Module 4: Pipe Flow

Flow in pipes refers to the movement of a fluid (usually a liquid or gas) through a closed conduit or
cylindrical passage under the influence of pressure difference or gravity.

Types of Flow in Pipes:

Laminar Flow
Ø Fluid particles move in smooth, parallel layers
Ø Little or no mixing between layers
Ø Occurs when the Reynolds number (Re) is less than 2000

Turbulent Flow
Ø Fluid particles move irregularly, with eddies and mixing
Ø Velocity and pressure fluctuate randomly
Ø Occurs when Re > 4000

Transitional Flow
Ø Between laminar and turbulent (Re between 2000 – 4000)
Ø Flow can switch between the two states
 Pipe Flow

The Reynolds number (Re) is a dimensionless number that helps determine the type of flow of a fluid —
whether it is laminar, turbulent, or transitional — in a pipe or any flow system. It represents the ratio of
inertial forces to viscous forces within the fluid.

Inertial forces
Definition: Re 
Viscous Forces

VD VD
Formula: Re  
 

where
V = mean velocity in m/s
D = pipe diameter in meter
ν = kinematic viscosity in m2/s
μ = absolute viscosity in N.s/m2
 Pipe Flow

Velocity distribution:

Laminar flow:
 r2 
u  umax 1  2  , where umax  2 u
 R 

Turbulent flow:
1
 r 7
u  umax 1   , where umax  1 .23 u
 R
 Pipe Flow

Mean velocity:

Q  udA
Vave u  
A A

Energy Losses in Pipe

The main energy loss in pipes is due to friction between the fluid and the inner surface of the pipe.
This is called frictional head loss or major head loss.
 Pipe Flow

A. Darcy-Weisbach equation

fL V 2 0.0826 f L Q 2
hf  or hf 
D2g D5

where
hf = head (energy) loss due to friction
L = length of pipe
D = diameter of pipe
V = mean velocity of flow
Q = discharge (AV)
f = friction factor

For non-circular pipe, use D = Dh = 4Rh, where Dh = hydraulic diameter and Rh is the hydraulic radius

section area A
Rh = 
wetted perimeter P
 Pipe Flow

For laminar flow:

64
f 
Re

For turbulent flow:

1. Colebrook–White equation (for smooth and rough pipes).

1  n 2 .51 
  2 log   
f  3 . 7 Re f 
  Typical values of ɛ (mm)
Drawn tubing (brass, plastic, copper, glass) 0.0015
n = is the roughness factor Pvc pipe (new) 0.0015 - 0.007
 Galvanized iron 0.15
n Wrought iron (new)/commercial steel 0.045
D Cast iron (new) 0.26
ɛ = absolute roughness of pipe (m) Cast iron (old, rusted) 1.0 - 3.0
D = pipe diameter (m) Concrete (smooth) 0.3
Concrete (rough) 3.0
 Pipe Flow

2. Blasius equation (valid for smooth pipes and 4000 < Re < 108).

0 .3 1 6 4
f =
R e 0 .2 5

3. Prandtl–von Kármán equation.

1
f

 2 lo g R e f   0 .8 0 (smooth pipes)

1  3 .7 
 2 lo g   (fully rough pipes)
f  n 

4. Swamee–Jain explicit formula (for all cases).

0.25
f= 2
  n 5.74  
 log  + 0.9  
  3.7 R e 
 Pipe Flow

B. Manning Formula
The Manning formula is one of the best-known open-channel flow formulas and is also applicable to fully turbulent
pipe flow.
1 23 12
V R S
n
2 1
A R 3
S 2
Q=
n

6 .35 n 2 LV 2
hf  4
D 3

10.29 n 2 L Q 2
or hf = 16
D 3

where: L = pipe length

n = Manning’s coefficient
S = slope of the energy grade line (EGL)
hf
S =
L
For non-circular pipes, use D = Dh = 4Rh
 Pipe Flow

C. Hazen Williams Formula

The Hazen Williams formula is widely used in waterworks industry. This formula is applicable only to the flow of
water in pipes larger than 50 mm and velocities less than 3 m/s. (valid for Re > 4000).

V = 0 .8 4 9 C D 0 .6 3 S 0 .5 4

2 .6 3 0 .5 4
Q  0 .2 7 8 5 C D S

1 0 . 6 7 L Q 1 .8 5
h f  Description of pipe Value of C
C 1 .8 5 D 4 .8 7 Extremely smooth and straight pipe 140
New, smooth cast iron pipes 130
Average cast iron pipes 110
where Vitrified sewer pipes 110
D = pipe diameter Cast iron pipes, some years in service 100
S = slope of the EGL Cast iron pipes, in bad condition 80
C = Hazen Williams coefficient New riveted steel 110

L = pipe length Smooth wooden or wood stave 120

 Pipe Flow

Wall Shear Stress, τw

Wall shear stress τ w, is the tangential force per unit area exerted by a moving fluid on the wall of a pipe or
channel due to viscous friction.

Formulas:

1. From Darcy–Weisbach equation: 3. From shear velocity:

f 2
τw = ρV τ w = ρ u* 2
8
where: where:
f = Darcy friction factor u* = shear velocity
ρ = fluid density (kg/m³)
V = mean velocity (m/s)

2. From energy slope:

D
τw = ρgS
4
where:
D = pipe diameter
S = slope of the energy grade line
 Pipe Flow

Sample Problems:
1. Oil flows through a 25 mm diameter pipe with a mean velocity of 0.3 m/s. Given that µ = 4.8×10-2 kg/m.s and
= 800 kg/m3, calculate:
(a) the pressure drop in a 45 m length and the maximum velocity, and
(b) the velocity 5 mm from the pipe wall.

2. Water (15°C) flows in a horizontal schedule 40 pipe that has a nominal diameter of 0.5 in. The Reynolds number is
Re = 1000. Work in SI units.
a. What is mass flow rate?
b. What is the magnitude of the friction factor f?
c. What is the head loss per meter of pipe length?
d. What is the pressure drop per meter of pipe length?

3. A fluid (µ = 10-2 N.s/m2; ρ = 800 kg/m3) flows with a mean velocity of 500 mm/s in a 100 mm diameter smooth
pipe.
a. What is the magnitude of the maximum velocity in the pipe?
b. What is the magnitude of the resistance coefficient f?
c. What is the shear velocity?
d. What is the shear stress at a radial distance of 25 mm from the center of the pipe?
e. If the discharge is doubled, will the head loss per length of pipe also be doubled?
 Pipe Flow

Local Losses (or Minor losses)

Local losses occur at pipe bends, junctions and valves, etc.

A. Sudden Enlargement

V 
2
1 -V2
hL 
2g

where: V1 = velocity before enlargement

V2 = velocity after enlargement

B. Gradual Enlargement

V  V2 
2

hL K 1
2g

K = head loss coefficient

 Pipe Flow

C. Sudden Contraction Loss coefficients for sudden contraction

D2/D1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
V2
hL  KC KC 0.50 0.45 0.42 0.39 0.36 0.33 0.28 0.22 0.15 0.06 0.00
2g

where: KC is the coefficient for sudden contraction

V is the velocity in smaller pipe

D. Bends and Standard Fittings Loss factors for pipe fittings

Fitting K L/D
2
V Globe valve, fully
hL  K opened
10 350
2g Angle valve, fully open 5 175
Close-return bend 2.2 75
where: K is the loss factor for pipe fittings and valves T, through side outlet 1.8 67
Short-radius elbow 0.9 32
Medium-radius elbow 0.75 27
Long-radius elbow 0.6 20
45° elbow 0.42 15
Gate valve, wide open 0.19 7
Gate valve, half open 2.06 72
 Pipe Flow

Sample Problems:
4. What is the head loss at the outlet of the pipe that discharges water into the reservoir at a rate of 0.5m3/s if
the diameter of the pipe is 50 cm?

5. Water is draining from tank A to tank B. The elevation difference between the two tanks is 10 m. The pipe
connecting the two tanks has a sudden-expansion section as shown. The cross-sectional area of the pipe from A
is 8 cm2, and the area of the pipe into B is 25 cm2. Assume the head loss in the system consists only of that due
to the sudden-expansion section and the loss due to flow into tank B. Find the discharge between the two tanks.

6. A pipe system consists of a gate valve, wide open (K = 0.2), in line A and a globe valve,
wide open(K = 10), in line B. The cross-sectional area of pipe A is half of the cross-
sectional area of pipe B. The head loss due to the junction, elbows, and pipe friction are
negligible compared with the head loss through the valves. Find the ratio of the discharge
in line B to that in line A.
 Pipe Flow

Grade Line
A grade line represents the energy level of flowing water in a pipe or channel.

1. Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)

A line that represents the potential energy and pressure energy in the fluid.
p
z+
ρg
Note: When a hydraulic grade line is below the pipeline, the pressure in the pipe is less than the atmospheric pressure
(negative pressure/vacuum).
 Pipe Flow

2. Energy Grade Line (EGL)

A line that represents the total energy in the fluid.

p V2
z 
 g 2g

V2
Note: Energy grade line is always vertically above the hydraulic grade line by a distance of  .
2g
 Pipe Flow

Tips for Drawing HGLs and EGLs

1. In a lake or reservoir, the HGL and EGL will coincide with the liquid surface.
2. A pump causes an abrupt rise in the EGL and HGL by adding energy to the flow.
3. For steady flow in a Pipe of constant diameter and wall roughness, the slope (hL/L) of the EGL and the HGL will be
constant.
4. Height of the EGL decreases in the flow direction unless a pump is present.
5. A turbine causes an abrupt drop in the EGL and HGL by removing energy from the flow.

6. When a pipe discharges into the atmosphere the HGL is coincident with the system because p/γ = 0 at these points.

7. When a flow passage changes diameter, the distance between the EGL and the HGL will change because velocity
changes. In addition, the slope on the EGL will change because the head loss per length will be larger in the conduit with the
larger velocity.
8. If the HGL falls below the pipe, then p/γ is negative, indicating sub atmospheric pressure.
 Pipe Flow

Sample Problems:
7. For the system shown,
a. What is the flow direction?
b. What kind of machine is at A?
c. Do you think both pipes, AB and CA, are the same diameter?
d. Sketch in the EGL for the system.
e. Is there a vacuum at any point or region of the pipes? If so, identify the location.

8. Assume that the head loss in the pipe is given by hL = 0.014(L/D)(V2/2g),

where L is the length of pipe and D is the pipe diameter. Assume = 1.0 at all
locations.
a. Determine the discharge of water through this system.
b. Draw the HGL and the EGL for the system.
c. Locate the point of maximum pressure.
d. Locate the point of minimum pressure.
e. Calculate the maximum and minimum pressures in the system.
 Pipe Flow

Combination of pipes

1. Pipes in series
Two or more pipes of different sizes or roughness are so connected that fluid flows through one pipe
and then through the others in turn.
H =  local loss + h f1 +h f2
Q1 =Q2

2. Pipes in parallel
The flow is divided among the pipes and then is joined again.
h f1 = h f 2  h f3

QT =Q1 + Q2 + Q3
 Pipe Flow

Sample Problems:
9. If H = 11 m, find the discharge through pipes 1, 2, and 3 (Neglect local losses).

Pipe 1 70 m D=50 mm f=0.114

Pipe 2 80 m D=120 mm f=0.088
Pipe 3 110 m D=100 mm f=0.114

10. The pipes shown in the system are all concrete. With a flow of 25 cfs of water, find the head loss and the
division of flow in the pipes from A to B. Assume f = 0.030 for all pipes.
 Pipe Flow

Reservoir Problems

Types of Reservoir Problems

1. Given the discharge in one of the pipes, or given the pressure at the junction P, and the required is the
elevation of one of the reservoirs or diameters or length of one of the pipes.
2. Given all the pipe properties and elevation of all reservoirs, find the flow in each pipe, which can be
solved by trial and error.
 Pipe Flow

Procedure in Solving Reservoir Problems:

Type 1:
1. With known flow in one pipe leading to or flowing from a reservoir of known elevation, solve for its head loss hf.
2. Determine the elevation of the energy grade line at the junction of the pipes (P) by adding or subtracting
(depending on the direction of flow) the head loss in the pipe from the elevation of the water surface in the
reservoir.
3. If the known value is the pressure at P, the elevation of P’ is the elevation of P + P/γ.
4. Draw a line from P’ to the surface of the other reservoir. These lines represent the EGL’s of each pipe. The
difference in elevation between P’ and the surface of the reservoir is the head lost in the pipe.
5. Solve for the discharge.

Sample Problem:
11. The three-cistern system shown contains water at 15 C, compute the three volumetric flows, given: L1 =
2000, L2 = 2300 m, L3 = 2500 m; D1 = 1 m, D2 = 0.60 m, D3 = 1.20 m, n1 = 0.00015, n2 = 0.001, and n3 = 0.002.
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