Lecture 8 - Spur gear design
CONTENTS
1. Surface durability –basic concepts
2. Surface failures
3. Buckingham contact stress equation
4. Contact stress –AGMA procedure
5. Surface fatigue strength – AGMA procedure
6. Permissible contact stress
SPUR GEAR - SURFACE DURABILITY BASIC CONCEPTS
Earlier various types of gear failures have been discussed in detail. Under contact
conditions, gear teeth are subjected to Hertzian contact stresses and elasto-hydrodynamic
lubrication. Excessive loading and lubrication breakdown can cause combinations of abrasion,
pitting and scoring.
Figure shows the contact of a gear and pinion tooth at the tip. The Instantaneous contact point
velocities of gear and pinion are vectorially denoted by Vg and Vp
a. The individual velocity can be resolved into two components normal and tangent to the tooth
surface as Vpn and Vpt for the pinion and Vgn and Vgt for the gear respectively.
b. When the teeth do not separate or crush together, the components Vpn and Vgn normal to the
surface must be the same.
c. Hence tangential velocity components of the surface are different.
d. The sliding velocity is the difference between Vpt and Vgt
If the contact is at the pitch point P, the sliding velocity is zero; the tooth relative motion is pure
rolling.
a) At all the other contact points, the relative motion is one of pure rolling and sliding.
b) The sliding velocity is directly proportional to the distance between the pitch point and the
point of contact.
c) The maximum sliding velocity occurs with contacts at the tooth tips.
d) Gear teeth with longer addenda have higher sliding velocities than gears with shorter addenda.
The relative sliding velocity reverses the direction as a pair of teeth roll through the pitch
point. During approach the sliding Friction forces tend to compress the teeth; during recess,
Friction forces tend to elongate the teeth. Elongated teeth tend to give smoother action.
SPUR GEAR-SURFACE FAILURES
a. Gear teeth are also subjected to Hertz contact stresses,and the lubrication is often
elastohydrodynamic.
b. Excessive loading and lubrication breakdown results in various combinations of abrasion,
pitting and scoring.
1. Abrasive wear is caused
a) by the presence of foreign particles, in gears that are not enclosed,
b) in enclosed gears that were assembled with abrasive particles present,
c) in gears lubricated by an oil supply with inadequate filtration.
2. Scoring:
a) It occurs at high speeds when adequate lubrication is not provided by the elasto-
hydrodynamic action.
b) Lack of lubrication causes high sliding friction. High tooth loading and high sliding
velocities that produce a high rate of heat in the localized contact region causes welding
and tearing of surfaces apart.
c) Scoring can often be prevented by directing adequate flow of appropriate lubricant that
maintains hydrodynamic lubrication.
d). Surface finish is also an important factor for scoring. Surface finish as fine as 0.5µm cla is
desirable to avoid scoring.
3. Pitting or surface fatigue failure:
Complex stresses within the contact zone cause surface and subsurface fatigue failures.
Pitting occurs only after a large a number of repeated loading mainly in the vicinity of the
pitch line where the oil film breaks down because of zero sliding velocity.
SPUR GEAR – BUCKINGHAM CONTACT STRESS EQUATION
Buckingham adapted the Hertz contact stress equation for a pair of gear teeth. He treated a pair
of gear teeth as two cylinders of radii equal to the radii of curvature of the mating involutes at the
pitch point. From basic involute geometry, these radii are
R1 = (d1sin Ø) / 2 & R2 = (d2 sinØ) / 2 (1)
If the contact load F = Ft / cosØ, face width of pinion b ; contact radii of pinion and gear R1 and
R2; their Poisson’s ratios µ1 and µ2, and elastic modulii E1 and E2 respectively, then Hertzian
contact stress under static condition is given by:
FE
σH' = 0.564 (2)
bR
Where F = Ft / cos Ø (3)
1 1 − µ12 1 − µ22
= + (4)
E E1 E2
1 1 1 2 2
= + = + (5)
R R1 R 2 d1 sinφ d2 sinφ
Substituting the value of Ft, E and R from equation (3),(4) & (5) into (2) we get
2 2
Ft ( + )
d sinφ d sinφ
σH' = 0.564 1 2
(6)
1 − µ1 1 − µ22
2
b cosφ( + )
E1 E2
It is seen from the above equation that
• Since contact area also increases with load, the contact stress increases only as the
square root of load Ft
• Contact area increases with decrease of modulii of elasticity, E1and E2.
• Larger gears have greater radii of curvature, hence lower stress.
Equation (6) can be rewritten by combining terms relating to the elastic properties of the material
into single factor Cp given by:
1
Cp = 0.564 (7)
1 − µ 1 − µ22
2
+
1
E1 E2
The Cp value are given in Table 1.
• and combining terms relating to tooth shape into second factor, I, known as the geometry
factor:
sinφ cos φ i
I= (8)
2 i+1
• Where the speed ratio i = d2 /d1
The simplified contact stress equation now is:
Ft
σH' = Cp (9)
b d1 I
In this equation Ft is considered as static since the Hertz equation is derived for static loads.
Rearranging the terms
2
⎛ σ' ⎞
Ft = b d1 I ⎜ H ⎟ (10)
⎜C ⎟
⎝ p⎠
If we substitute σH’ by the permissible stress [σH] for the material, then what we get is the tooth
surface strength of the pinion Fts.
2
⎛ [σ ] ⎞
Ft s = b d1 I ⎜ H ⎟ (11)
⎜ C ⎟
⎝ p ⎠
Fts > Fd (12)
for safe operation of the gear from surface fatigue considerations. Fd is the Buckingham
dynamic load on gear tooth. This approach gives quick results for preliminary design. This is the
Buckingham design approach for wear strength.
SPUR GEAR –CONTACT STRESS AGMA
Introducing the factors Kv, Ko and Km used in the bending fatigue analysis into the contact stress
equation, the dynamic contact stress is obtained as σH :
Ft
σH = Cp K V K o Km (13)
b d1 I
SPUR GEAR – SURFACE DURABILITY
Kv = Velocity or dynamic factor, indicates the severity of impact on successive pairs of teeth
during engagement. This is a function of pitch line velocity and manufacturing accuracy. It is
given by equation (14), (15) and (16).
6+ V
Kv = (14)
6
Equation (14) is used for cut or milled teeth or for gears not carefully generated.
50 + (200V)0.5
Kv = (15)
50
Equation (15) is used for hobbed and shaped gears.
0.5
⎡ 78 + (200V) 0.5 ⎤
Kv = ⎢ ⎥ (16)
⎣ 78 ⎦
Equation (16) is used for high-precision shaved or ground teeth.
Ko = Overload factor which reflects the degree of non-uniformity of driving and load torques. It
is given in Table 2
Table 2 -Overload factor Ko
Driven Machinery
Source of power Uniform Moderate Shock Heavy Shock
Uniform 1.00 1.25 1.75
Light shock 1.25 1.50 2.00
Medium shock 1.50 1.75 2.25
Km = Load distribution factor which accounts for non uniform spread of the load across the face
width. It depends on the accuracy of mounting, bearings, shaft deflection and accuracy of gears.
Values are given in Table 3.
Table 3. Load distribution factor Km
Face width b ( mm)
Characteristics of Support 0 - 50 150 225 400 up
Accurate mountings, small bearing 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.8
clearances, minimum deflection, precision
gears
Less rigid mountings, less accurate gears, 1.6 1.7 1.8 2.2
contact across the full face
Accuracy and mounting such that less than Over 2.2 Over 2.2 Over 2.2 Over 2.2
full-face contact exists
SPUR GEAR – SURFACE FATIGUE STRENGTH (AGMA)
Surface fatigue strength of the material is given by:
σsf = σsf’ KL Kr KT (17)
Where
σsf’ = surface fatigue strength of the material given in Table 4
KL = Life factor given in Fig.1
KR = Reliability factor , given in Table 5
Table 5. Reliability factor KR
Reliability (%) KR
50 1.25
99 1.00
99.9 0.80
KT = temperature factor,
= 1 for T≤ 120oC
based on Lubricant temperature.
Above 120oC, it is less than 1 to be taken from AGMA standards.
SPUR GEAR – ALLOWABLE SURFACE FATIGUE STRESS (AGMA)
Allowable surface fatigue stress for design is given by
[ σH ] = σSf / s (18)
Factor of safety s = 1.1 to 1.5
Hence Design equation is :
σH ≤ [ σH ] (19)
GEAR MATERIALS
Gears are commonly made of cast iron, steel, bronze, phenolic resins, acetal, nylon or other
plastics.
The selection of material depends on the type of loading and speed of operation, wear life,
reliability and application.
Cast iron is the least expensive. ASTM / AGMA grade 20 is widely used. Grades 30,40,50, 60
are progressively stronger and more expensive.
CI gears have greater surface fatigue strength than bending fatigue strength. Better damping
properties which enables them to run quietly than steel.
Nodular cast iron gears have higher bending strength together with good surface durability.
These gears are now a days used in automobile cam shafts.
A good combination is often a steel pinion mated against cast iron gear.
Steel finds many applications since it combines both high strength and low cost. Plain carbon
and alloy steel usage is quite common.
Through hardened plain carbon steel with 0.35 - 0.6% C are used when gears need hardness
more than 250 to 350 Bhn. These gears need grinding to overcome heat treatment distortion.
When compactness, high impact strength and durability are needed as in automotive and mobile
applications, alloy steels are used. These gears are surface or case-hardened by flame hardening,
induction hardening, nitriding or case carburizing processes. Steels such as En 353, En36, En24,
17CrNiMo6 widely used for gears.
SPUR GEAR – GEAR MATERIALS
Bronzes are used when corrosion resistance, low friction and wear under high sliding
velocity is needed as in worm-gear applications.
AGMA recommends Tin bronzes containing small % of Ni, Pb or Zn. The hardness may range
from 70 to 85 Bhn.
Non metallic gears made of phenolic resin, acetal, nylon and other plastics are used for
light load lubrication free quiet operation at reasonable cost. Mating gear in many such
applications is made with steel. In order to accommodate high thermal expansion, plastic gears
must have higher backlash and undergo stringent prototype testing.