesser costs and higher speeds.

Question 3

What is switching ? Discuss various switching technologies.

Answer
The technique by which nodes of a network transmit data to other nodes, is known as
switching technique.

The three switching techniques are as follows:

1. Circuit switching — A complete physical connection is established between the

sender and the receiver and then data are transmitted from the source computer to the
destination computer. A local telephone network is an example of a circuit-switched
network.
2. Message switching — In this technique, the source computer sends message to the
switching office first, which stores the data in its buffer. It then looks for a free link to
another switching office and then sends the data to this office. This process is
continued until the data are delivered to the destination computers. This working
principle is known as store and forward i.e., store first, forward later, one jump at a
time. Here full messages travel across different intermediate hops.
3. Packet switching — A fixed size of packet which can be transmitted across the
network is specified. The message is divided into packets and packets travel across
hops.

Question 4

What is communication media ? Discuss different types of communication media used in

networks.

Answer

Communication media refer to the ways, means or channels of transmitting message from
sender to the receiver.

Communication media can be grouped in two categories:

1. Guided media — These media include cables. There are three basic types of cables :
i. Twisted-Pair Cables — These cables consist of two identical wires wrapped
together in a double helix. These are also used for short and medium range
telephone communication. The two types of twisted pair cables are Unshielded
twisted pair cable (UTP) and Shielded twisted pair cable (STP).
ii. Coaxial Cables — This type of cable consists of a solid wire core surrounded
by one or more foil or wire shields, each separated by some kind of plastic
insulator. The inner core carries the signal, and the shield provides the ground.
It is suitable for high speed communication. It is widely used for television
signals. The two types of coaxial cables are thicknet and thinnet coaxial cable.
iii. Fiber-optic Cables — Optical fibres consist of thin strands of glass or glass
like material which are so constructed that they carry light from a source at
one end of the fiber to a detector at the other end. The fiber consists of core,
cladding, protective coating. The bandwidth of the medium is very high. The
two types of optical fibres are single mode and multimode fiber cables.
2. Unguided media — These media include waves through air, water or vacuum.
Unguided communication media are as follows:
i. Microwaves — The microwaves are similar to radio and television signals
and are used for long distance communication. Microwave transmission
 consists of a transmitter, receiver and the atmosphere. The microwave
transmission is line-of-sight transmission.
ii. Radiowaves — The transmission making use of radio frequencies is termed as
radio-wave transmission. This transmission includes transmitter, receiver and
antenna.
iii. Satellites — Satellite communication use the synchronous satellite to relay the
radio signal transmitted from ground station. This transmission includes
transponders.

Question 5

Discuss various Guided media.

Answer

Guided media include cables. There are three basic types of cables :

1. Twisted-Pair Cables — These cables consist of two identical wires wrapped together
in a double helix. These are also used for short and medium range telephone
communication. The two types of twisted pair cables are Unshielded twisted pair
cable (UTP) and Shielded twisted pair cable (STP).
2. Coaxial Cables — This type of cable consists of a solid wire core surrounded by one
or more foil or wire shields, each separated by some kind of plastic insulator. The
inner core carries the signal, and the shield provides the ground. It is suitable for high
speed communication. It is widely used for television signals. The two types of
coaxial cables are thicknet and thinnet coaxial cable.
3. Fiber-optic Cables — Optical fibres consist of thin strands of glass or glass like
material which are so constructed that they carry light from a source at one end of the
fiber to a detector at the other end. The fiber consists of core, cladding, protective
coating. The bandwidth of the medium is very high. The two types of optical fibres
are single mode and multimode fiber cables.

Question 6

Discuss various Unguided media.

Answer

Unguided media include waves through air, water or vacuum. Unguided communication
media are as follows:

1. Microwaves — The microwaves are similar to radio and television signals and are
used for long distance communication. Microwave transmission consists of a
transmitter, receiver and the atmosphere. The microwave transmission is line-of-sight
transmission.
2. Radiowaves — The transmission making use of radio frequencies is termed as radio-
wave transmission. This transmission includes transmitter, receiver and antenna.
3. Satellites — Satellite communication use the synchronous satellite to relay the radio
signal transmitted from ground station. This transmission includes transponders.
Question 7

What are different types of networks based on roles of computers ?

Answer

The different types of networks based on roles of computers are as follows :

1. Peer-to-Peer networks — Computers in peer-to-peer network can act as both servers

sharing resources and as clients using the resources. A peer-to-peer network has upto
ten computers.
2. Client/Server Networks — Server-based networks provide centralized control of
network resources and rely on server computers to provide security and network
administration. A client computer requests and utilizes network resources and a server
is dedicated to processing client requests. Bigger networks prefer to have this type of
network with centralized control.

Question 8

What are different types of networks based on geographical spread ?

Answer

The different types of networks based on geographical spread are as follows :

1. LAN (Local Area Network) — Small computer networks that are confined to a
localised area such as a building or factory, are known as Local Area Networks
(LANs). LANs have geographical spread of upto 1 km.
2. WAN (Wide Area Network) — The networks spread across countries or on a very
big geographical area are known as WANs. The WANs link computers to facilitate
fast and efficient exchange of information at lesser costs and higher speeds. The
largest WAN in existence is the Internet.
3. PAN (Personal Area Network) — It is the interconnection of information
technology devices within the range of an individual person, typically within a range
of 10 meters. PAN could also be interconnected without wires to the Internet or other
networks.
4. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) — MAN refers to a network that is spread over
an area as big as a city.

Question 9

What are topologies ? Why are they important ? Discuss different topologies and
advantages/disadvantages they offer.

Answer

The patterns of interconnection of nodes in a network are called Topologies. Topology is

important as it affects the choice of media and the access method used.

The types of topologies are as follows:

1. Star Topology — This topology consists of a central node to which all other nodes
are connected by a single path.
Advantages are :

i. It provide easy access for service.

ii. Access protocols are very simple in star topology.
iii. There is a centralized control/problem diagnosis.
iv. Failure of single connection involves disconnecting only that node without
affecting network.

Disadvantages are :

v. It requires long cable length.

vi. It is difficult to expand.
vii. There is a central node dependency.

2. Bus or Linear topology — This topology consists of a single length of the

transmission medium onto which the various nodes are attached. Transmission from
any station travels the length of the bus in both directions and can be received by all
other stations. The destination device, on identifying the address on data packet copies
the data onto its disk. When the data packet reaches at either end the terminator on
that end absorbs the signal, removing it from the bus.
Advantages :

i. It requires short cable length and simple wiring layout.

ii. It provides resilient architecture.
iii. This topology can be expanded easily.

Disadvantages :

iv. Fault diagnosis is difficult in this topology.

v. Fault isolation is difficult in bus topology.
vi. Repeater configuration is necessary.
vii. Nodes must be intelligent in bus topology.

3. Tree Topology — This topology is combination of bus and star topologies. The shape
of the network is that of an inverted tree with the central root branching and sub-
branching to the extremities of the network. Transmission in this topology takes place
in the same way as in bus topology.
Advantages :

i. It uses point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

ii. It is supported by several hardware and software vendors.
iii. It is flexible and scalable.

Disadvantages :

iv. Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
v. If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 vi. It is more difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

4. Ring or Circular Topology — In this topology, each node is connected to two and
only two neighbouring nodes. Thus data travels in one direction only, from node to
node around the ring. After passing through each node, it returns to the sending node,
which removes it.
Advantages :

i. The chances of data collisions are low due to unidirectional flow of data.
ii. They are simple to design and implement.

Disadvantages :

iii. Node failure breaks the ring and communication stops.

iv. Difficulty in troubleshooting.

5. Mesh topology — In this topology, each node is connected to more than one node to
provide an alternative route in the case the host is either down or too busy.
Advantages :

i. It provides extensive back-up and rerouting capabilities.

ii. Each node is connected to more than one node to provide an alternative route
in the case the host is either down or too busy.

Disadvantages :

iii. Mesh networks can be complex to design, implement, and manage, especially
as the number of nodes increases.
iv. Maintenance and troubleshooting in mesh networks can be challenging due to
their decentralized nature.

6. Fully Connected topology — When in a network, there is a direct link between each
host, then the network is said to be fully connected. This characteristic is termed as
full connectivity.
Advantages :

i. Data travels quickly because devices are directly connected to each other.
ii. If one connection fails, there are other paths for communication to continue,
making the network robust.

Disadvantages :

iii. Managing all the connections can be complicated.

iv. Setting up and maintaining a fully connected network can be expensive.

Question 10

Write a note on the functioning of the Internet.

Answer
In Internet, most computers are not connected directly to the Internet. Rather they are
connected to smaller networks, which in turn are connected through gateways to the Internet
backbone.

Internet functions in the following manner:

1. At the source computer, the message or the file/document to be sent to another

computer is firstly divided into very small parts called packets.
2. Each packet is given a number serial wise e.g., 1, 2, 3.
3. All these packets are then sent to the address of destination computer.
4. The destination computer receives the packets in random manner. If a packet is
garbled or lost, it is demanded again.
5. The packets are reassembled in the order of their number and the original
message/file/document is obtained.

Every computer connected to the Internet uses communication protocols — Transmission

Control Protocol(TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP).