INTRODUCTION

Control systems are an integral part of modern society. Numerous applications are all around
us: The rockets fire, and the space shuttle lifts off to earth orbit; in splashing cooling water,
a metallic part is automatically machined; a self-guided vehicle delivering material to
workstations in an aerospace assembly plant glides along the floor seeking its destination.
These are just a few examples of the automatically controlled systems that we can create. We
are not the only creators of automatically controlled systems; these systems also exist in
nature. Within our own bodies are numerous control systems, such as the pancreas, which
regulates our blood sugar. In time of “fight or flight,” our adrenaline increases along with our
heart rate, causing more oxygen to be delivered to our cells. Our eyes follow a moving object
to keep it in view; our hands grasp the object and place it precisely at a predetermined
location. Even the non-physical world appears to be automatically regulated. Models have
been suggested showing automatic control of student performance. The input to the model is
the student’s available study time, and the output is the grade. The model can be used to
predict the time required for the grade to rise if a sudden increase in study time is available.
Using this model, you can determine whether increased study is worth the effort during the
last week of the term.

Control means a specific action to reach the desired behaviour of a system. In the control of
industrial processes generally technological processes, are considered, but control is highly
required to keep any physical, chemical, biological, communication, economic, or social
process functioning in a desired manner. Control methods should be used whenever some
quantity must be kept at a desired value. For example, control is used to maintain the
temperature of our flat at a comfortable specific value both in winter and summer. Controlling
an aircraft, the pilot (or the robot pilot) has to execute extremely diverse control tasks to keep
the speed, the direction, and the altitude of the aircraft at desired values. Control systems are
all around us, in the household (e.g., setting the program of a washing machine, ironing by
on-off temperature control, air conditioning, etc.), in transportation, space research,
communication, industrial manufacturing, economics, medicine, etc. A lot of control systems
do operate in living organisms as well.

Control systems are everywhere in our surroundings. A control system is realized e.g., when
taking a shower, where the temperature of the shower is to be kept at a comfortable value
(Figure 1). If the temperature sensed by our body differs from its desired value, we intervene
by opening the cold tap or the warm tap. After being mixed, the water goes through the
shower pipe. The effect of the change takes place after a delay. The effect of the delay has to
be considered when deciding on a possible newer execution.

Figure 1: Shower-bath as a control task

Figure 2 shows schematically a control system for room temperature control. Figure 3
illustrates some processes which require control to ensure appropriate performance. The
speed or angular position of the motor, as well as the level of the tank, is to be kept at a
constant value. The temperature of the liquid flowing through the heat exchanger has to be
maintained. In the chemical reactor, the quality and quantity of the materials being created
during the chemical reaction have to be maintained. In the distillation column the individual
components of the crude oil are to be separated. For this purpose, the temperatures of the
plates in the column have to be appropriately controlled relative to each other. Furthermore,
in everyday practice in the household and in a variety of production processes different
control tasks have to be solved.

Figure 2: Room temperature control

In what follows, the control processes of technological systems will be discussed. The control
of industrial processes plays a significant role in ensuring better product quality, minimizing
energy consumption, increasing safety and decreasing environmental pollution.

Figure 3: Some typical control tasks

In the manufacturing production processes of material goods, mass and energy conversion
takes place. Appropriate control is to be applied to ensure the suitable starting, maintenance
and stopping of these processes. For example, in a thermal power station the chemical energy
of the coal is converted to heat energy by burning. The heat is then used to produce steam.
The steam drives the turbine, creating mechanical rotation energy. The turbine rotates the
rotor of a synchronous generator in the magnetic field of the stator. This creates electric
energy. All these processes must be operated in a prescribed way. The processes have to be
started, and their performance has to be ensured according to the given technological
prescriptions. For example, in electrical energy production, it has to be ensured that the
voltage and frequency be kept at prescribed constant values within a given accuracy in spite
of load changes during the day. Stopping the processes has to be executed safely.

To maintain the processes in a desired manner means keeping different physical quantities at
constant values or altering them according to given laws. Such physical quantities could be,
for instance, the temperature or pressure of a medium, the composition of a material, the
speed of a machine, the angular position of an axe, the level in a tank, etc.
A process is a system which is connected to its environment in many ways. For example, a
thermal power station converts the chemical energy of the fuel to electrical energy. The
system consists of several pieces of interconnected equipment (furnace, turbine, synchronous
generator, auxiliary equipment). The system converts the input quantity (fuel) to the output
quantity (electrical energy), while it has multi-faceted relations with its environment (it
produces waste material, transfers heat into the environment, produces mechanical vibration
and noise, etc.).

Figure 4: The system and its environment

Figure 4 illustrates the relation of the system and its environment. If the operation of the
turbine is investigated, then the relation of the system and its environment is considered in a
different way (Figure 5). In this case the system is the turbine, which converts the thermal
energy of the steam into electrical energy.

Figure 5: The system and its environment (as a detailed part of the system in Figure 4)
The quantities going from the environment into the system are the inputs, while the quantities
going from the system into the environment are the outputs. With control—by appropriately
manipulating the input quantities—the output quantities are to be maintained according to
the given requirements.

a) Control System Definition

A control system consists of subsystems and processes (or plants) assembled for the purpose
of obtaining a desired output with desired performance, given a specified input. Control
means the specific actions to influence a process in order to start it, to appropriately maintain
it, and to stop it. Control is based on information obtained from the process and its
environment through measurements. Measuring instruments are needed to measure the
different physical quantities involved in the control. Based on the knowledge of the control’s
aim and on the information obtained from the process and its environment, a decision is made
about the appropriate manipulation of the process input. It is characteristic for control that
high energy processes are influenced by low energy causes. The methodology of control is
that specifically designed external equipment is connected to the process and then, based on
data obtained by measurements or in other ways, it directly modifies the input variables and
in that way influences indirectly the output variables. The control system is the joint system
made up of the interconnected plant to be controlled and the control equipment. Control can
be performed manually or automatically. In manual control the operator makes a decision
and manipulates the input quantity of the process based
on the observed output quantity. In automatic control automatic devices execute the functions
of decision making and executing the manipulation. Figure 6 shows a control system in its
simplest form, where the input represents a desired output.

Figure 6: Simplified description of a control system

For example, consider an elevator. When the fourth-floor button is pressed on the first floor,
the elevator rises to the fourth floor with a speed and floor levelling accuracy designed for
passenger comfort. The push of the fourth-floor button is an input that represents our desired
output, shown as a step function in Figure 7. The performance of the elevator can be seen
from the elevator response curve in the figure 7.
Two major measures of performance are apparent:
i. The transient response and
ii. The steady-state error.
In our example, passenger comfort and passenger patience are dependent upon the transient
response. If this response is too fast, passenger comfort is sacrificed; if too slow, passenger
patience is sacrificed. The steady-state error is another important performance specification
since passenger safety and convenience would be sacrificed if the elevator did not level
properly.

Figure 7: Elevator response

b) Advantages of Control Systems
With control systems we can move large equipment with precision that would otherwise be
impossible. We can point huge antennas toward the farthest reaches of the universe to pick
up faint radio signals; controlling these antennas by hand would be impossible. Because of
control systems, elevators carry us quickly to our destination, automatically stopping at the
right floor (Figure 8). We alone could not provide the power required for the load and the
speed; motors provide the power, and control systems regulate the position and speed. We
build control systems for four primary reasons
 Power amplification
 Remote control
 Convenience of input form
 Compensation for disturbances
Control Engineering is concerned with techniques that are used to solve the following six
problems in the most efficient manner possible.

a) The identification problem: to measure the variables and convert data for analysis.
b) The representation problem: to describe a system by an analytical form or
mathematical model
c) The solution problem: to determine the above system model response.
d) The stability problem: general qualitative analysis of the system
e) The design problem: modification of an existing system or develop a new one
f) The optimization problem: from a variety of design to choose the best.

The two basic approaches to solve these six problems are conventional and modern approach.
The electrical oriented conventional approach is based on complex function theory. The
modern approach has mechanical orientation and based on the state variable theory.
Therefore, control engineering is not limited to any engineering discipline but is equally
applicable to aeronautical, chemical, mechanical, environmental, civil and electrical
engineering. For example, a control system often includes electrical, mechanical and
chemical components. Furthermore, as the understanding of the dynamics of business, social
and political systems increase; the ability to control these systems will also increase.

Figure 8 (a). Early elevators were controlled by hand ropes or an elevator operator. Here a
rope is cut to demonstrate the safety brake, an innovation in early elevators; (b). One of
two modern Duo-lift elevators makes its way up the Grande Arche in Paris. Two elevators
are driven by one motor, with each car acting as a counterbalance to the other. Today,
elevators are fully automatic, using control systems to regulate position and velocity.
For example, a radar antenna, positioned by the low-power rotation of a knob at the input,
requires a large amount of power for its output rotation. A control system can produce the
needed power amplification, or power gain. Robots designed by control system principles
can compensate for human disabilities. Control systems are also useful in remote or
dangerous locations. For example, a remote-controlled robot arm can be used to pick up
material in a radioactive environment. Figure 9 shows a robot arm designed to work in
contaminated environments. Control systems can also be used to provide convenience by
changing the form of the input. For example, in a temperature control system, the input is
a position on a thermostat. The output is heat. Thus, a convenient position input yields a
desired thermal output. Another advantage of a control system is the ability to compensate
for disturbances. Typically, we control such variables as temperature in thermal systems,
position and velocity in mechanical systems, and voltage, current, or frequency in electrical
systems. The system must be able to yield the correct output even with a disturbance. For
example, consider an antenna system that points in a commanded direction. If wind forces
the antenna from its commanded position, or if noise enters internally, the system must
be able to detect the disturbance and correct the antenna’s position. Obviously, the system’s
input will not change to make the correction. Consequently, the system itself must measure
the amount that the disturbance has repositioned the antenna and then return the antenna to
the position commanded by the input

Figure 9: Rover was built to work in contaminated areas at Three Mile Island in
Middleton, Pennsylvania, where a nuclear accident occurred in 1979. The remote-
controlled robot’s long arm can be seen at the front of the vehicle.
c) The Basic Elements of a Control Process
A control process consists of the following operations (Figure 10):
 Sensing: gaining information about the process to be controlled and its environment
 Decision making: processing the information and, based on the aim of the control
taking decisions about the necessary manipulations
 Disposition: giving a command for manipulation
 Signal processing: determine the characteristics of intervention, acting Intervention,
 Acting: the modification of the process input according to the disposition.
The individual operations are executed by the appropriate functional units.

Figure 10: Functional diagram of a control system

d) Basic terminologies in control system
System: A combination or arrangement of a number of different physical components
to form a whole unit such that that combining unit performs to achieve a
certain goal.
Control: The action to command, direct or regulate a system.
Plant or process: The part or component of a system that is required to be controlled.
Input: It is the signal or excitation supplied to a control system.
Output: It is the actual response obtained from the control system.
Controller: The part or component of a system that controls the plant.
Disturbances: The signal that has adverse effect on the performance of a control
system.
Control system: A system that can command, direct or regulate itself or another system
to achieve a certain goal.
Automation: The control of a process by automatic means
Control System: An interconnection of components forming a system configuration
that will provide a desired response.
Actuator: It is the device that causes the process to provide the output. It is the device
that provides the motive power to the process.
Design: The process of conceiving or inventing the forms, parts, and details of system
to achieve a specified purpose.
Simulation: A model of a system that is used to investigate the behaviour of a system
by utilizing actual input signals.
Optimization: The adjustment of the parameters to achieve the most favourable or
advantageous design.
Feedback Signal: A measure of the output of the system used for feedback to control
the system.
Negative feedback: The output signal is feedback so that it subtracts from the input
signal.
Block diagrams: Unidirectional, operational blocks that represent the transfer
functions of the elements of the system.
Signal Flow Graph (SFG): A diagram that consists of nodes connected by several
directed branches and that is a graphical representation of a set of
linear relations.
Specifications: Statements that explicitly state what the device or product is to be and
to do. It is also defined as a set of prescribed performance criteria.
Open-loop control system: A system that utilizes a device to control the process
without using feedback. Thus the output has no effect upon the signal
to the process.
Closed-loop feedback control system: A system that uses a measurement of the output
and compares it with the desired output.
Regulator: The control system where the desired values of the controlled outputs are
more or less fixed and the main problem is to reject disturbance
effects.
Servo system: The control system where the outputs are mechanical quantities like
acceleration, velocity or position.
Stability: It is a notion that describes whether the system will be able to follow the
input command. In a non-rigorous sense, a system is said to be
unstable if its output is out of control or increases without bound.
 Multivariable Control System: A system with more than one input variable or more
than one output variable.
Trade-off: The result of making a judgment about how much compromise must be
made between conflicting criteria.

e) Classification
Natural control system: It is a control system that is created by nature, i.e. solar
system, digestive system of any animal, etc.

Man-made control system: It is a control system that is created by humans, i.e.

automobile, power plants etc.

Automatic control system: It is a control system that is made by using basic theories
from mathematics and engineering. This system mainly
has sensors, actuators and responders.
Combinational control system: It is a control system that is a combination of natural
and man-made control systems, i.e. driving a car etc.
Time-variant control system: It is a control system where any one or more parameters
of the control system vary with time i.e. driving a vehicle.
Time-invariant control system: It is a control system where none of its parameters
vary with time i.e. control system made up of inductors, capacitors and
resistors only.
Linear control system: It is a control system that satisfies properties of homogeneity
and additive.
Homogeneous property:

Additive property:

Non-linear control system: It is a control system that does not satisfy properties of
homogeneity and additive, i.e.
Continuous-Time control system: It is a control system where performances of all of
its parameters are function of time, i.e. armature type
speed control of motor.

Discrete -Time control system: It is a control system where performances of all of its
parameters are function of discrete time i.e.
microprocessor type speed control of motor.

Deterministic control system: It is a control system where its output is predictable or

repetitive for certain input signal or disturbance signal.

Stochastic control system: It is a control system where its output is unpredictable or

non-repetitive for certain input signal or disturbance
signal.

Lumped-parameter control system: It is a control system where its mathematical

model is represented by ordinary differential equations.

Distributed-parameter control system: It is a control system where its mathematical

model is represented by an electrical network that is a

combination of resistors, inductors and capacitors.

SISO control system: It is a control system that has only one input and one output.

MIMO control system: It is a control system that has only more than one input and

more than one output.

Open-loop control system: It is a control system where its control action only depends
on input signal and does not depend on its output response.

Closed-loop control system: It is a control system where its control action depends

on both of its input signal and output response

 I. Feedback Control

A feedback control system is a system whose output is controlled using its measurement as
a feedback signal. This feedback signal is compared with a reference signal to generate an
error signal which is filtered by a controller to produce the system's control input. Feedback
control allows a system dynamic response to be modified without changing any system
components. If either the output or some part of the output is returned to the input side and
utilized as part of the system input, then it is known as feedback. Feedback plays an
important role in order to improve the performance of the control systems. In this chapter,
let us discuss the types of feedback & effects of feedback. There are two types of feedback
− positive and negative feedback

Positive Feedback

The positive feedback adds the reference input, $R(s)$ and feedback output. The following
figure shows the block diagram of positive feedback control system

Transfer function of negative feedback control system is,

II. Characteristics of Feedback Systems

Advantages

 Faster time response.

 Better stability.
 Less sensitive to noise.
 Less sensitive to system parameter variations.
Disadvantages

 May have a tendency to oscillate.

 Cost becomes higher.
III. Objectives of Feedback Control
 Speed (Rise time)
 Accuracy (settling time and steady-state error)
 Stability (Overshoot)
 Robustness (will be treated in frequency response methods)