MH2802: Linear Algebra for Scientists Lecturer: Prof.
Mile Gu
Appendix A: Complex Numbers
14.1 Notation
Let R denote the set of real numbers. The symbol ∈ means “is an element of”. Thus we write
x∈R
√
to mean x is an element of R. That is, x is a real number. Eg 2 ∈ R, π ∈ R, − 3 ∈ R etc.
14.2 Complex Numbers
Complex numbers were introduced in the 16th century to obtain roots of polynomial equations. A complex number
is of the form
c = a + ib
where a, b ∈ R and i is (formally) a symbol satisfying i2 = −1. The quantity a is called the real part of c and b is
called the imaginary part of z. These are often denoted as
Re(c) = a Im(c) = b
The set of all complex numbers is denoted C.
For example, c = 3 − 2i ∈ C. The real part of 3 − 2i is 3 and the imaginary part is −2 (not −2i).
Complex numbers can be added and multiplied by replacing i2 everywhere with −1. For example (2i)2 = 4i2 = −4.
Example 33: Simplify (3 − 2i)(1 + i).
(3 − 2i)(1 + i) = 3 + 3i − 2i − 2i2
= 3+i+2=5+i
2
(3 − 2i)(1 + i) = 3 + 3i − 2i − 2i
= 3+i+2 = 5+i
Example 34: Suppose a, b ∈ R. Simplify (a + bi)(a − bi).
(a + bi)(a − bi) = a2 − abi + abi − b2 i2
= a2 + b2
2 2 2
(a + bi)(a − bi) = a − abi + abi − b i
2 2
= a +b
14.2.1 Complex Conjugate
If c = a + bi is a complex number, the number a − bi is called the complex conjugate of z, denoted z. Eg the
complex conjugate of 3 + 2i is 3 + 2i = 3 − 2i.
The previous example shows that z z is always a real number.
3 − 2i
Example 35: Simplify .
1−i
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MH2802: Linear Algebra for Scientists Lecturer: Prof. Mile Gu
We multiply top and bottom by the complex conjugate of the denominator. This does not change the value of
the fraction, but the new denominator is a real number.
3 − 2i 3 − 2i (1 + i)
= ×
1−i 1−i (1 + i)
(3 − 2i)(1 + i)
=
12 + 1 2
1
= (3 − 2i)(1 + i)
2
1
= (5 + i)
2
5 1
= + i
2 2
We multiply top and bottom by the complex conjugate of the denominator. This does not change the value of the fraction, but the new denominator
is a real number.
3 − 2i 3 − 2i (1 + i)
= ×
1−i 1−i (1 + i)
(3 − 2i)(1 + i)
=
12 + 12
1
= (3 − 2i)(1 + i)
2
1
= (5 + i)
2
5 1
= + i
2 2
It is a fact that if we consider complex roots of polynomials (and count them with their correct multiplicity), then
a polynomial of degree n always has n roots. For example, every quadratic has two roots.
Example 36: Find the roots of x2 + 2x + 2 = 0.
Use the quadratic formula:
1 √ 1
x = (−2 ± 4 − 8) = (−2 ± 2i)
2 2
= −1 ± i.
Alternatively, complete the square. Take half the coefficient of the linear term 2x, namely 1. So consider (x + 1)2 :
x2 + 2x + 2 = (x + 1)2 + 1 = 0
2
⇐⇒ (x + 1) = −1 = i2
⇐⇒ x + 1 = ±i
∴x = −1 ± i are the roots.
Use the quadratic formula:
1 1
x = (−2 ± 4 − 8) = (−2 ± 2i)
2 2
= −1 ± i.
Alternatively, complete the square. Take half the coefficient of the linear term 2x, namely 1. So consider (x + 1)2 :
2 2
x + 2x + 2 = (x + 1) +1 = 0
2 2
⇐⇒ (x + 1) = −1 = i
⇐⇒ x + 1 = ±i
∴ x = −1 ± i are the roots.
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MH2802: Linear Algebra for Scientists Lecturer: Prof. Mile Gu
14.3 Polar form
Real numbers are often represented on the real line. A complex number c = a + ib may be represented by a point
in the complex plane, where the horizontal axis is the real axis and the vertical axis is the imaginary axis.
We can also specify c by giving the length r and the angle θ in figure 11. The quantity r is called the modulus or
magnitude of c, denoted |c|. It measures the distance of c from the origin. The angle θ is called the argument of
c. We have:
y Imaginary
z=x+iy
θ x
Real
Figure 11: A complex number can be represented in rectangular or polar form.
a = r cos θ
b = r sin θ
⇒ c = a + ib = r(cos θ + i sin θ).
Also r = |c| = a2 + b2
b
tan θ = if a = 0.
a
Example 37: Write c = 1 + i in polar form.
First find the modulus: √ √
|c| = 1+1= 2.
b
We have for the argument tan θ = , so we can take
a
b
θ = arctan
a
= arctan 1
π
=
4
√ π π
∴ c = 2 cos + i sin .
4 4
First find the modulus: √
|c| = 1+1 = 2.
b
We have for the argument tan θ = , so we can take
a
b
θ = arctan
a
= arctan 1
π
=
4
π π
√
∴ c = 2 cos + i sin .
4 4
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MH2802: Linear Algebra for Scientists Lecturer: Prof. Mile Gu
14.4 Euler’s formula
Euler’s formula states for any real number θ:
cos θ + i sin θ = eiθ .
To make sense of this, one has to define the exponential function for complex arguments. This is done by power
series expansion, where
(iθ)2 (iθ)3
eiθ = 1 + iθ + + + ...
2! 3!
Grouping the above into real and imaginary components will then gives us the desired relation. Thus every
complex number z = x + iy can be represented in polar form
z = reiθ .
14.5 What you are expected to know
1. How to simplify basic fractions involve complex numbers.
2. Euler’s equation and how to find the polar form of a complex number a + ib.
3. How to solve for the complex roots of a 2nd order polynomial using the quadratic equation.
4. Complex Conjugates
14.6 Further Reading
David C. Lay, Linear Algebra and its Applications, Appendix B
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