Electromagnetics

ELEC 325

Part-1: Vector Analysis

Chapter 3
Vector Calculus

1
 Topics and Objectives
» 3.2 Differential Length, Area, and Volume
» 3.3 Line, Surface, and Volume integrals
» 3.4 Del Operator
» 3.5 Gradient of Scalar
» 3.6 Divergence of a Vector and Divergence
Theorem
» 3.7 Curl of a Vector and Stokes’s Theorem
» 3.8 Laplacian of a Scalar

2
 3.2 Differential Length, Area, and Volume
A. Cartesian Coordinates:
Small displacement:

Volume element: 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧

Surface elements (faces normal to unit

vectors):

3
 3.2 Differential Length, Area, and Volume
B. Cylindrical Coordinates: (d , d , dz)
Small displacement: dl = da  + da + dza z

Surface elements (faces normal to unit

vectors):
ds  = ddz
ds = ddz
ds z = dd

Volume element: dv = dddz

4
 3.2 Differential Length, Area, and Volume
C. Spherical Coordinates: (dr, d , d )
Small displacement:
dl = drar + rda + r sin da
Surface elements (faces normal to unit
vectors):
dsr = r 2 sin dd
ds = r sin drd
ds = rdrd
Volume element: dv = r 2 sin drdd

5
Example and Practice Exercise:

Consider the object shown, calculate

» The distance BC.
» The distance CD.
» The surface area ABCD.
» The surface area ABO.
» The surface area AOFD.
» The Volume ABDCFO.

6
Example and Practice Exercise:

Consider the object shown, it may be described as 3  r  5 , 60    90

45    60 , where surface r = 3 is the same as AEHD, surface  = 60 is AEFB,
and surface is  = 45 ABCD. Calculate


a) The distance DH.

b) The distance FG.
c) The surface area AEHD.
d) The surface area ABDC.
e) The volume of the object.
 3.3 Line, Surface, and Volume Integrals:
Volume Integrals:
Example: A cloud of electrons is confined in a region between
two spheres of radius 2 cm and 5 cm. The charge density is
310 −8 C.m–3. Find the total charge in the region.
v = − 4
cos 2

r

Total Charge =   v dv
V

dv = r 2 sin drdd
2  0.05
Q=    r 2 sin  drd d
0 0 0.02

2  0.05 −3  10−8
=   2
cos 2
 sin  drd d
0 0 0.02 r
0.05 You can integrate any function
2   1
 
using on line webpage:
= −3  10 −8
−
 r  cos 2
 sin  d d
0 0
0.02
[Link]
ntegrate+1%2Fr^2
8
 3.3 Line, Surface, and Volume Integrals:
Volume Integrals:
Example: A cloud of electrons is confined in a region between
two spheres of radius 2 cm and 5 cm. The charge density is
310 −8
v = − cos 2  C.m–3. Find the total charge in the region.
r4

 1 1  2
 

 0   d
−8
Q = −3  10  − + − cos cos 2

 0.05 0.02 
0

2
= −9  10  2  cos 2  d
−7
0
2 1
 (1 + cos 2 ) d
−6
= −1.8  10
0 2
2
−5  sin 2 
= −9  10  +
 2  0
= −1.8  10−6 C
9
 3.3 Line, Surface, and Volume Integrals:
Surface Integral:
➢ The surface integral is a definite integral taken over a surface.

➢ It can be thought of as the double integral analog of the line integral.

➢ Given a surface, one may integrate over its scalar fields, and vector fields

➢ The double Integrals in a plane ‫𝑥 𝑓 ׭‬, 𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 are surface integrals of scalar fields
over plane surfaces

➢ The double Integrals in a plane as a vector ‫𝒔𝒅 ∙ 𝑨 𝒔׬‬, is the flux from the surface

10
 3.3 Line, Surface, and Volume Integrals:
Surface Integral:
➢ If the surface is closed (encloses a volume), ds = an ds where an is the outward

 [Link]
pointing normal, and written as
S
k1
Example: Evaluate flux of vector field F = a + a z k2 z

over surface of a closed cylinder about the z-axis, specified by ρ = 2 and z = 3.
(This corresponds to line source of flux decreasing radially, and a flux of uniform
direction (z) increasing in the z-direction.)
Solution:

11
 z
Solution:
+3
y
Flux =  [Link]
S O
x
=  [Link] ds +
top

bottom
F.a n ds + 
side
F.a n ds
–3
Top face:
2
ds =
k1
 F  ds =  (a
Top

+ a z k 2 z )  ds =

2 2 2 2
1 2 
top n 0 0 2
F  a ds = 3k d d = 0 2  2   d =
3k
0

6k 2  0 = 12k 2
2
Solution:
z
Flux =  [Link] +3
S y
=  F.a ds + 
top
n
bottom
F.a n ds +  F.a ds
side
n O
x

Bottom face: –3
2

ds =
k1
 F  ds =  (a
Bottom

+ az k 2 z )  ds =

2 2 2 2
1 2 
 F  a n ds =   3k 2 dd =  3k 2   d = 6 k 2  2
0 = 12k 2
Bottom 0 0 0  2 0

13
 Solution:
Flux =  [Link] z
S
+3
=  [Link] ds +
top

bottom
F.a n ds + 
side
F.a n ds
y
Side face: O
x
ds = –3
k1 2
 F  ds =  (a
Side

+ a z k 2 z )  ds =

3 2 3

 F  an ds =   k1ddz =  k1 2 dz = 2k1z −3 = 12k1

3

Side −3 0 −3

flux =  [Link] = 12 k1 + 24 k2

S
14
 3.3 Line, Surface, and Volume Integrals:
Line Integral:
➢ Also called path integral (physics), contour integral, curve integral is an
integral where the function is integrated along a curve r(t) instead of along a
straight line

➢ The function to be integrated can be either a scalar of a vector field

➢ If we want to integrate a scalar field f along a curve r(t), the line integral is
simply ‫𝑟𝑑 𝑓 ׬‬

➢ The line integral of a scalar field f over a curve C can be thought of as the
area under the curve C along a surface z = f(x,y), described by the field
➢ The line integral of vector field F over a line segment dl is done as:
➢ ‫ 𝒙𝑭( 𝑪׬ = 𝒍𝒅 ⋅ 𝑭 𝑪׬‬, 𝑭𝒚 , 𝑭𝒛 ) ⋅ (𝒅𝒙 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒅𝒚𝒂𝒚 + 𝒅𝒛𝒂𝒛 )

➢ = ‫ 𝒙𝒅 𝒙𝑭 𝑪׬‬+ 𝑭𝒚 𝒅𝒚 + 𝑭𝒛 𝒅𝒛

15
Line Integral: Integrals along a curve in space: e.g. work done by
a force F acting on a particle going from A to B
B

 [Link]
A y
Example: Calculate the line integral of B

(F = ax x y – ay 2 x) along the curve OABO

Solution: O A x
3
[Link]= (ax Fx + ay Fy).( ax dx + ay dy)
= (ax x y – ay 2 x).( ax dx + ay dy)= x y dx – 2 x dy
A
On (and along) OA: y = dy = 0 so
 [Link] = 0
O

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Line Integral: y
Solution: B

On AB: x2 + y2 = 9
O A x
B B B 0 3 3
 [Link] =  xy dx −  2 x dy =  x 9 − x dx −  2 9 − y dy
2 2

A A A 3 0

( )
3
=  (9 − x )  −  y 9 − y 2 + 9sin −1 y  using integral tables
3 0
1 2 2

 3  3  3  0
= −9 (1 +  2 )
O

On BO: x = dx = 0 so  [Link] = 0
B


OABO
[Link] = −9 1 +  ( 2 ) OABO
 [Link]

‫ 𝑙𝒅 ⋅ 𝑭 ׯ‬often called circulation of F around closed contour C.

17
Line Integral:
Example
Given that 𝑭 = 𝑥 2 𝒂𝒙 − 𝑥𝑧𝒂𝒚 − 𝑦 2 𝒂𝒛 calculate the circulation of F around the
(closed) path shown in the figure
Solution:
Line Integral:
Example
Given that 𝑭 = 𝑥 2 𝒂𝒙 − 𝑥𝑧𝒂𝒚 − 𝑦 2 𝒂𝒛 calculate the circulation of F around the
(closed) path shown in the figure
Solution:

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 3.4 Del Operator:

The Del operator (  ) is the vector differential operator

Cartesian Coordinates:   
 = ax + a y + az
x y z

Cylindrical Coordinates:  1  
= a + a + a z
   z
 1  1 
Spherical Coordinates:  = ar + a + a
r r  r sin  

Gradient of scalar V 𝛁𝑽

Divergence of vector A 𝛁∙𝑨

Curl of vector A 𝛁×𝑨

Laplacian of scalar V 𝛁𝟐𝑉

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Gradient of Scalar Field
Gradient of Scalar Field A 𝛁𝐀

21
 3.5 Del Operator: Gradient of Scalar Field

Gradient of a scalar field V is a vector that represents both

the magnitude and direction of the greatest rate of increase in
the scalar field.
𝐝𝐕
In any direction, gives the
𝐝𝐥
rate of change of V in that direction

What is the maximum “slope” of a scalar field is called the

gradient

Its gradient, with

all vectors
pointed uphill
(towards the
peak

22
3.5 Del Operator: Gradient of Scalar Field
The gradient is the vector field which
points in the direction of the fastest
increase of the function, whose length
is the rate of increase in that direction.

23
 3.5 Del Operator: Gradient of Scalar Field

The Graph of the right represents the height of the mountain

and valley (This is Scalar Field).
The graph on the bottom, represents the slope and direction
of the slope (its gradient and its vector)

24
 3.5 Del Operator: Gradient of Scalar Field

Example: The height in the hiking are is

given by H= x2+y2-0.2Z
At hiker located at (2,2,1) wants to get to
the top of hill as soon as possible.

Solution: He should take the path of

maximum slop to top from his location
(2,2,1).

 H H H
H = a x + ay + az = 2 xa x + 2 ya y − 0.2a z
x y z

At his location (2,2,1).


H = 2 xa x + 2 ya y − 0.2a z = 4a x + 4a y − 0.2a z

So he should move in the direction 4a x + 4a y − 0.2a z

 3.4 Del Operator: Gradient of Scalar Field

Cartesian coordinates:
V V V     
V = a x + ay + az =  a x + a y + a z V
x y z  x y z 
Cylindrical coordinates:

  1   
V =  a + a + a z V
    z 

Spherical coordinates:

V 1 V 1 V   1  1  
V = a r + a + a =  ar + a + a V
 r r  r sin     r r  r sin   
 3.4 Del Operator: Gradient of Scalar Field
Example and Practice: Given

W = x 2 y 2 + xyz , compute W
dW
and the directional derivative in the
dl

direction of A = 3a x + 4a y + 12a z at (2, -1, 0).

Solution:
W W W
W = ax + ay + a z = (2 xy 2 + yz)a x + (2 x 2 y + xz)a y + ( xy)a z
x y z

At (2, -1, 0); W = 4a x − 8a y − 2a z

dW  (3,4,12) 44
Hence, = W  a A = (4,−8,−2)  =−
dl 13 13

27
Divergence of vector Field
Divergence of Vector Field A 𝛁. 𝐀

28
 3.6 Divergence of Vector Field
The divergence of A at a given point P is the outward flux per unit
volume as the volume shrinks about P.
 A  ds
s
div A =   A = lim v→0
v
It measures the net inflow or outflow of a vector field at a point.
Types of Divergence of a vector field at a point P:

• Positive Divergence
• Negative Divergence
• Zero Divergence

29
 3.6 Divergence of Vector Field

• Positive Divergence Example A

• Negative Divergence Example B
• Zero Divergence Example C

 A  ds
s
div A =   A = lim v→0
v

30
 Guess Work: Divergence of Vector Field
-
?
+
+
+
?
+
Guess what is divergence at point 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 ??

• Positive Divergence
• Negative Divergence
• Zero Divergence
Ref: A Student Guide to Maxwell Equations , Pg.33 ( Uploded Back Board)

31
 3.6 Divergence of Vector Field
To evaluate the divergence of a vector field D at point P(xo,yo,zo) we let a
point be enclosed by a differential volume as shown below.

Taking the front surface, for example, we have:

32
3.6 Divergence of Vector Field

33
3.6 Divergence of Vector Field

34
 3.6 Divergence of Vector Field

The del operator is a vector differential operator, and is defined as:

Note that:

= = div D

35
 3.6 Divergence Theorem (Gauss-Ostrogradsky theorem):
The Divergence Theorem states that the total outward flux of a vector field A
through the closed surface S is the same as the volume integral of the
divergence of A.

 A  ds =    A dv
s v

Most of the time volume integral will be more easy than the surface integral.
So we will use what ever is convenient in certain situation.
36
 Calculation of the Divergance of the Vector Field
Problem 3.23

Solution

Also Solve the Example 3.6, 6th Edition

37
 3.7 Curl of Vector Field:
The curl of A is an axial (or rotational) vector whose magnitude is the maximum
circulation of A per unit area as the area tends to zero and whose direction is
the normal direction of the area when the area is oriented so as to make the
circulation maximum.

 L A  dl 
curl A =   A =  lim  an
 s →0  s 
  max
Where the area S is bounded by the curve of L and an is the unit vector
normal to the surface S and is determined using the right-hand rule.

38
3.7 Curl of Vector Field:

39
 3.7 Curl of Vector Field:
In order to evaluate an expression for A we let the differential area in the yz-
plane as shown below
z

d c

P
dz

a b y
dy

The line integral is obtained as

 
L A  dl =  ab +
bc
+
cd
+
da
 A  dl



40
 3.7 Curl of Vector Field:
The curl of A in Cartesian Coordinates is:

 Az Ay   Ax Az   Ay Ax 

 A =  −  ax +  −  a y +  x − y  a z
 y z   z x   

The curl of A in Cylindrical Coordinates is:

 1 Az A   A Az  1  ( A ) A 

 A =  − +
  
a −  
a +  −  az
   z   z       
The curl of A in Spherical Coordinates:

1   ( A sin  ) A  1  1 Ar  (rA )  1   (rA ) Ar 

 A=  −  a +  −  a +  −  a
r sin      r  sin    

r  r  r
2 r

41
 3.7 Curl of Vector Field:

» For the Cylindrical System:

» For the Spherical System:

 Calculation of the Curl of the Vector Field
Problem 3.34

Solution
 Az Ay   Ax Az   Ay Ax 
 A =  −  ax +  −  ay +  −  az
 y z   z x   x y 
 1 Az A   A Az  1  ( A ) A 
 A =  −  a +  −  a +  −  az
   z   z         

Also Solve the Example 3.8, 6th Edition

43
 Vector Derivatives: Summary

» The gradient of a scalar field V at a point P is a vector

field F that gives the magnitude and direction of the
maximum rate of change of V at P
» The divergence of a vector field F at a point P is a scalar
field D that gives the outward flux of F per unit volume
as the volume shrinks to P
» The curl of a vector field F at a point P is a vector field C
that gives the circulation of F per unit area as the area
shrinks to P
» Here F, C, V, D and P are functions of (x,y,z)

44
 3.7 Stokes‘s Theorem:
Stokes’s theorem stats that the circulation of a vector field A around a (closed)
path L is equal to the surface integral of the curl of A over the open surface S
bounded by L (see the following figure) provided that A and A are
continuous on S.

dS

Closed Path L

Surface S
dl

 A  dl =  (  A)  dS
L S

45
 Two Important Identities
For a vector field A, Divergence of the Curl of any vector field is zero.

In Cartesian coordinate System:

46
 Two Important Identities-2
For a scalar field V the Curl of the Gradient of any scalar field is zero

In Cartesian coordinate System:

47
 3.8 Laplacian of a Scalar:

The divergence of the gradient of a scalar function

is called the Laplacian.
The curl of A in Cartesian Coordinates is:

 2
V  2
V  2
V
 2V =   V = 2 + 2 + 2
x y z

The curl of A in Cylindrical Coordinates is:

1   V  1  2
V  2
V
 V =   V =
2
   + 2 2 + 2
       z

The curl of A in Spherical Coordinates:

1   2 V  1   V  1  2V
 V =   V = 2  r
2
+ 2  sin  + 2 2
r r  r  r sin      r sin   2

48
 3.9 Classification of Vector Field:

A vector field is said to be solenoidal or divergence-less if

• Solenoidal means that the field resembles the magnetic

force field produced by a solenoid.
• Later we will see that the divergence of the magnetic
field is always zero
• Divergence-less has the obviously implied meaning, i.e.
the vector field has no divergence

• In order to “generate” a solenoidal field, start with any

vector field and take its curl. The resulting vector field will
be solenoidal because
49
 3.9 Classification of Vector Field:

A vector field is said to be irrotational or Potential or

Conservative if =0

Irrotational means that the field does not have the ability
to do work around any point (or closed path)

Conservative means that the line integral of the vector

field between two points of space is independent of the
path taken to reach from one point to the other.

Potential means that the vector field would necessarily

be the gradient of some scalar field (called the scalar
potential)
 3.9 Classification of Vector Field:

Solenoidal or divergence-less

Irrotational or Potential or Conservative

Description Properties Example

Solenoidal and .F = 0,   F = 0 Electrostatic field in
irrotational charge-free region
Solenoidal and .F = 0,   F  0 Steady magnetic field in
rotational current-carrying
conductor
Not solenoidal and .F  0,   F = 0 Static electric field in a
irrotational charged region
Not solenoidal and .F  0,   F  0 Electric field in charged
rotational region, with time-
varying magnetic field

51
k is any constant vector field
Examples: Categories A = ax x y – ay y2 + az xz
  2 
div A = .A = xy − y + xz = y − 2 y + x = x − y
x y z

ax ay az
curl A =   A =  x  y  z
xy − y 2 xz
  ( xz )  ( − y 2 )    ( xy )  ( xz )    ( − y 2 )  ( xy ) 
= −  a x +  − ay +  −  az
 y z  z x   x y 
= a x 0 − a y z − a z x = −(a y z + a z x )

The field of A is rotational and not solenoidal.

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Categories B = ax x – ay 2 y + az z
  
div B = .B = x − 2 y + z = 1− 2 + 1 = 0
x y z
ax ay az
curl B =   B =  x  y  z
x − 2y z
  ( z )  ( −2 y )    ( x)  ( z)    ( −2 y )  ( x ) 
= − +
 x 
a − +
 y 
a −  az
 y z  z x   x y 
= ax 0 − a y 0 − az 0 = 0

B is irrotational and solenoidal.

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