THE DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH OF OLD TESTAMENT CANON

INTRODUCTION

- The word Canon comes from the Greek word ‗‘Kanon‘‘ meaning a measuring rod,
such as reed used by builders and crafts men.
- In art and philosophy Kanon meant a rule or standard judgement.
- This word was later adopted in religion to mean the standard list of books in
scriptures.

DEFINITION OF CANONIZATION

- Canonization is a process by which a collection of writings comes to be considered

authoritative, definitive and fixed by a particular religious authority that can be used
for religious practices.
- The Old Testament canon is the collection of sacred writings accepted as scripture by
the Jewish community and later by Christians.
- The process of canonization of the Old Testament occurred over the course of several
centuries mostly between 200 BCE (BCE= before Common Era (before the start of
Gregorian calendar} to 200 CE (Common Era).

WHY THEY WERE A NEED FOR A CANON OF OLD TESTAMENT?

- The need for a canon was influenced by several historical, theological, and the
practical reasons.
1. PRESERVATION OF GOD‘S REVELATION.
- The Old Testament contains God‘s instructions, promises, prophecies and laws for
Israel. Israel leaders recognized the importance of preserving these divine messages
accurately for future generations.
- Without canon they was a risk that some text could be ;lost , forgotten or
misrepresented.
- For example Torah was carefully preserved and read publicly in synagogues to
maintain God‘s covenant with Israel.
2. UNITY OF FAITH AND BELIEFS.
- Israel faced various religious influences and internal disputes over beliefs
- A canon provided a fixed collection of authoritative texts that defined what was
considered true and inspired by God.
- This helped avoid confusion and ensured that the community shared a common
understanding of God‘s law and promises.
- For example prophetic books warned idolatry; without a recognized canon, people
have disregarded these warnings.
3. PROTECTION AGAINST FALSE TEACHINGS.
- Many writings existed in Israel some historical some legends.
- A recognized canon distinguished inspired scripture from human or heretical writings.
- This prevented the community from being led astray by books not consistent with
God‘s revelation.
- For example the rabbis debated books like Ecclesiastes or song of songs to determine
if they reflected divine truth or merely human opinion.
4. STANDARDIZATION OF WORSHIP AND PRACTICE.
- Canonical books were used in public reading, worship and teaching .
- A fixed canon ensured that religious practices were consistency across the Jewish
community, especially after the destruction of the temple in 70 CE.
- For example Torah readings and Psalms in synagogue worship helped in preserving
the liturgical consistency.
- Esther was eventually included because it was read during Purim ( Jewish ceremony
where the celebrated the defeat of Haman‘s plot to massacred them) reinforcing
community traditions.

5 IDENTITIES AND SURVIVAL OF THE JEWISH COMMUNITY.

- After events like the Babylonian exile (6th century BCE) and later the Roman
destruction of Jerusalem(70CE) Judaism faced a threat to its survival
- The canon helped to maintain cultural and religious identity by preserving the
authoritative texts central to Jewish faith.
- It allowed Judaism to continue even without the central temple relying on scripture as
foundation of faith.
5. GUIDANCE FOR MORAL AND ETHICAL LIVING.
- Canonical books provided wisdom, laws and ethical instruction for daily life
 - A fixed canon ensured that the future generations could learn from Gods guidance,
avoiding moral and spiritual confusion.
6. PREPARATION FOR THE FUTURE REVELATION.
- The Old Testament canon also served as a foundation for later revelation, including
the New Testament in Christian beliefs.
- A fixed set of sacred texts ensured that the future communities could interpret and
understand God‘s on going plan.

STAGE IN DEVELOPMENT OF OLD TESTAMENT CANON

Stage One: Pre-Canonical Development

- This stage refers to raw materials before full biblical books took shape.

-The development of the Old Testament did not begin with written scrolls but with living
memory. Long before any book of the Bible existed, the people of Israel transmitted their
faith through oral traditions.

- In ancient society, especially before the widespread use of writing, storytelling was the
primary means of preserving history and identity.

- Families passed down stories of their ancestors—the journeys of Abraham, the struggles
of Jacob, and the dreams of Joseph—through repeated narration at communal gatherings.

-These stories were not merely entertainment but served as covenant identity markers,
reminding each generation of their divine origins. Songs like the Song of Moses in Exodus
15 and the Song of Deborah in Judges 5 were sung in times of national triumph and became
part of Israel‘s shared memory.

-Proverbs and wise sayings were recited by elders to teach morality, eventually contributing
to what became the book of Proverbs.

-Although the culture was primarily oral, writing did exist in early Israel, particularly among
priests and royal scribes.
- The Bible itself references earlier written records that have not survived, such as the Book
of the Wars of the Lord (Numbers 21:14) and the Book of Jashar (Joshua 10:13; 2
Samuel 1:18).

-These references reveal that collections of war victories, heroic songs, and political events
were recorded long before the canonical books were assembled. Likewise, the “Annals of
the Kings of Israel and Judah”, frequently cited in the books of Kings, indicate that scribes
kept official court records.

-These early written fragments were not yet regarded as Scripture but acted as raw historical
sources that later biblical authors used and edited when composing books like Samuel,
Kings, and Chronicles.

Stage Two: LITERARY/ FORMATIVE STAGE

- In this stage writings were collected, edited and arranged into structured books .
- This was not merely copying but involved compilation and redaction.
- For instance the book of psalms consists of 150 psalms from different authors like
David, Asaph, and sons of Korah.
- In this stage scribes such as Ezra played major role.

First stage in formation of Old Testament canon.

1 TORAH (THE LAW/ PENTATEUCH)

- The Torah is also called Pentateuch (Greek for five Books)
- It includes books like Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.
- It is the heart of the Jewish faith containing creation history, ancestral stories, laws
covenant and instructions for the worship.
- It is traditionally believed to be written by Moses, but likely compiled over many
centuries from oral traditions, legal codes and historical records.
HOW IT WAS DEVELOPED
- Before anything was written stories were passed down orally.
- Israelites told stories around camp fires and during festivals; stories like of Abraham ,
Isaac, Jacob and many others.
- Good example was the Exodus story as it was being narrated during festivals like
Passover.
- These oral traditions were considered sacred and authoritative long before being
written down.
- This oral preservation helped in maintaining identity and memory.
WRITING AND COMPILATION OF THE TORAH
- Around the time of Moses (13th- 12th Century BCE) some laws and covenant codes
began to be recorded e.g Ten commandments.
- As time progressed, scribes and priests began writing important laws and events. For
example the book of covenant (Exodus 20-23)
- Apart from those different traditions such as Yawhist, Elohist, priestly sources were
edited and compiled.
- This process likely happened during the Babylonian Exile ( 586-538 BCE).
- During the Babylonian exile with temple destroyed and people scatterd, Jewish
leaders realized their identity was at risk. Priest and scribes gathered old scrolls, laws,
oral stories and structured them into one narrative to preserve their faith.
- By 5th century BCE , all the sources were edited and compiled iinto one unified
Torah.
- After the exile, under Ezra ( around 458 BCE), the Torah was publicly read to the
people and Levites explained its meaning (Nehemiah 8), marking a formal recognition
of is as a sacred scripture.
- From this point Torah was read in Synagogues every Sabbath, children memorized
parts of it in Education , Kings and leaders were expected to govern according to
Torah, even prophets often appealed back to Torah to call people to covenant
obedience and all religious decisions were based on it, Which meant that Torah was
recognised as authoritative scripture by the society.
- By 400 BCE, the Torah was firmly established as the first and foundational canon.
- Torah was accepted first because it was believed to be given through Moses the
greatest prophet, apart from that it told who Israel was as a people chosen by God and
lastly because it was used in ritual and festivals.

2 PROPHETS (NEVIIM)
- After the Torah was firmly established the next group of writing to gain authority
were the prophets, known in Hebrew as Nevi‘im.
- This section interpreted Israel‘s history in light of God‘s covenant and showed how
obedience or disobedience to the Torah affected the nation.
- I contains former prophets ( Historical narrative) books such as Joshua, Judges 1-2
Samuel and 1-2 Kings.
 These recount Israel’s national history from Joshua to the Babylonian exile.
 Books like Joshua and kings are considered prophetic not because they
contain prediction but because they interpret Israel’s history through the lens
of God’s covenant, as a prophet would.
- It also contains Latter prophets (prophetic oracles) such as Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel
and twelve Minor Prophets eg Malachi.
 These contain message delivered directly by God through his messengers.
- Prophets were recognized as God‘s messengers, so their writings had divine
Authority.
- The message was in oral first before scribed.
- Prophets like Nathan, Elijah and Elisha did not leave written books but their stories
were preserved oral and later written in the former prophets‘ books.
- In 8th-5th century BCE other prophets like Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Ezekiel began writing
down their messages during times of national crisis {Assyrian and Babylonian
threats.}
- Prophetic teachings were edited and compiled into scrolls overtime, sometimes
expanded after the prophet‘s death to include historical fulfilment or reflections. for
example Baruch wrote Jeremiah‘s scroll ( Jeremiah 36:4)
RECOGNITION AND CANONIZATION OF THE PROPHETS
- Prophets became canonized gradually based on three major factors
1. CONSISTENCY WITH THE TORAH
- Prophets always called people back to the law of moses . if it contradict Torah it
was rejected
2. FULFILMENT OR VALIDITY
-True prophet’s words were confirmed by historical fulfilment EG Isaiah’s prophecy
of exile was fulfilled ( Isa 39:6-7)
3. USE IN PUBLIC WORSHIP AND TEACHING
- These books began being used in worship, teaching and public reading, just like
Torah. Their repeated use confirmed their authority.
- By 300-200 BCE, the prophets were widely treated as scriptures.
 - The prophets were the second officially accepted section.

3 WRITING (KETUVIM)- FINAL AND MOST DIVERSE SECTION.

- After the Torah and prophets were recognized as scripture the third and final section
of the Hebrew emerged which was The writings ( Ketuvim)
- Unlike the first two sections, the writings were diverse in style , date and purpose,
therefore took much longer to be officially accepted.
- The ketuvim include poetic and devotional books which are Psalms, proverbs and Job,
also includes five festival scrolls which are songs of songs , Ruth, Lamentations,
Ecclesiastes and Esther, lastly historical and Apocalyptic include Daniel, Ezra-
Nehemiah, 1-2 Chronicles.
- Many books in the writing were used early, Even during the of David and Solomon
but they were not immediately recognised as scripture like the Torah or Prophets
- Writings examined based on use in worship, consistency with Torah and prophets and
Divine inspirations.
- By 2nd century BCE , some writings like Psalms and Proverbs were already respected
as scripture.
- The final confirmation of the writings likely occurred at or after Jamnia council
(90CE).
- WHY IT TOOK LONG TO FINALIZE
- Unlike Torah and prophets, this section was not uniform
- Some books were used in personal devotion more than public worship
- Certain books caused debate. Eg Esther they was no direct mention of God.

 PERIOD OF CANONIZATION

Section Approx. Time Status

Torah 500–400 BCE First accepted
Prophets 300–200 BCE Widely recognized
Writings 200 BCE–100 CE Final closure (~90 CE)

Key Point: Canonization was recognition by the community of books with enduring spiritual
authority, shaped by history, worship, and divine guidance, not by a single council.
JAMNIA (YAVNEH) COUNCIL (~90 CE)

- Despite the name council Jamnia was not a formal legislative council like later
Christians council (Nicaea).
- It was a rabbinic school and forum for discussion, where leading rabbis debated
theological and canonical questions.
- It happened around 90 CE, shortly after the destruction of the temple in 70 CE.
- It in Yavneh ( Jamnia) , a city in Judea o mideterranean coast.
- The council or school was led by Rabbi Yohanan Ben Zakkai
- Its main goal included defining which books of scripture were authoritative,
establishing guidelines for public reading and liturgy and strengthening Jewish
identity during the post-temple period.
DISCUSSION ON THE CANON AT JAMNIA COUNCIL.

The rabbis discussed books that contested or of uncertain authority.

 First book was Ecclesiastes: Some Rabbis found its philosophical pessimism
troubling.
 Song of songs: Questioned due to its romantic imagery; eventually interpreted
allegorically as the love between God and Israel.
 Esther : its lack to explicit reference to God raised concerns.
 Proverbs : debated due to uncertain authorship or lack of direct religious instruction.
- The outcome of the Jamnia council was that the canon was recognized , the discussion
at Jamnia helped to solidify the status of the Hebrew scripture.
- They also no official vote to close the canon, Jamnia affirmed books that were already
largely accepted.
- Exclusion of certain writings from canonical status
- Re-establish Jewish religious authority post-Temple.
- Standardize beliefs and practices amid internal/external challenges.
- Confirm accepted Scriptures, especially disputed books.
 Canonization was complete over several decades, with Jewish traditionally
stabilizing 24 books.

CRITERIA FOR OLD TESTAMENT CANON.

-The rabbis and Jewish community did not just randomly select books. Over centuries, they
used several criteria‘s to decide which writings were inspired and authoritative.

1 DIVINE INSPIRATION.

- A book was considered canonical if it was believed to be inspired by God.

- In Hebrew the concept is expressed as ―Ruach Elohim‖ (spirit of God)
- Inspired by God literally means God is the ultimate author. While humans physically
wrote the texts, God was considered the true author, guiding the words and ideas.
- This means the writing contains divine truth even though it uses human language,
culture, and style.
- In essence an inspired book reflects God‘s will , character and purpose .
- The purpose include revealing God‘s plan for humanity and Israel, preserving
covenant promises and warning for generations, teaching, guiding the community in
moral, spiritual and religious life.
Characteristics of inspired text.
 Consistency with Gods revealed character and prior scripture
 Spiritual depth- capable of teaching, guiding and edifying the reader.
 Prophetic accuracy.

2. AUTHORSHIP AND AUTHORITY

- A book‘s inclusion depended on who wrote it

- Credible authorship meant that the book was written by recognized prophets , leader, or
wise men whose authority was accepted by the community.

- The authorship mattered most because the book to be recognized as authentic the author
must be connected to God or must be a servant of God such as prophets, kings and leaders as
they were believed to be God‘s instruments hence a text written by them was likely to be
inspired and accepted as authentic.

-The authorship helped the community to trust the text.

How authorship was verified.

 Traditional and community recognition

- Long-standing attribution to figures like moses, David or Solomon
- For example Psalms attributed to David was easily accepted because of his
recognized spiritual authority
 Internal Evidence
- Other Books claimed their authorship for example Jeremiah
 Prophetic or royal endorsement.
- A book associated with recognized prophet or king was more likely to be accepted.
- For example proverbs , traditionally Solomon‘s wisdom: accepted due to his
reputation as God-given wise king.

3. CONSISTENCY WITH EXISTING SCRIPTURE.

- New book had to be in harmony with the torah and prophetic writings.

- Contradictory or heretical teachings were rejected.

- This was to ensure that the canon presented a cohesive understanding of God, morality,
and covenant.

-apart from that it was a way to avoid heresies

4. LITURGICAL USE

- Those books that were regularly read in public worship or teachings were more likely to
be recognized as canonical.

- Frequent reading demonstrated the book‘s value and authority.

- For example Esther was eventually canonized because was being used during Purim.

5. ENDURANCE AND COMMUNITY ACCEPTANCE.

- The books that stood the test of time and were valued across generations were more
likely included.

- Only books preserved over generations were trusted as inspired.

- If a text consistently guided faith and morality, it reflected divine purpose and spiritual
relevance.

- Books that were accepted across multiple Jewish communities confirmed its authority
hence they were easily accepted
- For example book of Job was accepted because it stood the test of time due to its depite
its complex theology.

6. PROPHETIC TESTIMONY.

- Books containing God‘s message through prophet were considered authoritative.

- Prophets served as God‘s voice to people.

- Prophets often they could say thus says the lord indicating that they were just the mouth
piece of God or the messengers.,

- Fulfilment of the prophecies increased credibility. For example Prophet Jeremiah.

7. SPIRITUAL AND MORAL VALUE

- Books were evaluated for their ability to teach, guide or inspire faithfulness of god.
- Only text helping Israel live according to God‘s covenant were accepted. For example
the book of psalms

8. LANGUAGE AND AUTHENTICITY

- Books were generally expected to be written in Hebrew (some Aramaic)

- The language tied the text to the Jewish people.

- Any book that was written in other languages was not accepted.

APOCRYPHA BOOKS

- The term Apocrypha means hidden or secret writings

- The Apocrypha refers to a set of Jewish religious writings composed during
Intertestamental period (300 BCE and 100 BCE).
- In Catholic they are called Deuterocanonical books meaning the second canon.
- In catholic they are included because they appear in the Septuagint which is the Greek
vision of the old testament which was used by early church.
- The protestant and jews rejected them because they were not part of the original
Hebrew bible and rarely quoted by Jesus or apostle as scripture.
- These books include Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach. Baruch, 1 & 2
Maccabees, letter of Jeremiah , Prayer of Manasseh additions to Esther and additional
to Daniels.
- These books are recognized as scripture by Roman Catholic Church and Eastern
Orthodox church but not to the protestant and the Jews.
WHY THEY WERE DENIED CANONICAL STATUS?
1. Late composition outside Hebrew bible and were written in Greek.
2. Doctrinal issues
- Some passages in Apocrypha appeared to conflict with established bbiblical doctrines
eg Prayers for the dead in 2 Maccabees 12:44-45.
3. Lack of the Prophet authority
-unlike canonical books which often state , ―Thus says the lord the Apocrypha
rarely contain prophetic claims
-apart from that jewish tradition believed prophecy ceased after Malach , So latter
writtings were considered historical not divinely revealed eg Wisdom of Solomon.

By Dominic Sage Kaunga