CELL

The cell is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known organisms.
 It is the smallest unit of life and are often called the "building blocks of life". Robert Hooke discovered
the cell in 1665.
 A cell is called fundamental unit of life because it is capable of existing on its own and performing all
the functions which are necessary for a living being.
 The study of cells is called cell biology, cellular biology, or cytology
 All organisms are made up of cells. They may be made up of a:
a. Single cell (unicellular) like Amoeba, or
b. Many cells (multicellular).
TYPES OF CELLS
Based on cellular structure, Cells are of two types:

PROKARYOTIC CELLS
‘Pro’ refers to primitive or primary and ‘Karyote’ refers to nucleus.
 These are the cells without nucleus. As the membrane of the cell organelles are also absent, constituents
of cell are not well defined.
 They are single-celled microorganisms and includes archaea, bacteria (blue green algae), and
cyanobacteria.

Comparison
 The cell size ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 µm in diameter.
 These cells can perform limited functions.
 They reproduce by binary fission(asexual reproduction) and the hereditary material of these organisms
can be either DNA or RNA.

EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Eukaryotes are organisms whose cells have a nucleus. They are advanced and complete cells.
 They can be either Unicellular (single celled) or multicellular and involves plants, fungi, protozoans, and
animals.
 Eukaryotes can reproduce both asexually through mitosis and sexually through meiosis and gamete
fusion.
 Eukaryotic cells are typically much larger than those of prokaryotes.
 IMPORTANT TERMS
1. Mitosis: In this one cell divides to produce two genetically identical cells.
2. Meiosis: In this DNA replication is followed by two rounds of cell division to produce four haploid (one
set of chromosome) daughter cells.
- These act as sex cells (gametes), each has a unique mix of the corresponding pair of parental
chromosomes resulting from genetic recombination during meiosis.
STRUCTURE OF CELL
The cell structure comprises individual components with specific functions essential to carry out life’s
processes.

These components include:

a. Cell membrane: It is also called plasma membrane, is a biological membrane that surrounds the
cytoplasm of a cell.
- It is a living part of the cell and is very thin & delicate.
- It supports and protects the cell from external environment.
- It controls the movement of substances in and out of the cells.
- It is a porous membrane which permit the movement of selective substances in and out of the cell.
- Substances like CO2 and O2 can move across the cell membranes by a process of diffusion.

b. Cytoplasm: It is the clear jelly likefluid that fills a cell. It is thicker than water.
- It helps in keeping the cell’s internal components in place.
- It acts as a store for vital chemicals such as amino acids, protein, sugar etc.
- Most of the chemical reactions of a cell takes place in the cytoplasm.

c. Cell Wall: It acts to protect the cell chemically and mechanically from its environment. It is an additional
layer of protection to the cell membrane.
- The cell wall lies outside the plasma membrane. It is non-living part of the cell.
- It is thick, freely permeable and is made up of cellulose.
- It is present only in Plant cells and not in Animal cells.
- It also provide rigidity, shape and support to the cells.
- Different types of cell have cell walls made up of different materials.
d. Nucleus: It is known as the genetic information centre of the cell. It contains cell’s
chromosomes(hereditary material).
- It is dark coloured, spherical or oval dot-like structure present at the cell centre.
- It is the place where almost all DNA replication and RNA synthesis occur.
- It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide and die.
- Nucleus has a fluid present in it, which is called Nucleoplasm.
- Chromatin is an entangled mass of thread like structure present within the nucleus, which leads to
the formation of chromosomes.
- In case of prokaryotic cells, because of lack of clearly defined nucleus, nucleic acids are present and
are known as nucleoids.

e. Nuclear Membrane: It protects the nucleusby forming a boundary between the nucleus and other cell
organelles.

f. Mitochondria: It generate energy for the cell. They by respiration produces ATP (Adenosine
triphosphate), the cell’s energy unit.
- It is also called the powerhouse of the cell.
- They are small rod-shaped organelles and multiply by binary fission.

g. Ribosomes: They are the protein synthesisers of the cell.

- Proteins are needed for many cellular functions such as repairing damage or directing chemical
processes.
- Ribosomes can be found floating within the cytoplasm or sometimes attached tothe endoplasmic
reticulum

h. Chloroplast: are the primary organelles for photosynthesis.

- It contains the pigment chlorophyll.

i. Lysosomes: They protect the cell by engulfing the foreign bodies entering the cell and helps in cell
renewal.
- These are formed by Golgi bodies. These are waste disposal systems of a cell.
- It contains several digestive enzymes enclosed in a membrane. These enzymes can break down all
organic material.
- In case the cell gets damaged and lysosomes burst, the enzymes present in it digest the whole cell.
Thus, these are also called Suicidal bags of the cell.
- Thus, it keeps the cell clean and provides protection against virus and bacteria.

j. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): It is involved in the transportation of substances throughout the cell.
- It plays a primary role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, synthesis of lipids, steroids, and
proteins.
- The ER has two forms: the rough ER, which has ribosomes on its surface that secrete proteins into
the ER, and the smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes.

k. Golgi apparatus: It consists of system of membrane bound vesicles (bags) arranged parallel to each other
in stacks. These stacks are called cisterns.
- Its primary function is to process and package the macromolecules such as proteins and lipids that
are synthesized by the cell.
- It helps in storage, modification and packaging of products in vesicles.
l. Vacuoles: These are storage stacks for solid and liquid contents filled in the membrane. These are small
sized in animal cells and large sized in plant cells.
- They sequester waste products and in plant cells store water. They are often described as liquid
filled space and are surrounded by a membrane.

m. Centriole: They aid in cell division by facilitating the separation of chromosomes.

- These spindle fibres act as guides for the alignment of the chromosomes when they separate during
the process of cell division.
- For this reason, they are located near the nucleus.
- Though centrioles play a role in the reproduction within animal cells, plant cells are able to reproduce
without them.

n. Nucleolus: It is the site of ribosome synthesis. Also, it is involved in controlling cellular activities and
cellular reproduction.

o. Plastids: They are usually spherical in shape and are double membrane bound organelles. They are
responsible for manufacturing and storing of food.

p. Cilia or flagella: They have the same internal structure. The major differences is in their length.
- Cilia are short, and there are usually many cilia per cell.
- On the other hand, flagella are longer, and there are fewer flagella per cell.
- They facilitate liquid movement along the surface of the cell.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS

Plant Cell Animal Cell

It is usually larger in size. It is comparatively smaller in size.
Cell wall is present. Cell wall is absent.
It cannot change its shape It can often change its shape.
Lysosomes are rare. Lysosomes are always present.
A large vacuole is present in the centre. Vacuoles are generally absent, if present, they are
small
Cytoplasm is not so dense. Cytoplasm is denser and more granular and almost
fills the entire cell.
Golgi apparatus consists of simple smaller units. Golgi apparatus is highly complex and prominent.
Mitochondria are fewer in number. Mitochondria are numerous in number.
Nucleus lies on one side of the cell. Nucleus lies in the centre of the cell.
Cell is square or rectangular in shape. Cell is round or irregular in shape.

FUNCTIONS OF CELL
Important functions of cell are as follows:
1. They form the structural basis of all the organisms.
2. The cells multiply and facilitate the growth in an organism.
3. Various nutrients are imported by the cells to carry out various chemical processes going on inside the
cells.
4. Cells require energy to carry out various chemical processes. This energy is produced by the cells through
a process called photosynthesis in plants and respiration in animals.
5. A cell aids in reproduction through the processes called mitosis and meiosis.
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Multicellular animals must monitor and maintain a constant internal environment as well as monitor and
respond to an external environment.
 The organ system that serves to coordinate and control the functioning of all other organ systems in
the body is known as nervous system.

IMPORTANT FACTS
In some animals, there is also present a second control system called the endocrine system.
 In these animals, nervous system coordinates rapid responses to external stimuli.
- The neural system provides an organized network of point-to-point connections for a quick
coordination.
 Whereas endocrine system controls slower, longer lasting responses to internal stimuli.
- The endocrine system provides chemical integration through hormones.

 Basic functions of Nervous system are:

 a. Receive sensory input from internal and external environments.
- Receptors in nervous system senses changes in the internal or external environments.
- Inputs can take many forms, including pressure, taste, sound, light, blood pH, or hormone levels,
that are converted to a signal
b. Integrate all the inputs
- Integration of Inputs takes place in the brain or spinal cords.
c. Respond to the Stimuli
- The response is in the form of signals,transmitted to organs than can convert the signal into some
form of action.

HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nervous System is a complex network of nerve cells that carry message to and from the brain and spinal
cord to various parts of the body.
In human, nervous system is divided into 2 parts:
a. Central Nervous system (CNS): It consists of Spinal cord and Brain.
- CNS is the site of information processing and control.
b. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): It contains sensory and motornerves and connects the brain and
spinal cord (CNS) to the rest of the body.

IMPORTANT FACTS
 Peripheral Nervous System consists of two components:
a. Sensory (afferent) pathways that provide input from the body into the CNS.
b. Motor (efferent) pathways that carry signals to muscles and glands (effectors).
 Peripheral Nervous System is of two types:
a. Somatic Nervous System includes all nerves controlling the muscular system and external sensory
receptors.
b. Autonomic Nervous System, consists of motor neurons and control internal organs.

NEURON OR NERVE CELLS

A neuron (or neurone) is a nerve cell that carries electrical impulses. Neurons are the basic units of our
nervous system.
- Our nervous system contains about 10 billion nerve cells, which communicate with each other in a
specific manner.
- Neurons have a cell body (soma or cyton), dendrites and an axon.

STRUCTURE
- Neurons are connected to one another, but they do not actually touch each other. Instead they have
tiny gaps called synapses.
- These gaps are chemical synapses or electrical synapses which pass the signal from one neuron to the
next.
- It consists of a cell body that has a large central nucleus and cytoplasm.
- Several short, thread like branches called dendrites arise from the cell body.
- One branch arising out of the cell body is very long in comparison to others. This branch is called axon.
- Axon are generally covered by a fatty sheath called myelin sheath. Gaps on the sheath are known as
nodes of Ranvier.
- Neurons communicate with each other using axons and dendrites. Neurons send signals to other neurons
through the axons which release chemicals known as neurotransmitters.

TYPES OF NEURONS
 Based on Connection, there are three type of neurons:
a. Sensory neurons, which carry information from tissues and organs into the central nervous system.
b. Motor neurons, which transport signals from the central nervous system to the effector cells.
c. Interneurons connect neurons within the central nervous system.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The Central Nervous System (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal cord.
 The CNS is surrounded by bone skull and vertebrae.
 Fluid and tissue also insulate the brain and spinal cord.
 It receives the information from all parts of the body for processing and information.
SPINAL CORD
The spinal cord runs along the dorsal side of the body and links the brain to the rest of the body.
 Vertebrates have their spinal cords encased in a series of (usually) bony vertebrae that comprise the
vertebral column.
 It controls the reflexes below the neck region.

IMPORTANT FACTS
Vertebrae are the 33 individual, interlocking bones
that form the spinal column.
 Each vertebra has three main functional
components:
a. The vertebral body for load bearing
b. The vertebral arch to protect the spinal
cord
c. Transverse processes for ligament
attachment.
HUMAN BRAIN
The human brain controls nearly every aspect of the human body ranging from physiological functions to
cognitive abilities.
 It functions by receiving and sending signals via neurons to different parts of the body.
 On average, an adult brain weighs between 1.0 kg – 1.5 kg.
 The brain is enclosed within the skull, which provides frontal, lateral and dorsal protection.
 Anatomically, the brain is contained within the cranium(skull) and is surrounded by the cerebrospinal
fluid.

CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
It is a fluid that circulates within the skull and spinal cord, filling up hollow spaces on the surface of the
brain.
 The primary function of the CSF is to act as a buffer for the brain, cushioning mechanical shocks and
dampening minor jolts.
 It also provides buoyancy and basic immunological protection to the brain.

 Brain has three main parts:

a. Forebrain
b. Midbrain
c. Hindbrain

FOREBRAIN
The forebrain consists of cerebrum, thalamus and hypothalamus.
 It is the largest part of the brain and forms about 4/5 part of the brain.
CEREBRUM
The cerebrum, the largest part of the human brain, is divided into left and right cerebral hemispheres
connected to each other by the corpus callosum.
 The hemispheres are covered by a thin layer of grey matter known as the cerebral cortex.
 The cerebral cortex contains motor areas, sensory areas and large regions that are neither clearly
sensory nor motor in function.
 Functions of Cerebrum:
a. It governs our mental abilities like thinking, reasoning, learning, memorizing and intelligence.
b. It controls our will, emotions and speech.
c. It controls all involuntary functions.

 Cerebrum consists of four parts:

a. The occipital lobe (back of the head) receives and processes visual information.
b. The temporal lobe receives auditory signals, processing language and the meaning of words.
c. The parietal lobe is associated with the sensory cortex and processes information about touch, taste,
pressure, pain, heat and cold.
d. The frontal lobe conducts motor activity and integration of muscle activity.

THALAMUS
The thalamus is a small structure within the brain located just above the brain stem between the cerebral
cortex and the midbrain and has extensive nerve connections to both.
 The main function of the thalamus is to relay motor and sensory signals to the cerebral cortex.
 It also regulates sleep, alertness and wakefulness.
 The thalamus derives its blood supply from a number of arteries.

HYPOTHALAMUS
It is a small region below the thalamus.
 It controls heartbeat, blood pressure, thirst and peristalsis.
 It acts as a connecting link between the endocrine and nervous system.
 It synthesizes and secretes certain neurohormones, called releasing hormones or hypothalamic
hormones.
MIDBRAIN
It is located between the thalamus/hypothalamus of the forebrain and pons of the hindbrain.
 It is composed of the tectum and tegmentum.
 Tectum serves as a relay centre for the sensory information from the ears to the cerebrum.
 Tegmentum forms the platform for the midbrain and connects with the thalamus, cerebral cortex, and
the spinal cord.
 The midbrain serves important functions in motor movement, particularly movements of the eye, and
in auditory and visual processing.
 The midbrain consists of connections between the hindbrain and forebrain.

 Midbrain and hindbrain form the brain stem, which is connected to the spinal cord.

HINDBRAIN
The hindbrain comprises pons, cerebellum and medulla (also called the medulla oblongata).
 Pons consists of fibre tracts that interconnect different regions of the brain.
 Cerebellum has very convoluted surface in order to provide the additional space for many more
[Link] cerebellum is the second largest part of the brain.
- The cerebellum consists of two hemispheres, the outer grey cortex and the inner white medulla.

 The medulla of the brain is connected to the spinal cord.

- It helps us in maintaining our posture and controlling our reflexes.
- The medulla contains centres which control respiration, cardiovascular reflexes and gastric secretions.
REFLEX
A reflex, or reflex action, is an involuntary and nearly instantaneous movement in response to a stimulus.
 A reflex is made possible by neural pathways called reflex arcs which can act on an impulse before that
impulse reaches the brain.
 The reflex is then an automatic response to a stimulus that does not receive or need conscious thought.
 Reflex actions are controlled by spinal cord.
 The reflex pathway comprises at least one afferent neuron (receptor) and one efferentneuron (effector
or excitor) appropriately arranged in a series.
 The afferent neuron receives signal from a sensory organ and transmits the impulse via a dorsal nerve
root into the CNS.
 The efferent neuron then carries signals from CNS to the effector. The stimulus and response thus forms
a reflex arc.
SENSES
The physical process during which sensory systems respond to stimuli and provide data for perception is
called sensation.
 Input to the nervous system is in the form of our five senses: pain, vision, taste, smell, and hearing.
 Sensory input begins with sensors that react to stimuli in the form of energy that is transmitted into an
action potential and sent to the CNS.
SENSORY RECEPTORS
Sensory receptors are classified according to the type of energy they can detect and respond to:
1. Mechanoreceptors: hearing and balance, stretching.
2. Photoreceptors: light.
3. Chemoreceptors: smell and taste.
4. Thermoreceptors: changes in temperature.
5. Electroreceptors: detect electrical currents in the surrounding environment.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system is made up of glands that produce and secrete hormones and chemical substances
which regulate the activity of cells or organs.
 These hormones regulate the body’s growth, metabolism, sexual development and other functions.
 Hormones are chemical messengers which are produced by the body. They transfer information from
one set of cells to another to coordinate the functions of different parts of the body.
 The major glands of the endocrine system are the hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid,
adrenals, pineal and the reproductive organs.
- The pancreas is also a part of this system. It has a role in hormone production as well as digestion.
WORKING
For the hormones that are regulated by the pituitary gland, a signal is sent from the hypothalamus to the
pituitary gland in the form of a ‘releasing hormone’, which simulates the pituitary to secrete a stimulating
hormone’ into the system.
 The stimulating hormone then signals the target gland to secrete its hormone.
 As the level of this hormone rises in the circulation, the hypothalamus and pituitary gland shut down
the secretion of releasing hormone and stimulating hormone, which in turn slows the secretion by the
target gland.
COORDINATION IN PLANTS
Plants use a chemical system instead of a nervous system to respond to external stimulus.
 They respond to stimuli such as light, gravity, touch and water.
 They coordinate their behaviour by using their hormones and respond to the environmental changes.
 Plant hormones are called phytohormones.
 Plant show two different types of movements:
1. Growth dependent
2. Growth independent
 Different hormones in plants are as follows;
1. Auxin: Synthesised at the tip of the stem and help in plant growth by elongating the cell.
2. Gibberellins: This is concerned with the growth of the stem, seed germination and flowering.
3. Cytokinin: It is present in the areas of cell division. It also helps in the opening of the stomata.
4. Abscisic acid: This acid inhibits the growth of many parts and is responsible for the responsible for
the closure of stomata.
HORMONES IN HUMAN BEING
1. Adrenaline: This hormone is secreted by adrenal glands. It is secreted directly into blood and carried to
other parts of the body.
- It has a specific action on heart because of which the heart starts beating faster and the supply of oxygen
to the muscles increases.
- Adrenaline is an emergency hormone, that is, it is secreted by the body to cope with emergency
situations.

2. Thyroxine: This is the main hormone secreted into the bloodstream by the thyroid gland.
- Thyroxine regulates carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism.
- Iodine is necessary for the proper working of the thyroid gland. If iodine is deficient in our body, it may
lead to a disease called goitre.

3. Growth Hormone (Somatotropin): It is secreted by the pituitary gland. It regulates the growth and
development of our body.
- This imbalance in hormone can lead to very short height (dwarfism) or extremely tall height.

4. Testosterone: It is secreted by anterior lobe of pituitary gland. It is responsible for the pubertic changes
in males.

5. Oestrogen: This hormone is secreted by pituitary gland. It is responsible for pubertic changes in females.

6. Insulin: It is secreted by pancreas. It helps in regulating blood sugar level.

TRANSPORTATION IN HUMANS

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
The circulatory system is an organ system that permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients, oxygen,
carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from the cells in the body.

BLOOD
Blood is a body fluid that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells and
transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells.
 Blood is a special connective tissue consisting of a fluid matrix, plasma, and formed elements.
 The fluid part of the blood is called plasma. About 55% of blood is blood plasma.
- It is an aqueous solution containing 92% water, 8% blood plasma proteins, and trace amounts of other
materials like Na+, Ca++, Mg++, HCO3–, Cl–, Glucose, amino acids, lipids, etc.
 Blood has cells of various kinds suspended in it, like:
a. Red blood cells (RBC) which contain a red pigment called haemoglobin are most abundant.
- Haemoglobin binds with oxygen and transports it to all the parts of the body and ultimately to all the
cells.
- RBCs are circular in shape. RBCs get destroyed in spleen (graveyard of RBCs).
b. White blood cells (WBC) are colourless andfight against germs that may enter our body.
c. Platelets(thrombocytes) can release a variety of substances most of which are involved in the
coagulation or clotting of blood.

BLOOD VESSELS
The blood vessels are the components of the circulatory system that transport blood throughout the human
body.
 These vessels transport blood cells, nutrients, and oxygen to the tissues of the body.
 They also take waste and carbon dioxide away from the tissues.
 There are different types of blood vessels in the body:
 Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood from the heart to all parts of the body.
- Since the blood flow is rapid and at a high pressure, the arteries have thick elastic walls.

 Veins are the vessels which carrycarbon dioxide-rich blood from all partsof the body back to the heart.
- The veinshave thin walls.
- There are valves presentin veins which allow blood to flow onlytowards the heart.
 Capillaries are thin vessels between the artery and the vein. The capillaries allow the exchange of
materials between blood and tissues.
HEART
The heart pumps oxygenated blood to the body and deoxygenated blood to the lungs.

STRUCTURE OF HEART
The heart is located in the chest cavity with its lower tip slightly tilted towards the left.

 It is four-chambered- two (right and left) atria (also called auricles), and two (right and left) ventricles.
 The ventricles are thechambers that pump blood and atrium are the chambers that receive blood.
 A muscular wall called inter atrial septum separates the right and the left atria, whereas inter-ventricular
septum separates the left and the right ventricles.
 The partition between the chambers helps to avoid mixing up of blood rich in oxygen with the blood
rich in carbon dioxide.
 The heart is made of specialized muscle cells (cardiac muscle fibres), which contract and relax. The
contraction and relaxation follows a rhythm called heartbeat to pump blood into the vessels.
 Abnormalities in heartbeat can be seen by taking ECG or Electrocardiography.
MECHANISM
 A large vein, the vena cava collects impure or deoxygenated blood (blood low in oxygen and high in
carbon dioxide) through veins from all parts of the body and empties into the right atrium.
 At the same time vein from the lungs brings oxygen-laden blood to left atrium. At this time all the four
chambers of the heart are relaxed.
 Then the atria contract and impure blood (blood full of carbon-dioxide) from right atrium enters the
right ventricle and purified blood (blood full of oxygen) from left atrium enters the left ventricle.
 Valves within the heart prevent blood from flowing back. Next, the ventricles contract while the atria
relax.
 Blood to be purified is transported to the lungs from right ventricle through two pulmonary arteries.
 The oxygen laden blood from the left ventricle gets pumped into a large artery called aorta. It carries
oxygenated blood to all parts of the body.
 Veins bring impure blood to the heart and the arteries take the pure blood away from the heart.
TYPES OF CIRCULATION

PULMONARY CIRCULATION
It is a portion of circulation responsible for carrying deoxygenated blood away from the heart, to the lungs
and then brings oxygenated blood back to the heart.

SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
It is another portion of circulation where the oxygenated blood is pumped from the heart to every organ
and tissue in the body, and then back again to the heart.

.
TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS
In a flowering plant the substances that would need to be transported are water, mineral nutrients, organic
nutrients and plant growth regulators.
TRANSPORT OF WATER AND MINERALS
Plants absorb water and minerals by the roots. The roots have root hair.
 The root hair is in contactwith the water present between the soil particles.

 The root hair increase the surface area of the root for the absorption of water and mineral nutrients
dissolved in water.
 Tracheids and vessels, which are non-living cells of xylem, transport water picked up by root hairs from
soil to the leaves.
 The xylem forms a continuous network of channels that connects roots to the leaves through the stem
and branches and thus transports water to the entire plant.
 The upward movement of water and minerals termed ‘ascent of sap’ is against gravity and is due to
transpiration pull.
 Transpiration is the process in which a lot of water evaporates from pores on the surface of leaf called
stomata. This evaporation creates a vacuum and pulls up water through the xylem.
TRANSPORT OF FOOD MATERIAL
Sugars and other food molecules synthesized in the leaves are transported to other parts of the plant
through vascular tissues called phloem.
 Sieve tubes are living cells of the phloem, which transport food
 Transport of food material from leaves to other parts of the plant is called translocation.
 This food may be stored in fruits, stem or roots.

IMPORTANT TERMS
1. Osmosis: It is a process by which molecules of a solvent tend to pass through a semipermeable
membrane from a less concentrated solution into a more concentrated one.
- The roots of the plant have a higher solute concentration than the surrounding soil,so water flows
into the roots.
2. Diffusion: It is the movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration.
- Diffusion is the only means for gaseous movement in the plant body.
3. The bulk movement of substances through the conducting or vascular tissues of plants is called
Translocation.

EXCRETION SYSTEM
The biological process involved in the removal of harmful metabolic wastes from the body is called
excretion.
 Different organisms use varied strategies to do this.
 Many unicellular organisms remove these wastes by simple diffusion from the body surface into the
surrounding water.
 Complex multi-cellular organisms (like humans) use specialised organs to perform the same function.
EXCRETION IN HUMAN B EINGS
The excretory system of human beings includes a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, a urinary bladder and a
urethra.
 Kidneys are located in the abdomen, one on either side of the backbone.
 Urine produced in the kidneys passes through the ureters into the urinary bladder where it is stored
until it is released through the urethra.
 The purpose of making urine is to filter out waste products from the blood.
 Nitrogenous waste such as urea or uric acid are removed from blood in the kidneys with the help of
cluster of very thin-walled blood capillaries.
 Each kidney has large numbers of filtration units called nephrons packed close together.
 Some substances in the initial filtrate, such as glucose, amino acids, salts and a major amount of water,
are selectively re-absorbed as the urine flows along the tube.

 The urine forming in each kidney eventually enters a long tube, the ureter, which connects the kidneys
with the urinary bladder.
 Urine is stored in the urinary bladder until the pressure of the expanded bladder leads to the urge to
pass it out through the urethra.
EXCRETION IN PLANTS
Plants use completely different strategies for excretion than those of animals.
 Oxygen itself can be thought of as a waste product generated during photosynthesis.
 They can get rid of excess water by transpiration.
 For other wastes, plants use the fact that many of their tissues consist of dead cells, and that they can
even lose some parts such as leaves.
 Many plant waste products are stored in cellular vacuoles. Waste products may be stored in leaves that
fall off.
 Other waste products are stored as resins and gums, especially in old xylem.
 Plants also excrete some waste substances into the soil around the
HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive system of the human body comprises a group of organs working together to convert food into
energy for the body.
 It is made up of the gastrointestinal tract, along with accessory organs such as the liver, pancreas, and
gallbladder.

 The hollow organs that make up the gastrointestinal tractinclude the mouth, stomach, esophagus, small
intestine, and large intestine that contains rectum and anus.
STOMACH
It serves as a muscular bag which is situated towards the left side of the abdominal cavity.
 This vital organ acts as a storage for the food and provides enough time to digest meals.
 The stomach also produces digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid that maintains the process of
digestion.
SMALL INTESTINE
The small intestine is a thin, long tube of about 10 feet long and is a part of the lower gastrointestinal tract.
LARGE INTESTINE
This is a thick, long tube measuring around 5 feet in length.
 It is present just beneath the stomach and wraps over the superior and lateral edges of the small
intestine.
 It absorbs water and consists of bacteria (symbiotic) that support in the breakdown of wastes to fetch
small nutrients.
RECTUM
Waste products are passed into the end of the large intestine called the rectum and eliminated out of the
body as a solid matter called stool.
PANCREAS
It is a large gland present just behind the stomach.
 It releases digestive enzymes to complete the process of chemical digestion.
LIVER
The liver is a roughly triangular, reddish-brown accessory organ of the digestive system located to the right
of the stomach.
 It produces bile, which helps in the digestion of fat in the small intestine.
 It also produces cholesterol and special proteins to help carry fats through the body.
GALLBLADDER
The bile is stored and recycled in the gallbladder. It is a small, pear-shaped organ which is located just next
to the liver.
DIGESTION PROCESS
The process of digestion begins from the mouth. Food particles gradually get digested as they travel through
various compartments of the gastrointestinal tract.
 The digestion process takes place in the following steps:
a. Ingestion: It involves mastication (chewing).
- The salivary glands, along with the tongue, helps to moisten and lubricate food, before being pushed
down into the food pipe.
b. Secretion: The stomach, small intestine, liver, and pancreas secrete enzymes and acids to aid the
process of digestion.
- It functions by breaking down food particles into simple components and easily absorbable
components.
c. Digestion: The process of converting complex food particles into simpler substances in the presence of
enzymes and acids secreted by different digestive organs.
d. Absorption: This process begins in the small intestine where most of the nutrients and minerals are
absorbed.
- The excess water in the indigestible matter is absorbed by the large intestines.
e. Excretion: The process of removing indigestible substances and waste by-products from the body
through the process of defecation.

RESPIRATION
Respiration: The process by which a living being utilises the food to get energy, is called respiration.
Respiration is an oxidation reaction in which carbohydrate is oxidized to produce energy. Mitochondria is
the site of respiration and the energy released is stored in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate). ATP is
stored in mitochondria and is released as per need.

STEPS OF RESPIRATION:

 Breaking down of glucose into pyruvate: This step happens in the cytoplasm. Glucose
molecule is broken down into pyruvic acid. Glucose molecule is composed of 6 carbon
atoms, while pyruvic acid is composed of 3 carbon atoms.
 Fate of Pyruvic Acid: Further breaking down of pyruvic acid takes place in mitochondria and
the molecules formed depend on the type of respiration in a particular organism.
Respiration is of two types, viz. aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration.
 Respiration involves
 Gaseous exchange: Intake of oxygen from the atmosphere and release of
CO2 → Breathing.
 Breakdown of simple food in order to release energy inside the cell →
Cellular respiration

TYPES OF RESPIRATION
  Aerobic respiration: This type of respiration happens in the presence of oxygen. Pyruvic
acid is converted into carbon dioxide. Energy is released and water molecule is also formed
at the end of this process.
 Anaerobic respiration: This type of respiration happens in the absence of oxygen. Pyruvic
acid is either converted into ethyl alcohol or lactic acid. Ethyl alcohol is usually formed in
case of anaerobic respiration in microbes, like yeast or bacteria. Lactic acid is formed in
some microbes as well as in the muscle cells.
 Glucose (6 carbon molecule) → Pyruvate (3 carbon molecules) + Energy
 Pyruvate (In yeast, lack of O2) → Ethyl alcohol + Carbon dioxide + Energy
 Pyruvate (In muscles, lack of O2) → Lactic Acid + Energy
 Pyruvate (In mitochondria; the presence of O2) → Carbon dioxide + Water +
Energy

Pain in leg muscles while running:

 When someone runs too fast, he may experience throbbing pain in the leg muscles. This happens
because of anaerobic respiration taking place in the muscles.
 During running, the energy demand from the muscle cells increases. This is compensated by
anaerobic respiration and lactic acid is formed in the process.
 The deposition of lactic acid causes pain in the leg muscles. The pain subsides after taking rest for
some time.

EXCHANGE OF GASES:

 For aerobic respiration, organisms need a continuous supply of oxygen, and carbon dioxide
produced during the process needs to be removed from the body.
 Different organisms use different methods for the intake of oxygen and expulsion of carbon
dioxide
 Diffusion is the method which is utilized by unicellular and some simple organisms for this
purpose.
 In plants also, diffusion is utilized for exchange of gases.
 In complex animals, respiratory system does the job of exchange of gases.
 Gills are the respiratory organs for fishes. Fishes take in oxygen which is dissolved in water
through gills.
 Since, availability of oxygen is less in the aquatic environment, so the breathing rate of
aquatic organisms is faster.
 Insects have a system of spiracles and trachease which is used for taking in oxygen.
 Terrestrial organisms have developed lungs for exchange of gases.
 Availability of oxygen is not a problem in the terrestrial environment so breathing rate is
slower as compared to what it is in fishes.

The human respiratory system is composed of a pair of lungs. These are attached to a system of tubes
which open on the outside through the nostrils.
Following are the main structures in the human respiratory system:
 1. Nostrils: There are two nostrils which converge to form a nasal passage. The inner lining of
the nostrils is lined by hair and remains wet due to mucus secretion. The mucus and the
hair help in filtering the dust particles out from inhaled air. Further, air is warmed up when
it enters the nasal passage.
2. Pharynx: It is a tube-like structure which continues after the nasal passage.
3. Larynx: This part comes after the pharynx. This is also called voice box.
4. Trachea: This is composed of rings of cartilage. Cartilaginous rings prevent the collapse of
trachea in the absence of air.
5. Bronchi: A pair of bronchi comes out from the trachea, with one bronchus going to each
lung.
6. Bronchioles: A bronchus divides into branches and sub-branches inside the lung.
7. Alveoli: These are air sacs at the end of bronchioles. The alveolus is composed of a very thin
membrane and is the place where blood capillaries open. This is alveolus, where the oxygen
mixes with the blood and carbon dioxide exits from the blood. The exchange of gases, in
alveoli, takes place due to the pressure differential.

BREATHING MECHANISM

 The breathing mechanism of lungs is controlled by the diaphragm and the intercostalis
muscles.
 The diaphragm is a membrane which separates the thoracic chamber from the abdominal
cavity.
 When the diaphragm moves down, the lungs expand and the air is inhaled.
 When the diaphragm moves up, the lungs contract and air are exhaled.
HEALTH
Health is defined as a state of complete physical, social and mental wellbeing.
 Balanced nutritious diet, personal hygiene and regular exercise are very important to maintain good
health.

NUTRITION
The intake of food along with its absorption and utilisation is known as Nutrition.
 Food is the main source of energy for living organisms.
 Nutrition is the study of nutrients in our diet, how our body uses the nutrients, and the relationship
between diet, health and disease.
 On the basis, mode of nutrition is classified into two types:
1. Autotrophic Nutrition
2. Heterotrophic Nutrition
AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION
This is the mode of nutrition in which the plants use CO2 and water and convert them into carbohydrates
in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.
 The process of preparation of food is called photosynthesis.
 The organisms that carry out this process called autotrophs which include green plants and some
bacteria.

 The carbohydrates are used for providing energy to the plant. The unused carbohydrates are stored in
the form of starch which serves as a food reserve.
HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION
It is the mode of nutrition in which the organisms depend on plants and other animals (living or dead) for
their nutritional requirements.
 All animals and some non-green plants are heterotrophic.
NUTRITION IN HUMAN B EINGS
 Nutrients are important compounds in foods. They are:
(a) Essential to life and health of Individual
(b) Source of necessary energy and nourishment
(c) Building blocks for repair and growth of Individual
(d) Substances necessary to regulate chemical processes
 There are seven major classes of nutrients:
(a) Carbohydrates
- Carbohydrates are the sugars, starch and fibres found in fruits, grains, vegetables and milk products.
- These are the main source of our energy. They consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
- Sugars are available in the various forms: glucose, fructose, lactose (natural sweetness in milk) and
sucrose (common sugar made from sugarcane juice).
 - Glucose is present in our blood. The usual level of glucose is 70 – 100 mg/dL. When a person is
fasting, then blood glucose level falls. The blood glucose level rises post meal.
- Starch forms the bulk of our diet. Potato, wheat, rice and banana are important sources of starch.
(b) Vitamins
- Vitamins are organic compounds that are essential in very small amounts for supporting normal
physiologic function.
- They are absorbed without digestion unlike carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
(c) Dietary Fibre
- Dietary fibre are the portion of plant-derived food that cannot be completely broken down by
human digestive enzymes.
(d) Minerals
- They are essential for good health.
- Macro minerals include Calcium, Phosphorous, Potassium, Magnesium and Sodium chloride (salt).
- Micro minerals include Iron, Zinc, Copper, Chromium, Fluoride, Iodine, Selenium and Molybdenum.

Mineral Source Function

Iron Green vegetables, turnip, Formation of haemoglobin, which is the
sprouts, yeast, liver, eggs, meat
oxygen carrying pigment in RBCs
Iodine Sea food, iodized salt Development of Brain, improving body
metabolism
Sodium Common salt Maintain osmotic balance
Phosphorous Green leafy vegetables Formation of bones and teeth, plays
Whole grains, meat, eggs, fish important role in the use of
carbohydrates and fats in body
Potassium Green and yellow vegetables Helps regulate fluid balance, muscle
contractions and nerve signals
Zinc Meat, Dairy products, eggs, Helps blood clot, helps in making
legumes, peanuts proteins and DNA, bolsters the immune
system
Copper Oysters, nuts, seeds, liver, Making red blood cells, regulating
mushrooms, lobster, leafy neurotransmitters
greens
Manganese Whole grains, nuts, leafy Helps form bones, helps metabolize
vegetables, and teas amino acids, cholesterol, and
carbohydrates.

(e) Proteins
- Proteins are large, complex molecules consisting of amino acids.
- They consists of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur. They are made up of amino acids.
- Of these, nine are essential type of amino acids because these are not synthesised in our body. Egg
consists of all the essential amino acids.
- Essential Amino acids cannot be made by the body. As a result, they must come from food.
- They do most of the work in cells and are required for the structure, function, and regulation of the
body’s tissues and organs.
- On the basis of functions performed proteins can be classified into several types like Structural
proteins, Enzymes, Hormones and Transport proteins.

(f) Fats
 - Fats are nutrients in food that the body uses to build nerve tissue (including the brain and nerves)
and hormones. The body also uses fat as fuel.
- Fat gives food flavour and texture, but it is also high in calories and excess amounts of fatty foods
can cause many health problems.
- When carbohydrates are not available, then our body consumes stored fats to produce energy.

TRANSFAT

Trans fatty acids (TFAs) or Trans fats are the most harmful type of fats which can have much more adverse
effects on our body than any other dietary constituent.
 These fats are largely produced artificially but a small amount also occurs naturally.
 Thus in our diet, these may be present as Artificial TFAs and/ or Natural TFAs.
 Artificial TFAs are formed when hydrogen is made to react with the oil to produce fats resembling
pure ghee/butter.
 In our diet the major sources of artificial TFAs are the partially hydrogenated vegetable oils
(PHVO)/vanaspati/ margarine while the natural TFAs are present in meats and dairy products, though
in small amounts.

(g) Water
 - Water is defined as an essential nutrient because it is required in amounts that exceed the body's
ability to produce it.
- All biochemical reactions occur in water.
- It fills the spaces in and between cells and helps form structures of large molecules such as protein
and glycogen.

 Nutrients can also be categorized as:

(a) Macronutrient: are substances consumed by organisms in large quantities for energy, growth, and
bodily functions.
- The three macronutrients in nutrition are carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.
(b) Micronutrient: are needed only in minuscule amounts in our diet.
- Important micronutrient in nutrition includes vitamins and trace minerals.
- Trace Minerals like copper, iodine, cobalt, iron, manganese and zinc are important for the
healthy development of humans.

 Balanced diet should consist of 55-70% carbohydrates, 15-20% proteins and 15-20% fats along with
other components.
VITAMINS
Vitamins are organic compounds that are essential for supporting normal physiologic function.
 Vitamins are needed in our diet, because our bodies can’t synthesize them quickly enough to meet our
daily needs.
 Vitamins are of various types like:

WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS

Vitamin Source Major Diseases

Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Pork, oatmeal, brown rice, Beriberi
vegetables, potatoes, liver, eggs
Vitamin B2 Dairy products, bananas, Ariboflavinosis
(Riboflavin) popcorn, green beans, asparagus
Vitamin B3 (Niacin) Meat, fish, eggs, many Pellagra
vegetables, mushrooms, tree
nuts
Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid) Meat, broccoli, avocados Paraesthesia
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) Meat, vegetables, tree nuts, Anaemia peripheral neuropathy.
bananas
Vitamin B7 (Biotin) Raw egg yolk, liver, peanuts, Dermatitis, enteritis
certain vegetables
Vitamin B9 (Folic Acid) Leafy vegetables, pasta, bread, Megaloblastic and some
cereal, liver, peanuts, lettuce, deficiencies during pregnancy
tomato juice, banana and papaya
Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) Fortified cereals, Meat and other Megaloblastic anaemia
animal products
Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) Many citrus fruits like Guava, bell Scurvy
pepper, kiwi, orange, grapefruit &
strawberries, vegetables, liver,
egg
FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS
 Vitamins Source Major Diseases
Vitamin A (Retinol) Orange, ripe yellow fruits, Night-blindness, Exophthalmia,
leafy vegetables, carrots, Hyperkeratosis, and
pumpkin, squash, spinach, Keratomalacia
liver
Vitamin D (Cholecalciferol) Fish, eggs, liver, mushrooms Rickets and Osteomalacia
Vitamin E Many fruits and vegetables, Only noticed in those with severe
(Tocopherols) nuts and seeds malnutrition
Vitamin K Leafy green vegetables such as Bleeding diathesis
spinach, egg yolks, liver

MALNUTRITION
Malnutrition also called malnourishment is a condition resulting from eating a diet that contains either
insufficient or excess of nutrients as a result of which health problems ensue.
 Normal consumption of calories among males is 2200 kcal/day and among females 2000 kcal/day.
Malnutrition indicates deficiency of proteins and carbohydrates.
 Malnutrition denotes both undernutrition and over nutrition. It includes:
1. Undernutrition:
 It means lack of proper nutrition, caused by not having enough food or not eating enough food
containing substances necessary for growth and health
 It includes
a. Stunting: low height for age.
b. Wasting: low weight for height
c. Underweight: low weight for age
d. Micronutrient deficiencies or insufficiencies: a lack of important vitamins and minerals.
e. Undernourishment is most often due to not enough high-quality food being available to eat.
2. Others – This category consists of overweight, obesity, diet-related non-communicable diseases (such
as heart disease, stroke, diabetes, and cancer).

Figure 1: Stunting, wasting and underweight in Childr

3. Malnutrition in extreme form leads to Marasmus and Kwashiorkor.
 Marasmus occurs on account of deficiency of both proteins and carbohydrates. It occurs at the age
of 6-7 months and is manifested in the form of very weak body.
- In this, the suffering child is likely to die.
 Kwashiorkor occurs on the account of deficiency of proteins at the age of 2-3 years. It is manifested
in the form of swelling of body called Oedema.

 Over nutrition is a form of malnutrition in which the intake of nutrients is oversupplied.

 The amount of nutrients exceeds the amount required for normal growth, development, and
metabolism.
 Obesity is a serious disorder which occurs by eating more calories than one burns.

BODY MASS INDEX

It is an approximate measure of whether someone is over or under weight. It is calculated by dividing
weight in kilograms by square of height in meters.
 A normal weight person has body mass index ranging from 20 to 25.

FOOD FORTIFICATION
Food fortification is the deliberate addition of one or more micronutrients to food so as to improve the
quality of food items to prevent any deficiency from occurring.
 Food fortification is not a replacement of a balanced & diversified diet to address malnutrition. It act as
a “complementary strategy” to improve the quality of diet.
 In many situations, this strategy can lead to relatively rapid improvements in the micronutrient status
of a population, and at a very reasonable cost.
 Food fortification has a long history of use in industrialized countries.
 It was used for the successful control of deficiencies of vitamins A and D, several B vitamins (thiamine,
riboflavin and niacin), iodine and iron.

FOOD FORTIFICATION IN INDIA

In India food fortification is promoted through both Government schemes and open market operations like:
1. National Nutritional Strategy, 2017, had listed food fortification as one of the interventions to address
anaemia, vitamin A and iodine deficiencies apart from supplementation and dietary diversification.
2. Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS) and Mid-day meal Scheme (MDMS)
3. Public Distribution System (PDS)
EFFORTS OF FSSAI
 Food Safety and Standard Authority of India (FSSAI) prescribed the Food Safety and Standards
(Fortification of Foods) Regulations, 2018. It is important features are:
a. It prescribes the standards of addition of micronutrients for the purpose of food fortification. All
fortified foods must not fall below the minimum level of micronutrients.
b. The manufacturers of the fortified food are required to provide a quality assurance undertaking.
c. Packaging and labelling of the fortified food must state the food fortificant added, logo and the
tagline "Sampoorna Poshan Swasth Jeevan".
d. Random testing of fortificants and fortified food
 FSSAI has also operationalised standards for fortification of:
a. Wheat- flour-rice with iron, Vitamin B12 and folic acid.
b. Milk & edible oil with Vitamins A and D.
c. Double-fortified salt with iodine and iron.
 FSSAI has also introduced the +F logo to identify fortified foods.
 It has also launched the Food Fortification Resource Centre (FFRC) to promote large-scale
 Fortification of food across India.
 Indian Food Laboratory Network System (INFoLNET): It’s an initiative with bringing all the stakeholders
to a common platform for the establishment of a transparent food testing network by FSSAI.
 The Government of India recently approved Centre-sponsored pilot scheme on “Fortification of Rice
and its Distribution under Public Distribution System”.

DISEASES
The word disease means ‘Disturbed ease’. It means being uncomfortable.
 The person is not comfortable because his body is not functioning in the way it usually does.
 During disease one or more functions of the body would not function as they are supposed to.
 Symptoms are basically the signs that make us feel that something is wrong with our body.
 To identify the signs, we visit a physician, he will looks for the signs based on symptoms.

Normal health of human body can get affected due to following reasons:
1. Genetic disorders – This are the deficiencies with which a child is born. These deficiencies are inherited
by child from his/her parents.
2. Infections of various types
3. Lifestyle diseases depending upon our habits, food and water we intake etc.

DISTINCTION BETWEEN HEALTHY AND DISEASE FREE

 Anything that hampers the proper functioning of the body is termed as ‘Disease’.
 A person can be said to be in poor health even if he is not suffering from any disease. However, having
poor health increases the risk of having some disease.

CAUSES OF DISEASE
Cause of disease can be broadly divided into two categories:
1. External causes: These are caused by the entry of microbes from outside in our body, such as bacteria,
protozoa and worms.
2. Internal causes: These are caused by the ignorance of an Individual towards his own health or because
of the internal factors which are inherited by him genetically.
CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES
Diseases can be broadly classified into:
a. Infectious diseases; include diseases which are caused by pathogenic microorganisms.
 They include diseases like AIDS, Tuberculosis, Malaria and Measles etc.
 They can be caused by various agents like viruses, bacteria, parasites and helminths. These microbes can
grow very fast.
 These organisms find their way inside our body through mouth, eyes or genital openings.
 They are commonly referred to as communicable diseases, as they can be spread from one person to
another, directly or indirectly.
 Infectious diseases can follow various method of transmission like
- Sexual transmission: It is the closest contact that one person can have with another person.
- Oral transmission
- Droplet contact; when an infected person coughs or sneezes near to another person.
- Faecal – Oral transmission
- Through other creatures like mosquito, rats and flies, known as vectors.

WATERBORNE DISEASES

Waterborne diseases are conditions caused by pathogenic micro-organisms that are transmitted in water.
 These diseases can be spread while bathing, washing or drinking water, or by eating food exposed to
contaminated water.
 Common water borne diseases include Amoebiasis, Cholera, Dysentery, Salmonellosis, Typhoid,
Hepatitis A & E, Polio and SARS.

ZOONOTIC DISEASES

 A zoonotic disease is a disease that spreads from animals to human.

 They can be caused by viruses, bacteria, parasites, and fungi.
 Important Zoonotic diseases in India are: Nipah virus, avian influenza, rabies, Japanese encephalitis,
leptospirosis, Hanta virus, SARS, cysticercosis, anthrax, plague, echinococcosis and schistosomosis,
Kyasanur forest disease (KFD) etc.

b. Non-Infectious disease; include diseases that are not transmissible from one person to another.
 The causes behind non-infectious diseases vary. These diseases are mainly caused by internal factors.
 They are also referred to as Non-Communicable diseases.
 Heart diseases, Parkinson disease and Cancer are example of non-infectious diseases.
Based on duration, diseases can be classified into:
a. Acute diseases; is such a type of disease which occurs for a short interval of time.
 An acute disease if not treated properly can eventually become a chronic disease.e.g. Common cold,
burn, etc.
b. Chronic diseases; is a disease which lasts for a long period of time e.g. Heart and kidney diseases.

Based on frequency and range, the diseases can be classified as:

a. Sporadic: Diseases that are seen only occasionally, and usually without geographic concentration, like
tetanus, are called sporadic diseases.
b. Endemic: Disease that is always present in a certain population or region like malaria in tropical
countries.
- There is steady level of regular cases occurring in a region.
c. Epidemic: refers to a sudden increase in the number of cases of a disease above what is normally
expected.
d. Pandemic: refers to an epidemic that has spread over several countries or continents, usually affecting
a large number of people.
NON-COMMUNICABLE DIS EASES
According to World Health Organisation (WHO):

“Non- communicable diseases (NCDs), are diseases of long duration which are a result of a combination of
genetic, physiological, environmental and behavioural factors.”
 The main types of NCDs are:
(a) Cardiovascular diseases like heart attacks and stroke
(b) Cancers
(c) Chronic respiratory diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma
(d) Diabetes
 NCDs disproportionately affect people in low- and middle-income countries where more than three
quarters of Global NCD occur.

MAJOR CAUSES OF SUCH DISEASES

 Modifiable behaviours, such as tobacco use, physical inactivity, unhealthy diet and the harmful use of
alcohol, all increase the risk of NCDs.
 Metabolic risk factors like raised blood pressure, overweight/obesity, high blood glucose levels, etc.
 These diseases are further driven by forces that include rapid unplanned urbanization, globalization of
unhealthy lifestyles and population ageing.

GLOBAL STEPS AGAINST NCDS

(a) 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development recognizes NCDs as a major challenge for sustainable
development (Target 3.4).
(b) WHO developed a Global action plan for the prevention and control of NCDs 2013-2020, which includes
nine global targets that have the greatest impact on global NCD mortality
(c) 73rd session of the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) adopted a declaration called "Time to
Deliver: Accelerating our response to address NCDs for the health and well-being of present and future
generations".

STEPS TAKEN BY INDIA

(a) National Health Policy, 2017 advocates pre-screening and sets the target to reduce premature mortality
via NCDs by 25% by 2025.
(b) The Central Government is implementing National Programme for Prevention and Control of Cancer,
Diabetes, Cardiovascular Diseases and Stroke (NPCDCS) for interventions up to District level under the
National Health Mission.
(c) A flexi pool of funds for Non-Communicable Diseases (NCD) has been created.
(d) India has implemented WHO’s Framework Convention on Tobacco Control aimed at reducing the
demand for tobacco products.
RARE DISEASES
Rare diseases (also called orphan diseases) are defined as a health condition of low prevalence that affects
a very small number of people.
 As per WHO, any disease or disorder condition with a prevalence of one or less than one per 1000
population.
 Most of the rare diseases are genetic in origin.
 The most common rare diseases include Haemophilia, Thalassemia, Sickle-cell Anaemia, auto-immune
diseases, etc.
INDIA AND RARE DISEASES
Till 2019, there was a dedicated National Policy for Treatment of Rare Diseases (NPTRD) in place at the
Central level.
 It was withdrawn in 2019. So, there is no specific policy in place as of now.
 Karnataka is the first state to release a Rare Diseases and Orphan Drugs Policy.
NEGLECTED TROPICAL DISEASES
Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) is diverse group of communicable diseases that prevail in tropical and
subtropical conditions in almost 149 countries.
 They are called neglected because the people who are most affected by these diseases are often the
poorest populations, living in remote, rural areas, urban slums or conflict zones.
 These remain underreported because the victims are the poorest and the most marginalized with no
accessibility of treatment.
 They cause severe illness like disability, disfigurement and cognitive impairment.

DISEASES UNDER NTDS

BY VIRUS
a. Rabies
b. Dengue and Chikungunya

BY PROTOZOA
c. Chagas Disease
d. Leishmaniaisis (Kala Azar)
e. Human African Trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness)

BY HELMINTHS
f. Cysticercosis(Tapeworm Infection)
g. Guinea Worm
h. Echinococcosis
i. Foodborne trematodiasis
j. Lymphatic Filariasis
k. Soil-transmitted helminthiasis
l. Schistosomiasis
m. River blindness

BY BACTERIA
n. Buruli Ulcer
o. Leprosy
p. Trachoma
q. Yaws
r. Mycetoma (also caused by fungi)

OTHER NTDS
s. Snakebite envenoming
t. Scabies and other ectoparasites

IMPORTANT GLOBAL EFFORTS AGAINST NTDS

1. World Health Organisation began to address these as neglected diseases from the late 1980s.
2. The London Declaration on Neglected Tropical Diseases is a collaborative disease eradication
programme launched in 2012 in London.
 It was inspired by the World Health Organization 2020 roadmap to eradicate or prevent transmission
for neglected tropical diseases.
3. WHO’s SAFE (Surgery, Antibodies, Facial cleanliness, Environmental improvement) strategy (1997) and
Global Elimination of Blinding Trachoma by 2020 to eliminate Trachoma.
4. Vision 2020 of WHO and IAPB (International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness) – includes
Trachoma as a priority under its disease control component.
5. Similarly other initiatives are launched for individual diseases by WHO.

FEW INDIAN EFFORTS

Diseases that are most prevalent in India include lymphatic filariasis, soil transmitted helminthiases,
trachoma, dengue, rabies and cysticercosis.
 National Deworming Day (February 10) is targeted to reduce Soil-transmitted helminthiasis. Deworming
tablet Albendazole is administered to the children on this day.
 National Rabies Control Programme
 National Leprosy Eradication Programme: Programme
 National Vector Borne Disease Control Programme (NVBDCP) targets dengue, chikungunya, kala azar
and Filariasis.
COMMON VIRAL DISEASES

ABOUT VIRUS
The virus is a tiny infectious agent that duplicates only inside the living cells of other creatures.
 These are diverse in nature and can infect animals, plants, and microorganisms and transmitted by
biological vectors only.
 Viruses enter one’s body and invade/infect cells in the body. They use then uses these cells to help them
multiply.
 Viral diseases are mostly contagious and spread from person to person when a virus enters the body
and begins to multiply.
 Viral diseases result in a wide variety of symptoms that vary in character and severity depending on the
type of viral infection and other factors, including the person’s age and overall health.

DNA & RNA VIRUSES

VIRAL DISEASES

Disease Virus
Acquired Immuno Human immunodeficiency
Deficiency Syndrome virus
(AIDS)
Chicken Pox Varicella-zoster virus
Common Cold Rhinovirus
Chikungunya Chikungunya virus (genus
Alphavirus)
Foot and mouth Picornavirus
Diseases
Smallpox Variola virus
Rabies Rabies Virus
Mumps Mumps Virus
Ebola Ebola Virus
Hepatitis Hepatitis Virus
Measles Measles Virus
 West Nile fever West Nile Virus
Viral gastroenteritis
Rotavirus, enteroviruses
and noroviruses
Influenza Influenza Viruses such as
H1N1
Lower Respiratory Respiratory syncytial virus
tract infections (RSV)
Coronavirus disease Coronavirus
Nipah Nipah (NiV) Virus
Zika Zika Virus
Polio Polio Virus
Dengue Dengue Virus (DENV)

AIDS
It stands for Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome. This means deficiency of immune system.
 AIDS was reported first time in 1981 and thereafter it spreads all over the world.
 AIDS is caused by the Human Immuno deficiency Virus (HIV), a member of a Retrovirus group.
 Transmission of HIV infection generally occurs by:
a. Sexual contact with infected person
b. By transfusion of contaminated blood and blood products
c. By sharing infected needles
d. Children born to an HIV infected mother through placenta.
 It is important to note that AIDS/HIV is not spread by mere touch or physical contact.

POLIO
Polio (or Poliomyelitis) is a highly infectious viral disease which mainly affects young children and can result
in permanent paralysis.
 Poliomyelitis is caused by infection with a member of the genus Enterovirus known as poliovirus (PV).
 The virus is transmitted by person-to-person spread mainly through the:
a. Faecal-oral route or,
b. By a common vehicle (e.g. contaminated water or food) and
Multiplies in the intestine, from where it can invade the nervous system and can cause paralysis.
 There is no cure and it can only be prevented through immunisation. The disease is preventable with
the polio vaccine; however, multiple doses are required for it to be effective.

NIPAH
Nipah virus (NiV) is a zoonotic virus (it is transmitted from animals to humans) and can also be transmitted
through contaminated food or directly between people.
 It was first identified in Kampung Sungai Nipah, Malaysia in 1998. In India its first outbreak in was
reported from Siliguri, West Bengal in 2001.
 The natural host of the virus is the fruit bat (of the family Pteropodidae) but it can also infect pigs or
any domesticated animals.
 There are currently no drugs or vaccines specific for Nipah virus infection.

ZIKA
Zika virus is a mosquito-borne flavivirus that was first identified in Uganda in 1947 in monkeys.
 It was later identified in humans in 1952 in Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania.
 The incubation period (the time from exposure to symptoms) of Zika virus disease is estimated to be 3–
14 days.
 Symptoms are generally mild including fever, rash, conjunctivitis, muscle and joint pain, malaise, and
headache, and usually last for 2–7 days.
 Zika virus infection during pregnancy is a cause of microcephaly (abnormal shape of head) and other
congenital abnormalities in the developing fetus and new-born.
 Zika virus is primarily transmitted by the bite of an infected mosquito from the Aedes genus, mainly
Aedes aegypti, in tropical and subtropical regions.
 Zika virus is also transmitted by:
a. Mother to fetus during pregnancy
b. Through sexual contact
c. By transfusion of blood and blood products, and organ transplantation.
 There is no treatment available for Zika virus infection or its associated diseases.

DENGUE
Dengue is a mosquito-borne viral disease, also known as break bone fever.
 Dengue virus is transmitted by female mosquitoes mainly of the species Aedes aegypti and, to a lesser
extent, Ae. Albopictus.
 These mosquitoes are also vectors of chikungunya, yellow fever and Zika viruses.
 Dengue is caused by a virus of the Flaviviridae family and there are four distinct, but closely related,
serotypes of the virus that cause dengue (DENV-1, DENV-2, DENV-3 and DENV-4).
 Incubation period for dengue fever ranges from 3 to 8 days.
 Severe symptoms include dengue shock syndrome (DSS) and dengue haemorrhagic fever (DHF) which
can be life threatening.

 It is a severe, flu-like illness that affects infants, young children and adults, but seldom causes death.
 There is no specific treatment for dengue fever.
 The only prevention against dengue is to prevent the breeding of mosquitos and avoiding mosquito bites.

CHIKUNGUNYA
It is a viral disease (genus Alphavirus) which is transmitted to humans by infected mosquitoes, most
commonly, Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus.
 It can also circulate with the help of monkeys, birds and cattle.
 It causes fever and severe joint pain.
 At present there is no cure for the disease. Its treatment is focused on relieving the symptoms.
 Incubation period of Chikungunya ranges from 2-12 days.
 The disease can recur as it does not induce immunity.
 Chikungunya can be diagnosed by Enzyme – linked ImmunoSorbent Assays (ELISA) and Reverse
Transcriptase – Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT – PCR) methods.

HEPATITIS
Hepatitis is an inflammatory condition of the liver.
 It imbalances the normal functioning of bile production, excretion of drugs and hormones, metabolism
of fats, proteins, synthesis of proteins and enzymes activation.
 There are 5 main hepatitis viruses, referred to as types A, B, C, D and E.
 Hepatitis A at is caused by Hepatitis A virus. It is acute and in most of the cases, symptoms could not be
recognized in young people.
 Hepatitis B is an infectious disease caused by an infection with Hepatitis B virus.
a. It is contracted through contact with blood, saliva, fluids of an infectious body.
b. People with hepatitis B have an increased risk of liver cancer.
c. The hepatitis B virus is 50 to 100 times more infectious than HIV.
 Hepatitis C is caused by Hepatitis C virus and spreads through mainly through body fluids of an infected
person.
 Hepatitis D is one of the severe liver diseases that are caused by a virus Hepatitis D.
a. It spreads from infected blood or wound.
b. Sometimes it might occur in conjunction with Hepatitis B.
 Hepatitis E is a waterborne disease spread by the said virus.
a. It might be circulated through food, water, and contaminated blood.
b. It could be either acute or chronic.
 There are vaccines to prevent hepatitis A, B and E. However, there is no vaccine for hepatitis C.

INFLUENZA
Influenza (flu) is a contagious respiratory illness caused by influenza viruses, transmitted from person to
person via droplets.
 It is characterized by sudden onset of high fever, aching muscles, headache and severe malaise, non-
productive cough and sore throat.
 Infectivity of influenza virus particles depends on the pH, temperature and salinity of the water.

 There are further subtypes of Type A Influenza classified according to the combinations of different virus
surface proteins Hemagglutinin (H) and Neuraminidase (N). It includes:
a. Avian influenza virus subtypes A (H5N1), A (H7N9), and A (H9N2).
b. Swine influenza virus subtypes A (H1N1), A (H1N2) and A (H3N2).

BIRD FLU
It is also called Avian Influenza, is a viral infection deadly to birds and capable of spreading among humans
and other animals as well.
 Technically, H5N1 is a highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus. It occurs naturally in wild
waterfowl (ducks), but it can spread easily to domestic poultry.
 The disease is transmitted to humans through contact with infected bird faeces, nasal secretions or
secretions from the mouth or eyes.
 The symptoms of Bird flu include cough, diarrhoea, respiratory difficulties, fever, headache, muscle
aches etc.
 An individual can prevent himself from getting infected with bird flu by avoiding going to open air
markets, contact with infected birds and undercooked poultry products.
 Maintaining good hygiene is another preventive measure.

SWINE FLU
It is a respiratory disorder caused by an influenza H1N1 virus. However, two other strains of the virus
influenza H2N3 and H2N3v have also been discovered.
 The virus usually affects pigs but can transmit from pigs to human beings only after mutation.
 H1N1 is highly contagious. A simple sneeze can cause thousands of germs to spread through the air.
 The disease spread through saliva and mucus particles.
 The incubation period for the disease is about 1-4 days.
 The symptoms of swine flu are very much like those of regular influenza.
 The most serious complication of the flu is pneumonia.
 The best means of dealing with swine flu is to prevent it by vaccination.
 Antiviral agents such as zanamivir and oseltamivir have been reported to help prevent or reduce the
effects of swine flu.

CORONA
Coronaviruses are a large family of viruses that circulate among a range of animals, such as bats, cats, and
birds. Sometimes these viruses make a jump over from animals to humans (known as Spill over) causing
diseases known as Zoonotic diseases.
 This spill over happens due to factors such as mutations in the virus or increased contact between
humans and animals.
 The virus causes respiratory and gastrointestinal symptoms in humans with infectious diseases ranging
from common cold to more severe diseases such as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Middle
East respiratory syndrome (MERS) and CoVID-19.

 Coronaviruses are spherical shaped and consist of a core of genetic material (RNA) surrounded by an
envelope with mushroom shaped protein spikes.
- These spikes bind and fuses to human cells allowing the virus to gain entry and replicate itself
inside the body.
 Each virus particle is just between 50–200 nanometers in diameter (human hair is 80000nm in diameter).
 The protein spikes give the appearance of a crown or a halo around the Sun. Crown in Latin is called as
“Corona” and this is how the virus also got its name.
COMMON BACTERIAL DISEASES

ABOUT BACTERIA
Bacteria are microscopic, single-cell organisms that live almost everywhere.
 Some are airborne while others live in water or soil. Bacteria live on and inside plants, animals, and
people.
 The vast majority of bacteria are harmless to people and some strains are even beneficial.
 They also help with immunity, making the body less hospitable to bad bacteria and other harmful
pathogens.
 Many bacterial pathogens can spread and infect via water and food, including Salmonella,
Campylobacter and E. coli.

PROBIOTIC FOODS
Probiotics are live bacteria and yeasts that are good for an individual’s health, especially one’s digestive
system.
 They can be found in some foods and supplements.

 When considering all the strains of bacteria that exist, relatively few are capable of making people sick.
 A bacterial infection is a proliferation of a harmful strain of bacteria on or inside the body. Bacteria can
infect any area of the body.

BACTERIAL DISEASES

Disease Bacteria
Cholera Vibrio cholerae
 Leprosy Mycobacterium Leprae
Plague Yersinia pestis
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Tetanus Clostridium tetani
Whooping Cough Bordetella pertussis
Typhoid Salmonella typhi
Trachoma Chlamydia trachomatis

LEPROSY
Leprosy is also known as Hansen’s disease. It is a chronic, progressive bacterial infection caused by a
bacterium called Mycobacterium Leprae.
 It affects Skin, Peripheral nerves, Upper respiratory tract and Lining of the nose.
 Mycobacterium Indicus Pranii (MIP), is an indigenous vaccine for leprosy.
 It is transmitted mainly by breathing airborne droplets from the affected individuals. It can be contacted
at any age.
 It usually takes about 3-5 years for symptoms to appear after coming into contact with Leprosy causing
bacteria.
 If not treated on time, Leprosy can lead to significant disability, disfigurement, permanent nerve
damage in arms and legs and even loss of sensation in the body.

TUBERCULOSIS
Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, that most often affect the lungs.

 Tuberculosis is a contagious airborne disease, which can be spread from person to person through the
air.
 When people with lung TB cough, sneeze or spit, they propel the TB germs into the air. A person needs
to inhale only a few of these germs to become infected.
 Infants and aged people are at a greater risk of catching TB infections.
 Common symptoms of active lung TB are cough with sputum and blood at times, chest pains, weakness,
weight loss, fever and night sweats.

TYPHOID
It is a bacterial infection that can lead to high fever, diarrhoea and vomiting.
 It can be fatal.
 Salmonella typhi is the bacterium responsible for this disease and humans are the only carriers.
 The bacteria enter the human body through the contaminated foods and water, where it then enters
into the intestinal cells of the human body.
 Later, it passes through the bloodstream and destroys the lymphatic system and spreads throughout
the body.
 Sanitation is one of the most important things that one can do to prevent the infection of such diseases.
 The other way would be the use of antibiotics that can kill the disease-causing germs.

TETANUS
Tetanus is an infection caused by bacteria called Clostridium tetani.
 When the bacteria invade the body, they produce a poison (toxin) that causes painful muscle
contractions.
 Another name for tetanus is “lockjaw”. It often causes a person’s neck and jaw muscles to lock, making
it hard to open the mouth or swallow.
 Tetanus disease is found in all parts of the world, but it more occurs in the location having hot and wet
climates where the soil contains a lot of organic matter.
 Treatment for tetanus depends on the severity of the symptoms.
- Tetanus is completely preventable by active immunization.
 Maternal and Neonatal Tetanus (MNT) is a life-threatening problem that occurs because of unhygienic
conditions during deliveries.
- It also occurs because of unhygienic umbilical cord practices.
 This problem is mainly prevalent in low income countries with poor medical facilities.
 It can be controlled through immunization of children, mothers, women of reproductive age, and
promotion of hygienic deliveries and cord core practices.
PNEUMONIA
Pneumonia is serious infection of lungs caused by various bacteria, viruses and fungi. It can be mild and
sometimes even prove fatal.
 The most common bacteria causing pneumonia is Streptococcus pneumoniae.
- It occurs in people with an existing lung disorder, and also those who drink excessively because
of which they develop a weaker immune system.
- Such pneumonia can be treated with antibiotics.
 It is caused by various viruses such as the influenza virus. More than 1/3 of the pneumonia cases are
caused by viruses.
 Other Pneumonia are less common and can be caused by other infectious agents such as fungi.
 Pneumonia is the single largest cause of death in children worldwide.
COMMON DISEASES CAUSED BY PROTOZOA
Protozoa are a varied cluster of unicellular eukaryotic organisms which consume bacteria and other food
sources.
 The diseases caused by Protozoa are life threatening and dangerous.

Disease Protozoa
Amoebic dysentery Entamoeba Histolytica
Kala Azar Leishmania Donovani
Malaria Plasmodium parasite
 Sleeping sickness Trypanosoma Brucei

KALA AZAR
It is a chronic and potentially fatal parasitic disease of the internal organs, particularly the liver, spleen,
bone marrow and lymph nodes.
 It is caused by a protozoan parasite of genus Leishmania. In India Leishmania Donovani is the only
parasite, causing this disease.
 Kala-azar is a vector borne disease and Sandfly of genus Phlebotomus argentipes are the only known
vectors of kala-azar in India.
 Signs and symptoms include fever, weight loss, fatigue, anaemia, and substantial swelling of the liver
and spleen.
 It is also known as Indian leishmaniasis, visceral leishmaniasis, Leishmania infection, dumdum fever,
black sickness, and black fever.

MALARIA
Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects humans.
 It is caused by single-celled microorganisms of the Plasmodium group. The disease is most commonly
spread by an infected female Anopheles mosquito.
 The mosquito bite introduces the parasites from the mosquito's saliva into a person's blood. The
parasites travel to the liver where they mature and reproduce.

 Malaria causes symptoms that typically include fever, tiredness, vomiting, and headaches.
 There are 5 parasite species that cause malaria in humans, and 2 of these species – P. falciparum and P.
vivax – pose the greatest threat.
OTHER COMMON DISEASES

BY HELMINTHS
Helminths are worm-like parasites that survive by feeding on a living host to gain nourishment and
protection, sometimes resulting in illness of the host.

Disease Helminth
 Ascariasis Ascaris, the common round worm
Elephantiasis or Filariasis Wuchereria, the filarial worm
Soil-transmitted helminthiasis By different species of roundworms

ELEPHANTIASIS
It is also known as Lymphatic filariasis, is caused by three species of thread-like nematode worms, known
as filariae - Wuchereria bancrofti (responsible for 90% cases), Brugia malayi and Brugia timori.
 It is transmitted to humans through mosquitoes.
 Manifestation of the disease after infection takes time and can result in an altered lymphatic system,
causing abnormal enlargement of body parts.

BY FUNGI
Many fungi belonging to the genera microsporum, trichophyton and epidermophyton are responsible for
ringworms, which is one of the most common infectious diseases in humans.
 Other fungal diseases include:
a. Fungal nail infections
b. Athlete’s foot disease
c. Blastomycosis
d. Candidiasis

CANCER
Cancer is one of the most dreaded diseases in the human beings and is a major cause of death across the
globe.
 In our body, cell growth and differentiation is highly controlled and regulated. In Cancer cells, there is a
breakdown of these regulatory mechanisms.
 Normal Cells has Contact Inhibition property by which their contact with other cells prevents their
uncontrolled growth. Cancer cells lost this property.
 As a result, cancerous cells just continue to divide giving rise to masses of cells called tumors. These
tumors are of two types:
a. Benign tumors: They normally confined to their original location and do not spread to other parts of
body.
 b. Malignant tumors: These are rapidly growing cells, invading and damaging the surrounding normal
tissues.

 Transformation of normal cells into cancerous cells may be induced by physical, chemical or biological
agents called Carcinogens.
 Ionising radiations like X-rays and gamma rays and non-ionizing radiations like UV cause DNA damage
leading to such transformation.
 The chemical carcinogens present in tobacco smoke have been identified as a major cause of lung
cancer.
 Early detection of cancers is essential as it allows the disease to be treated successfully in many cases.
 The common approaches for treatment of cancer are surgery, radiation therapy and immunotherapy.
DIABETES
Diabetes is a metabolic disease or a condition in which the glucose levels in the blood will be high over a
prolonged period of time.
 In simple words:

“It is a condition that occurs when the body cannot efficiently make use of glucose that serves as a
source of energy for body cells”.
 It can be causes due to obesity, genetic issues, stress, sedentary lifestyle etc.
 Diabetes is either caused due to the
a. Insufficient production of insulin by the pancreas, or
b. Cells of the body are not effectively responding to the insulin produced.
Diabetes is categorized into the following types based on the reason for their cause:

DIABETES MELLITUS
It is the inability of the body to effectively use or respond to the insulin produced by the body, and as a
result, blood sugar levels cannot be regulated effectively.

DIABETES INSIPIDUS
When the body is unable to respond or produce the Antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin), which is
secreted by the hypothalamus, Diabetes Insipidus occurs.
 This hormone helps the kidneys manage the amount of water in the human body.
 Without this essential hormone, the kidneys pass an abnormally large volume of urine that is insipid
(meaning: odourless and dilute) and hence person suffer constant thirst and frequent urination.

GESTATIONAL DIABETES
This condition occurs in pregnant women who develop high blood sugar level without a previous history.
 The condition usually resolves after delivery.
GENETIC DISORDERS
A genetic disorder is a genetic problem caused by one or more abnormalities formed in the genome.
 Most genetic disorders are quite rare and affect one person in every several thousands or millions.
 Genetic disorders may be hereditary or may be caused by new mutations or changes to the DNA.
 Common genetic disorders include:

HAEMOPHILIA
In this disease, a single protein that is a part of the cascade of proteins involved in the clotting of blood is
affected.
 Due to this, in an affected individual a simple cut will result in non-stop bleeding.

SICKLE CELL ANAEMIA

The defect is caused by the substitution of Glutamic acid (Glu) by Valine (Val) in the chain of the
haemoglobin molecule.
 The mutant haemoglobin molecule undergoes polymerization under low oxygen tension causing the
change in the shape of the RBC from biconcave disc to elongated sickle like structure.

THALASSEMIA
Thalassemia is a genetic blood disorder commonly characterised by the abnormal production of
haemoglobin in the body.
 The abnormality results in improper oxygen transport and destruction of red blood cells.
 It has wide-ranging effects on the human body like iron overload, bone deformities and in severe cases
can cause heart diseases.

COLOUR BLINDNESS
Colour blindness, also known as colour vision deficiency, is the decreased ability to see colour or differences
in colour.
 The most common cause of colour blindness is an inherited problem in the development of one or more
of the three sets of colour-sensing cones in the eye.
 Males are more likely to be colour blind than females, as the genes responsible for the most common
forms of colour blindness are on the X (male) chromosome.

IMMUNITY
Immunity refers to the overall ability of the host (human) to fight the disease-causing organisms, conferred
by the immune system.
 Immunity is of following types:

INNATE IMMUNITY
It is a non-specific type of defence that is present at the time of birth. It includes:
a. Physical barriers like skin on our body.
b. Physiological barriers like acids in the stomach, saliva in the mouth and tears in eyes, all prevents
microbial growth.
c. Cellular barriers in the form of certain white blood cells.
d. Cytokine barriers when virus infected cells secrete proteins to protect non infected cells.

ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
It is pathogen specific immunity. It activates when our body encounters a pathogen.
 It is also called as the adaptive immunity, as it is acquired after the birth in the form of vaccination,
antibiotics, Immunization, etc.
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE IMMUNITY
a. When a host is exposed to antigens (which may be living or dead microbes), antibodies are produced in
the host body. It is called active immunity.
 This type of immunity is slow in nature and usually takes time to give its full effective response.
b. When ready-made antibodies are directly given to protect the body against foreign agents, it is called
passive immunity.

IMPORTANT TERMS

ANTIGEN
Antigens are large molecules of proteins, present on the surface of the pathogen- such as bacteria, fungi
viruses, and other foreign particles.
 When these harmful agents enter the body, it induces an immune response in the body for the
production of antibodies.
 They are species-specific. The more chemically complex they are, more immunogenic they will be.
 They can be exogenous (entered the body from outside) or endogenous (that have been generated
within the normal cells due to viral or intracellular bacterial infections).

ANTIBODIES
Antibody (Ab) is also known as an immunoglobulin (Ig). These are large, Y-shaped blood proteins
produced by plasma cells. They bind to foreign particles and invade them.
 Antigens stimulate the production of antibodies by the immune system.

ANTIBIOTICS
They are drugs that fight infections caused by bacteria.
 Alexander Fleming discovered the first antibiotic, penicillin, in 1927.
 As bacteria are single cell living organisms. When we design medication against bacteria, we usually
find a drug that will disrupt the life of bacteria either by preventing bacteria from forming cell
membrane, the enzymes, or preventing it in reproduction.
 On the other hand, Virus has no life and no metabolism on its own. They are difficult to stop.
IMMUNISATION
It is the process whereby a person is made immune or resistant to infections, typically by the administration
of vaccine.

VACCINATION
Vaccines have substances that stimulate the body’s own immune system to protect the person against
subsequent infection or disease.
 Vaccines contain antigen (which generates the protective immune response) that may be in a weakened
or killed form of the disease-causing organism, or fragments of the organism.
 Vaccine is a suspension of microorganisms which can produce disease. It is modified by weakening the
microorganism so that it does not cause any disease.
- The vaccine is administered in a healthy human being and the microorganism enters the body.
- This triggers the immune system and builds immunity.
 The antibodies produced in the body against these antigens would neutralise the pathogenic agents
during actual infection.

LIVE VACCINES
They are made using ‘wild’ viruses or bacteria that have been attenuated, or weakened, before being
included in the vaccine and create a strong and long-lasting immune response.

INACTIVATED VACCINES
It use the killed version of the germ that causes a disease and usually do not provide immunity (protection)
that’s as strong as live vaccines.

 However, immunisation is not a solution for even many common diseases, like malaria.
- Malaria parasite is a highly evolved and complex organism often regarded as ‘Master of disguise’.
- It can occur due to numerous strains of plasmodium falciparum.

UNIVERSAL IMMUNISATION PROGRAMME

Immunisation programme in India was introduced in 1978 as the ‘Extended programme of Immunisation’.
 In 1985, the programme was modified as ‘Universal Immunisation Programme (UIP)’ to be
implemented in phased manner to cover all the districts in India.
 Under UIP free of cost vaccination is provided against twelve vaccine preventable diseases i.e.
Tuberculosis, Diphtheria, Pertussis, Tetanus, Polio, Hepatitis B, Pneumonia and Meningitis due to
Haemophilus Influenzae type b (Hib), Measles, Rubella, Japanese Encephalitis (JE) and Rotavirus
diarrhoea.
 The programme was the one of largest health programme in the world. Despite being operational for
many years, UIP has been able to fully immunize only 65% children under 1 year of age.

MISSION INDRADHANUSH
To give maximum protection to the children against Vaccine Preventable Diseases (VPDs). The
Government has launched ‘Mission Indradhanush’ in December 2014 to fully immunize the uncovered
children.
 The mission targets children under 2 years of age and pregnant women for immunization.
 Four phases of Mission Indradhanush have been conducted till August 2017 and more than 2.53 crore
children and 68 lakh pregnant women have been vaccinated.
 INTENSIFIED MISSION INDRADHANUSH
The Intensified Mission Indradhanush (IMI) has been launched by Government of India in 2017.
 Its aim is to reach each and every child under two years of age and all those pregnant women who
have been left uncovered under the routine immunisation programme.
 Intensified Mission Indradhanush has covered low performing areas in the selected districts (high
priority districts) and urban areas.

INTENSIFIED MISSION INDRADHANUSH 2.0

The IMI 2.0 aims to achieve targets of full immunization coverage in 272 districts in 27 States and at
block level (652 blocks) in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar among hard-to-reach and tribal populations.

ERADICATION OF DISEASES
Disease eradication is the permanent reduction of a disease to negligible cases through deliberate measures
such as vaccines.
 Once a disease has been eradicated, intervention measures are no longer needed.
 Elimination means stopping the transmission of a disease in a specific geographic area or country, but
not worldwide.

DISEASES ERADICATED IN INDIA

Disease Eradication year
Smallpox 1977
Rinderpest 1995
Trachoma 2017
Guinea Worm 2000
Yaws 2016
Maternal and Neonatal Tetanus 2015
Polio (all strains) 2016

ANTI-MICROBIAL RESISTANCE
“Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is defined as the ability of an infection causing microorganism (like bacteria,
viruses, and some parasites) to stop an antimicrobial (such as antibiotics, antivirals and antimalarial) from
working against it”.
 It happens when microorganisms change when they are exposed to antimicrobial drugs.
 As a result, the medicines become ineffective and infections persist in the body, increasing the risk of
spread to others.
 It can occur naturally as well as due to the misuse of antibiotics in humans and animals.
 Microorganisms that become resistant to most antimicrobials are often referred to as “superbugs”.
 It can be termed as Antibiotic resistance when there is resistance against antibiotics.

CAUSES FOR RISING AMR

Various factors are responsible for rising AMR like:

SOCIAL FACTORS
a. Unnecessary and injudicious use of medicine
b. Practice of self-medication (to avoid financial burden)
c. Access to medicine without prescription
d. Not following the prescribed course of medicine

CULTURAL FACTORS
e. Mass bathing in rivers as part of religious mass gathering occasions
OTHER FACTORS
f. The waste effluents from the pharmaceutical units contain a substantial amount of chemicals, leading
to contamination of rivers and lakes.
g. Certain drugs which are critical to human health are commonly used for growth promotion in poultry
and Animal husbandry.
h. Untreated disposal of sewage water bodies, leading to contamination of rivers.
i. Prevalence of various hospital associated Infections.

IMPACT OF AMR
 New resistance is threatening our ability to treat common infectious diseases, resulting in prolonged
illness, disability, and death.
 Antimicrobial resistance increases the cost of health care with lengthier stays in hospitals and more
intensive care required.
 It causes risk to feed and food production.
 It would impact nutrition security, livelihood and hinder the attainment of the Sustainable Development
Goals.

GLOBAL EFFORTS AGAINST AMR

1. WHO “Global action plan on antimicrobial resistance” 2015.
2. ‘The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance System’ (GLASS) of WHO.
3. World Antibiotic Awareness week celebrated every November since 2015.
4. The United Nations Secretary-General has established Interagency Coordination Group on
Antimicrobial Resistance (IACG) to improve coordination between international organizations and to
ensure effective global action against this threat to health security.

INDIAN EFFORTS AGAINST AMR

1. The National Health Policy 2017 highlights the problem of antimicrobial resistance and calls for effective
action to address it.
2. The Ministry of Health & Family Welfare (MoHFW) identified AMR as one of the top 10 priorities for the
ministry’s collaborative work with WHO.
3. In 2012, India’s medical societies adopted the Chennai Declaration, a set of National recommendations
to promote antibiotic stewardship.
4. India’s Red Line campaign demands that prescription-only antibiotics be marked with a red line, to
discourage the over-the-counter sale of antibiotics.
5. National Policy for Containment of Antimicrobial Resistance 2011.
6. National Action Plan on AMR resistance 2017-2021.
7. The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) banned the use of antibiotics and several
pharmacologically active substances in fisheries.
8. The Drugs and Cosmetic Rule, 1945 were amended in to incorporate a new Schedule H1.
9. Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has set up a National Anti-Microbial Resistance Research and
Surveillance Network (AMRRSN).

Antimicrobial resistance is a Global crisis that threatens a century of progress in health and achievement of
the Sustainable Development Goals.