Outline

Dynamic Response and the

Laplace Transform Method
Introduction

Laplace transform

Dynamics and Control Systems Transfer functions

P.K. Kankar Stability analysis

Associate Professor, Mechanical Engineering
Routh-Hurwitz criteria etc.
1 2

1 2

Introduction Introduction

Use separation of variables to solve the

SOLUTION OF
following problem for 𝑡 ≥ 0.
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS 𝑥̇ + 2𝑥 = 20 𝑥(0) = 3

( )
DIRECT
SEPARATION TRIAL
LAPLACE 𝑑𝑥
OF SOLUTION = 𝑑𝑡
INTEGRATION TRANSFORM
VARIABLES METHOD 20 − 2𝑥

3
𝑥 𝑡 = 10 − 7𝑒 4

3 4

Introduction TRIAL-SOLUTION METHOD

12
Solve the following problem for 𝑎 ≠ 0.
10

8 𝑥̇ + 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏 Its solution has the form 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶 + 𝐷𝑒

6
where C, D, and s are constants to be determined.
4

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
time(t)

Response of the System 5 6

5 6

1
 TRIAL-SOLUTION METHOD TRIAL-SOLUTION METHOD
By substituting 𝑥(𝑡) into the differential equation Thus 𝐷 = 𝑥(0) − 𝐶 = 𝑥(0) − 𝑏/𝑎, and the solution can be
written as
𝑥̇ + 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑠𝐷𝑒 + 𝑎 𝐶 + 𝐷𝑒 = 𝑠 + 𝑎 𝐷𝑒 + 𝑎𝐶 = 𝑏
𝑏 𝑏
𝑥 𝑡 = + 𝑥 0 − 𝑒
The only way this equation can be true is if 𝑎 𝑎
𝑠 + 𝑎 = 0 and 𝑎𝐶 = 𝑏. Thus 𝑠 = −𝑎 and 𝐶 = 𝑏/𝑎. The exponential coefficient 𝒔 is called the
The remaining constant, 𝐷, can be determined from the characteristic root, and its equation 𝑠 + 𝑎 = 0 is
initial value 𝑥(0) as follows. called the characteristic equation.
Substituting 𝑡 = 0 into the solution form gives Characteristic roots are of great use in
𝑥 0 = 𝐶 + 𝐷𝑒 = 𝐶 + 𝐷. 7
determining the form of the trial solution. 8

7 8

TRIAL-SOLUTION METHOD TRIAL-SOLUTION METHOD

The two constants, 𝐷 and 𝐷 , are determined
Solve the following problem.
from the initial conditions as follows:
𝑥̈ + 7𝑥̇ + 10𝑥 = 20 𝑥 0 = 5 𝑥̇ 0 = 3
𝑥 0 =2+𝐷 +𝐷 =5
The appropriate trial-solution form is
𝑥̇ 0 = −2𝐷 𝑒 − 5𝐷 𝑒 = −2𝐷 − 5𝐷 = 3
𝑥 𝑡 =𝐶+𝐷 𝑒 +𝐷 𝑒
The solution of these two equations is 𝐷 = 6
where 𝑠 and 𝑠 are the two characteristic roots.
and 𝐷 = −3. Thus, the solution is
𝑥 𝑡 =2+𝐷 𝑒 +𝐷 𝑒
9 10
𝑥 𝑡 = 2 + 6𝑒 −3𝑒

9 10

TRIAL-SOLUTION METHOD TRIAL-SOLUTION METHOD

The “hump”
is caused by
the positive
value of
x(t)
x(t)

x˙(0).

11 12

11 12

2
 TRIAL-SOLUTION METHOD TRIAL-SOLUTION METHOD

Solve the following problem.

𝑥̈ + 7𝑥̇ + 10𝑥 = 20 𝑥 0 = 5 𝑥̇ 0 = −3

𝑥 𝑡 = 2 + 4𝑒 −𝑒

x(t)
13 14

13 14

TRIAL-SOLUTION METHOD TRIAL-SOLUTION METHOD

Solve the following problem.

𝑥̈ + 7𝑥̇ + 10𝑥 = 20 𝑥 0 = 5 𝑥̇ 0 = 0

𝑥 𝑡 = 2 + 5𝑒 −2𝑒
x(t)

15 16

15 16

TRIAL-SOLUTION METHOD TRIAL-SOLUTION METHOD

Solve the following problem.

𝑥̈ + 7𝑥̇ + 10𝑥 = 20 𝑥 0 = 5 𝑥̇ 0 = 10

𝑥 𝑡 = 2 + 8.333𝑒 −5.333𝑒
x(t)

17 18

17 18

3
 TRIAL-SOLUTION METHOD TRIAL-SOLUTION METHOD

Solve the following problem.

5𝑥̈ + 20𝑥̇ + 20𝑥 = 28 𝑥 0 = 5 𝑥̇ 0 = 8

The appropriate trial-solution form is

x(t)
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶 + (𝐷 +𝐷 𝑡)𝑒

𝑥 𝑡 = 1.4 + (3.6 + 15.2𝑡)𝑒

19 20

19 20

TRIAL-SOLUTION METHOD TRIAL-SOLUTION METHOD

Solve the following problem. 14

𝑥̈ + 16𝑥 = 144 𝑥 0 = 5 𝑥̇ 0 = 12 12

The appropriate trial-solution form is 10

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶 +𝐷 𝑒 +𝐷 𝑒 8

6
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶 +𝐷 𝑒 +𝐷 𝑒
4
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶 + 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑡 + 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑡 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
time(t)
21 22
𝑥 𝑡 = 9 − 4𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑡 + 3𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑡

21 22

SUMMARY OF THE TRIAL-

RESPONSE TYPES
SOLUTION METHOD
The solution of 𝑥̇ + 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏 is given as

𝑏 𝑏
𝑥 𝑡 = + 𝑥 0 − 𝑒
𝑎 𝑎
steady
transient
state

23 24

23 24

4
 RESPONSE TYPES RESPONSE TYPES
The solution of 𝑥̇ + 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏 can also be rearranged as

𝑏 Total
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥(0)𝑒 + 1−𝑒 response
𝑎
free forced

Transient Steady-State Free Forced

Response Response Response Response

25 26

25 26

STABILITY STABILITY
• The stability properties of a linear model are
determined from its characteristic roots.
Example:
Neutral
Unstable Stable • The first-order model 𝑥̇ + 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑡 .
Stability

27 28

27 28

STABILITY STABILITY
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠16𝑡 (a) 6 For second order differential equation, the
4 characteristic roots can be seen as the complex
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 +𝑒 (b) 2
roots 𝜎 ± 𝜔𝑗
0
𝑥 𝑡 =𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠15𝑡 − -2 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 (𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡)
𝑠𝑖𝑛15𝑡 (c) -4

-6

-8
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
time(t)

30 31

30 31

5
 Stability Test for Linear
EXAMPLE
Constant-Coefficient Models
• A constant-coefficient linear model is stable if
and only if all of its characteristic roots have
negative real parts.
• The model is neutrally stable if one or more
roots have a zero real part, and the remaining
roots have negative real parts.
• The model is unstable if any root has a
positive real part. 35 37

35 37

THE ROUTH-HURWITZ
EXAMPLE
CONDITION
• The condition states that the second-order
system whose characteristic polynomial is
𝑚𝑠 + 𝑐𝑠 + 𝑘 is stable if and only if 𝑚, 𝑐, and
𝑘 have the same sign.
• This requirement is called the Routh-Hurwitz
condition.

38 39

38 39

THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

METHOD METHOD
The Laplace transform 𝐿[𝑥(𝑡)] of a function 𝑥(𝑡) is defined as

• The Laplace transform provides a systematic follows.

and general method for solving linear ODEs. 𝐿𝑥 𝑡 = lim ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 𝑑𝑡 (1)
→

but is usually expressed more compactly as

𝐿𝑥 𝑡 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 𝑑𝑡 (2)

40 42

40 42

6
 THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM TRANSFORMS OF COMMON FUNCTIONS

METHOD
Transform of a Constant
• The process of determining the time function 𝑥(𝑡) whose
Suppose 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑐, a constant, for 𝑡 ≥ 0
transform is 𝑋(𝑠) is denoted by

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐿 [𝑋(𝑠)] (4) 𝐿𝑥 𝑡 = lim 𝑥 𝑡 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = lim 𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑡

→ →

where the symbol 𝐿 denotes the inverse transform.

1 𝑐
𝐿𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑐 lim 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑐 lim 𝑒 =
→ → −𝑠 𝑠

44 45

44 45

TRANSFORMS OF COMMON FUNCTIONS TRANSFORMS OF COMMON FUNCTIONS

The Step Function Laplace Transform of The Unit Step Function

1
𝐿𝑢 𝑡 =
𝑠

Laplace Transform of The Step Function 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝑴𝒖𝒔 𝒕

and is undefined and discontinuous at t = 0.
𝑀
𝐿 𝑀𝑢 𝑡 =
𝑠
46 48

46 48

TRANSFORMS OF COMMON FUNCTIONS TRANSFORMS OF COMMON FUNCTIONS

Laplace Transform of the exponential function 𝒙(𝒕) =

𝒂𝒕
𝒆 , 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎, where 𝒂 is a constant.

1
𝐿𝑒 =
𝑠+𝑎

49 50

49 50

7
 TRANSFORMS OF COMMON FUNCTIONS TRANSFORMS OF COMMON FUNCTIONS

51 52

51 52

THE LINEARITY PROPERTY THE LINEARITY PROPERTY

Laplace transforms of the exponentially decaying sine and

The Laplace transform is a definite integral, and thus it has the
cosine functions, 𝑒 sin 𝜔𝑡 and 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡, for 𝑡 ≥ 0, where 𝑎
properties of such integrals. For example
and 𝜔 are constants
𝐿 𝑎𝑓 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑔(𝑡) = 𝑎𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 + 𝑏𝐿 𝑔(𝑡) = 𝑎𝐹 𝑠 + 𝑏𝐺(𝑠) ( )
𝑒 (cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑗 sin 𝜔𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑒 =𝑒
For example, if 𝑥(𝑡) = 6 + 4𝑒 , its transform is
( )
Thus the real part of 𝑒 is 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 and the imaginary
6 4 10𝑠 + 18
𝑋 𝑠 = + = part is 𝑒 sin 𝜔𝑡.
𝑠 𝑠 + 3 𝑠(𝑠 + 3)
( )
The inverse transform also has the linearity property, so that Now, 𝐿 𝑒 = =
( )( )

𝐿 𝑎𝐹 𝑠 + 𝑏𝐺(𝑠) = 𝑎𝐿 𝐹 𝑠 + 𝑏𝐿 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝑎𝑓 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑔(𝑡)
53
𝑠+𝑎 𝜔 54
= +𝑗 (1)
(𝑠 + 𝑎) +𝜔 (𝑠 + 𝑎) +𝜔

53 54

Property: Shifting along the s-axis or

THE LINEARITY PROPERTY
multiplication by an exponential
From equation (1) we see that the real part of this expression is
the transform of 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 and the imaginary part is the This property states that
transform of 𝑒 sin 𝜔𝑡. Therefore, 𝐿(𝑒 𝑥(𝑡)) = 𝑋(𝑠 + 𝑎)

𝐿(𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡) = and 𝐿(𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡) = Example: Derive the Laplace transform of the function
( ) ( )
𝑡𝑒 ,𝑡 > 0
Note that the transforms of the sine and cosine can be obtained
by letting 𝑎 = 0. 1
𝐿(𝑡𝑒 )=
(𝑠 + 𝑎)
Thus 𝐿(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡) = and 𝐿(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡) =

55 56

55 56

8
 Property: Multiplication by t Property: Shifting along the t-axis

This property states that If the discontinuity in the unit-

step function occurs at 𝑡 = 𝐷,
𝐿 𝑡𝑥 𝑡 =−
Figure. The function
Example: Derive the Laplace transform of the function 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑀𝑢 𝑡 − 𝐷
𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡, 𝑡 ≥ 0
is 0 for 𝑡 < 𝐷 and 𝑀 for 𝑡 > 𝐷.
𝑠 −𝜔 The function 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝐷 is called
𝐿(𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡) =
(𝑠 + 𝜔 )
the shifted step function.
57 Determine 𝑋 𝑠 58

57 58

Property: Shifting along the t-axis Property: Shifting along the t-axis

The time-shifting property states that if

𝐿 𝑥 𝑡 = lim 𝑀𝑒 𝑑𝑡
→
0 𝑡<𝐷
𝑥 𝑡 =
𝑔 𝑡−𝐷 𝑡>𝐷
1 1
= 𝑀 lim 𝑒 + 𝑒
→ −𝑠 𝑠 Then
𝑋 𝑠 =𝑒 𝐺(𝑠)
𝑀
= 𝑒
𝑠

59 60

59 60

Examples Examples

Derive the Laplace transform of the ramp function 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑚𝑡,

whose slope is the constant 𝑚.

61 62

61 62

9
 THE DERIVATIVE PROPERTY THE DERIVATIVE PROPERTY

To use the Laplace transform to solve differential equations, This procedure can be extended to higher derivatives. For
the transforms of derivatives need to be obtained. Applying example, the result for the second derivative is
integration by parts to the definition of the transform,
𝑑 𝑥
(assuming that 𝑥(𝑡) = 0 for 𝑡 < 0) 𝐿 = 𝑠 𝑋 𝑠 − 𝑠𝑥 0 − 𝑥̇ (0)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 = 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑒 +𝑠 𝑥 𝑡 𝑒 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

= 𝑠𝐿 𝑥 𝑡 −𝑥 0

𝑑𝑥
𝐿 = 𝑠𝑋 𝑠 − 𝑥(0) 63 64
𝑑𝑡

63 64

SOLVING EQUATIONS WITH THE LAPLACE SOLVING EQUATIONS WITH THE LAPLACE
TRANSFORM TRANSFORM

Consider the linear first-order equation Example

𝑥̇ + 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑥̇ + 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏
𝐿 𝑥̇ + 𝑎𝑥 = 𝐿 𝑓 𝑡 𝐿 𝑥̇ + 𝑎𝑥 = 𝐿 𝑏

𝑠𝑋 𝑠 − 𝑥 0 + 𝑎𝑋 𝑠 = 𝐹 𝑠 𝑏
𝑠𝑋 𝑠 − 𝑥 0 + 𝑎𝑋 𝑠 =
𝑠
𝑥(0) 1
𝑋 𝑠 = + 𝐹 𝑠
𝑠+𝑎 𝑠+𝑎 𝑥(0) 1 𝑏
𝑋 𝑠 = +
𝑠+𝑎 𝑠+𝑎𝑠
The inverse operation gives
The inverse operation gives
𝑥(0) 1
𝑥 𝑡 =𝐿 +𝐿 𝐹 𝑠 65
𝑥(0) 1 𝑏 66
𝑠+𝑎 𝑠+𝑎 𝑥 𝑡 =𝐿 +𝐿
𝑠+𝑎 𝑠+𝑎𝑠

65 66

SOLVING EQUATIONS WITH THE LAPLACE SOLVING EQUATIONS WITH THE LAPLACE
TRANSFORM TRANSFORM

Comparing the numerators on the left and right sides,

1 1 𝑏
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥(0)𝐿 +𝐿
𝑠+𝑎 𝑠+𝑎𝑠
𝐶 = and 𝐶 = −

Now 𝐿 =𝑒 and
So, = −

To get 𝐿 the transform can be converted into a sum of 1 𝑏 𝑏

𝐿 = 1−𝑒
simple transforms as follows: 𝑠+𝑎𝑠 𝑎

1 𝑏 𝐶 𝐶 Therefore, 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥(0)𝑒 + 1−𝑒

= +
𝑠+𝑎𝑠 𝑠 𝑠+𝑎
67 68

67 68

10
 SOLVING EQUATIONS WITH THE LAPLACE SOLVING EQUATIONS WITH THE LAPLACE
TRANSFORM TRANSFORM

Example: Determine the complete response of the following

5 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶
model, which has a ramp input: = + +
𝑠 (𝑠 + 3) 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠+3
𝑥̇ + 3𝑥 = 5𝑡 𝑥 0 =5
5
𝑠𝑋 𝑠 − 𝑥 0 + 3𝑋 𝑠 = Comparing the numerators we see that C + C = 0, C + 3C
𝑠 2 3 1 2

𝑥(0) 5 = 0, and 3C = 5. Thus,

1
𝑋 𝑠 = + C = 5/3, C = -C /3 = -5/9, and C = -C = 5/9.
𝑠 + 3 𝑠 (𝑠 + 3) 1 2 1 3 2

5 5
𝑋 𝑠 = +
𝑠 + 3 𝑠 (𝑠 + 3)
69 70

69 70

SOLVING EQUATIONS WITH THE LAPLACE SOLVING EQUATIONS WITH THE LAPLACE
TRANSFORM TRANSFORM

5 5 5 Example: Invert the following transform by representing it as

𝑥 𝑡 = 5𝑒 + 𝑡− + 𝑒 the sum of terms that appear in Table
3 9 9
8 8𝑠 + 13
𝑋 𝑠 =
7 𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 53
6

1 71 72
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
t

71 72

TRANSFORMS OF COMMON FUNCTIONS TRANSFORMS OF COMMON FUNCTIONS

73 74

73 74

11
 SOLVING EQUATIONS WITH THE LAPLACE
TRANSFORMS OF COMMON FUNCTIONS
TRANSFORM

Example: Invert the following transform by representing it as

the sum of terms that appear in Table

8𝑠 + 13
𝑋 𝑠 =
𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 53
The roots of the denominator are 𝑠 = −2 ± 7𝑗 and so the
transform can be expressed as

8𝑠 + 13
𝑋 𝑠 =
(𝑠 + 2) +49
75 76

75 76

SOLVING EQUATIONS WITH THE LAPLACE SOLVING EQUATIONS WITH THE LAPLACE
TRANSFORM TRANSFORM

We can express 𝑋(𝑠) as a sum of terms similar to entries 10

and 11 in Table, as follows (note that a = 2 and b = 7):
8

Comparing numerators, we see that

0

-2

This is true only if C1 = 8 and 2 C1+7C2 =13, or C2=−3/7. 77 -4

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
t

77 78

SOLVING EQUATIONS WITH THE LAPLACE SOLVING EQUATIONS WITH THE LAPLACE
TRANSFORM TRANSFORM

Example: Determine the complete response of the following

model, which has a ramp input:
𝑥̈ + 4𝑥̇ + 53𝑥 = 15𝑢 𝑡 𝑥 0 =8 𝑥̇ 0 = −19

79 80

79 80

12
 SOLVING EQUATIONS WITH THE LAPLACE
TRANSFORM
8 • Obtain the solution of the following problem:

-2

-4
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 81 85
time(t)

81 85

PARTIAL-FRACTION EXPANSION Distinct Roots Case

• If all the roots are distinct, we can express 𝑋(𝑠)

in (1) in factored form as follows:
(1)

In all of our examples, 𝑚 ≤ 𝑛. If 𝑋(𝑠) is of the form

(1), the method of partial-fraction expansion can be used.
• Where
(2)
86 88

86 88

Distinct Roots Case Distinct Roots Case

• Obtain the solution of the following problem: • Solving for 𝑋(𝑠) using the given initial values we
obtain

89 90

89 90

13
 Distinct Roots Case Distinct Roots Case
• Thus, the solution is

3.4

3.2

2.8

2.6

2.4

2.2

91 2 92
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
t

91 92

Repeated-Roots Case Repeated-Roots Case

• Suppose that 𝑝 of the roots have the same value • The coefficients for the repeated roots are found
𝑠 = −𝑟 , and the remaining (𝑛 − 𝑝) roots are from
distinct and real. Then 𝑋(𝑠) is of the form

• The expansion is

93 94 (3)

93 94

Repeated-Roots Case Repeated-Roots Case

• The coefficients for the distinct roots are found Solve the following problem:
from (2). The solution for the time function is
𝑥 𝑡

𝑡 𝑡
=𝐶 𝑒 +𝐶 𝑒 +⋯+ 𝐶 𝑒 +⋯
𝑝−1 ! 𝑝−2 !
+𝐶 𝑒 +𝐶 𝑒

95 96

95 96

14
 Repeated-Roots Case Repeated-Roots Case

Solve the following problem:

97 98

97 98

Complex-Roots Case Complex-Roots Case

Find the inverse Laplace transform of The denominator roots are distinct and the
expansion gives

The denominator roots are 𝑠 = −3 ± 5 𝑗.

99 100

99 100

Complex-Roots Case Complex-Roots Case

where

The second coefficient is

This can be expressed in complex exponential form as

follows
101 102

101 102

15
 Complex-Roots Case TRANSFER FUNCTIONS
The inverse transform gives
The solution of 𝑥̇ + 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏 is given as
𝑏
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥(0)𝑒 + 1−𝑒
𝑎

free forced

Thus
For zero initial conditions the free response is zero, and the
complete response is the same as the forced response.

103 104

103 104

TRANSFER FUNCTIONS TRANSFER FUNCTIONS

• Thus we can focus our analysis on the effects of • Consider the model 𝑥̇ + 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑡 and assume
the input only by taking the initial conditions to that 𝑥(0) = 0.
be zero temporarily. • Transforming both sides of the equation gives
• When we have finished analyzing the effects of 𝑠𝑋(𝑠) + 𝑎𝑋(𝑠) = 𝐹(𝑠)
the input, we can add to the result the free • Then solve for the ratio 𝑋(𝑠)/𝐹(𝑠) and denote it
response due to any nonzero initial conditions. by 𝑇(𝑠):

105 106

105 106

TRANSFER FUNCTIONS TRANSFER FUNCTIONS

• It can be used as a multiplier to obtain the forced Obtain the forced response for 𝑥(𝑡) and 𝑦(𝑡) if the
response transform from the input transform; that input is 𝑣(𝑡) = 5𝑢 (𝑡).
is, 𝑋(𝑠) = 𝑇(𝑠)𝐹(𝑠).

107 108

107 108

16
 TRANSFER FUNCTIONS TRANSFER FUNCTIONS

(1)

(2)

109 110

109 110

TRANSFER FUNCTIONS TRANSFER FUNCTIONS

• The transfer function is equivalent to the ODE.

• If we are given the transfer function, we can reconstruct the

(3)
corresponding ODE. For example, the transfer function

From (1) we have 𝑋(𝑠) 5

=
𝐹(𝑠) 𝑠 + 7𝑠 + 10

• corresponds to the equation 𝑥̈ + 7𝑥 + 10 = 5𝑓(𝑡)

Therefore,

111 112

111 112

TRANSFER FUNCTIONS TRANSFER FUNCTIONS

• It is important to realize that there is one transfer function for • then there are two transfer functions, 𝑋(𝑠)/𝐹(𝑠) and
each input-output pair. 𝑋(𝑠)/𝐺(𝑠). These are

• For example, if the variable 𝑥 is the output for the equation

• System of equations of more than one variable

113 114

113 114

17
 TRANSFER FUNCTIONS BLOCK DIAGRAMS

• then there are two transfer functions, 𝑋(𝑠)/𝑉(𝑠) and • We can use the transfer functions of a model to construct
𝑌(𝑠)/𝑉(𝑠). These are a visual representation of the dynamics of the model.

• Such a representation is a block diagram.

115 116

115 116

BLOCK DIAGRAM SYMBOLS BLOCK DIAGRAM SYMBOLS

• The arrow, which is used to represent a variable and the • Examples

direction of the cause-and-effect relation;
• The block, which is used to represent the input-output
relation of a transfer function; (a) (b)
• The circle, generically called a summer, which represents
addition as well as subtraction, depending on the sign
associated with the variable’s arrow; and
• The takeoff point, which is used to obtain the value of a
variable from its arrow, for use in another part of the
117 118
diagram.

117 118

BLOCK DIAGRAM SYMBOLS BLOCK DIAGRAM

• Examples • Examples
Represent the equation 𝑥̇ + 7𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡)

Fig. Two types of blocks (a) Multiplier (b) Integrator.

119 120

119 120

18
 BLOCK DIAGRAM BLOCK DIAGRAM

Rearrange the equation as 𝑥̇ = 𝑓 𝑡 − 7𝑥 • The diagram shows how 𝑥̇ , the rate of change of 𝑥 , is
or 𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓 𝑡 − 7𝑥 𝑑𝑡 affected by 𝑥 itself.

which gives • This is shown by the path from 𝑋(𝑠) through the multiplier
block to the summer, which changes the sign of 7𝑋(𝑠).
• This path is called a negative feedback path or a negative
feedback loop.

121 122

121 122

SERIES ELEMENTS AND FEEDBACK SERIES ELEMENTS AND FEEDBACK

LOOPS LOOPS

• These can be combined algebraically by eliminating 𝐵(𝑠) to

obtain 𝑋(𝑠) = 𝑇 𝑠 𝑇 𝑠 𝐹(𝑠).

123 124

123 124

SERIES ELEMENTS AND FEEDBACK

REARRANGING BLOCK DIAGRAMS
LOOPS
• We can eliminate 𝐴(𝑠) and 𝐵(𝑠) to obtain • Now consider the second-order model 𝑥̈ + 7𝑥̇ + 10𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡).
• The transfer function is
𝑋(𝑠)/𝐹(𝑠) = 1/(𝑠 + 7𝑠 + 10),
and the simplest diagram for this model is shown in Figure.

125 126

125 126

19
 REARRANGING BLOCK DIAGRAMS REARRANGING BLOCK DIAGRAMS

• To do this, rearrange the equation by solving for the highest

derivative.
• The transformed equation is

127 128

127 128

REARRANGING BLOCK DIAGRAMS REARRANGING BLOCK DIAGRAMS

Two important points can be drawn from these examples.

1. More than one correct diagram can be drawn for a given
equation; the desired form of the diagram depends on
what information we want to display.
2. The form of the resulting diagram depends on how the
equation is arranged.
3. A useful procedure for constructing block diagrams is to
first solve for the highest derivative of the dependent
variable; the terms on the right side of the resulting
129 130
equation represent the input to an integrator block.

129 130

Example Example

Consider the model 𝑠𝑋(𝑠) = −3𝑌(𝑠) + 𝐹 𝑠

𝑥̇ = −3𝑦 + 𝑓 𝑡 𝑦̇ = −5𝑦 + 4𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑡
which has two inputs, 𝑓(𝑡) and 𝑔(𝑡).
Consider variable 𝑦 as the output.
𝑠𝑌 𝑠 = −5𝑌 𝑠 + 4𝑋 𝑠 + 𝐺 𝑠

131 132

131 132

20
 Example Example

Consider variable 𝑥 as the output. 𝑠𝑌 𝑠 = −5𝑌 𝑠 + 4𝑋 𝑠 + 𝐺 𝑠

𝑠𝑋(𝑠) = −3𝑌(𝑠) + 𝐹 𝑠

133 134

133 134

Example Example
𝑚𝑠 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘 𝑋 𝑠 = 𝐹 𝑠
Consider the model
𝑚𝑠 + 𝑏𝑠 𝑋 𝑠 = 𝐹 𝑠 − 𝑘𝑋(𝑠)
𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑏𝑥̇ + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑡 1
𝑋 𝑠 = 𝐹 𝑠 − 𝑘𝑋(𝑠)
The transfer function of this system is 𝑠(𝑚𝑠 + 𝑏)

𝑋(𝑠) 1 1 1
= 𝑋 𝑠 = 𝐹 𝑠 − 𝑘𝑋(𝑠)
𝐹(𝑠) 𝑚𝑠 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘 𝑠 (𝑚𝑠 + 𝑏)
A block diagram representation of the system is shown
in Figure

135 136

135 136

TRANSFER FUNCTIONS FROM BLOCK

Example
DIAGRAMS
1 𝑘 𝑏
𝑠 𝑋 𝑠 = 𝐹 𝑠 − 𝑋 𝑠 − 𝑠𝑋(𝑠) Determine the transfer function 𝑋(𝑠)/𝐹(𝑠) for the system
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
1 1 1 𝑘 𝑏 whose diagram is shown in Figure.
𝑋 𝑠 = 𝐹 𝑠 − 𝑋 𝑠 − 𝑠𝑋(𝑠)
𝑠 𝑠 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚

137 138

137 138

21
 TRANSFER FUNCTIONS FROM BLOCK TRANSFER FUNCTIONS FROM BLOCK
DIAGRAMS DIAGRAMS

Determine the model for the output 𝑥 for the system

whose diagram is shown in Figure

The transfer function 𝑋(𝑠)/𝐹(𝑠) for the system is

𝑥̈ + 18𝑥̇ + 80𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡) 139 140

139 140

TRANSFER FUNCTIONS FROM BLOCK TRANSFER FUNCTIONS FROM BLOCK

DIAGRAMS DIAGRAMS

Determine the model for the output 𝑥 for the system 𝑊 𝑠 = 𝐹 𝑠 − 4𝑋 𝑠 (1)
whose diagram is shown in Figure 𝑠𝑌 𝑠 = 7𝑊 𝑠 − 3𝑋 𝑠 (2)
𝑠𝑋 𝑠 = 𝑌 𝑠 + 𝐺 𝑠 (3)
Eliminating 𝑊 𝑠
𝑠𝑌 𝑠 = 7𝐹 𝑠 − 31𝑋 𝑠 (4)
Using (3) and (4)
𝑠 𝑋 𝑠 = 7𝐹 𝑠 − 31𝑋 𝑠 + 𝑠𝐺(𝑠) (5)

7 𝑠
141
𝑋 𝑠 = 𝐹 𝑠 + 𝐺 𝑠 (6) 142
𝑠 + 31 𝑠 + 31

141 142

TRANSFER FUNCTIONS FROM BLOCK Block Diagram Reduction Techniques:

DIAGRAMS

There are two transfer functions, one for each input-output

pair. They are G1 G2 G3
𝑋 𝑠 7
=
𝐹 𝑠 𝑠 + 31

𝑋 𝑠 𝑠
becomes
=
𝐺 𝑠 𝑠 + 31

G1 G2 G3

143

143 144

22
 Let us take
es + e G 1 G2 K1
v R + E
G C
- -
eb

K2 H

where E = R-CH & C = GE

145 146

Eliminating E , es e v
+ G 1 G2 K1
(R - CH) G = C -

C G K2
or ------ = -----------
V (s) G 1 G2 K1
R 1 + GH --------- = ----------------------------
Es (s) 1+ G1G2K1K2
147 148

z
G1 +
+
x +
+
becomes
G2 -
y z
+
becomes x + +

G 1 + G2 -
y

149 150

23
 R + C R + C
G G
- +
H H

C G C G
R 1+ GH R 1- GH

151 152

G1 G2 G1 G2

is same as is same as
G1 G2 G1 G2

G1

1/G2

153 154

G1 Q. Find the transfer function of the following block diagrams

+
R + C
+ G2
-

G1/G2

+
R C
+ G2
- H

155 156

24
 Moving pickoff point A behind block Eliminating loop I and then simplifying, we get loop II

157 158

Now, simplifying feedback loop II, we get

Simplifying loop III, we get It can be simplified to

159 160

TRANSFER-FUNCTION ANALYSIS IN TRANSFER-FUNCTION ANALYSIS IN

MATLAB MATLAB

An LTI object describes a linear, time-invariant model, or sets To create an LTI object from a transfer function, following
of equations, here referred to as the system. MATLAB function is used
For example, the equation
tf(num,den)
5𝑥̈ + 9𝑥̇ + 4𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡)
where the array num is the array of coefficients of the
The transfer function description of the model is
numerator of the transfer function, arranged in order of
descending powers of s, and
(1)
den is the array of coefficients of the denominator of the

162 transfer function, also arranged in descending order. 163

162 163

25
 TRANSFER-FUNCTION ANALYSIS IN
ODE SOLVERS
MATLAB

For equation (1), the statement is The Control System Toolbox provides several solvers for
linear models. These solvers are categorized by the type of
input function they can accept: some of these are
• a step input,
• an impulse input, and
• a general input function.

164 165

164 165

ODE SOLVERS ODE SOLVERS

The step Function To specify the final time tfinal, use the syntax
The step function plots the unit-step response, assuming that
>> step(sys,tfinal)
the initial conditions are zero.
To specify a vector of times of the form
The basic syntax is
>> t = (0:dt:tfinal)
>> step(sys)
at which to obtain the solution, use the syntax
where sys is the LTI object.
The time span and number of solution points are chosen >> step(sys,t)
automatically.
166 167

166 167

ODE SOLVERS
Example Step Response

5𝑥̈ + 9𝑥̇ + 4𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡) The impulse Function

The impulse function plots the unit-impulse response,
>>sys = tf(1,[5 9 4])
assuming that the initial conditions are zero.
>> step(sys) The basic syntax is

>> impulse(sys)
where sys is the LTI object.
The time span and number of solution points are chosen
automatically.
168 169

168 169

26
 ODE SOLVERS
Example Impulse Response

The lsim Function

5𝑥̈ + 9𝑥̇ + 4𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡)
The lsim function plots the response of the system to an
>>sys = tf(1,[5 9 4]) arbitrary input.

>> impulse(sys) The basic syntax is

>> lsim(sys,u,t)
where sys is the LTI object, t is a time array having regular
spacing, as t = (0:dt:tf), and u is a matrix with as many
columns as inputs, and whose ith row specifies the value of
170 171
the input at time t(i)

170 171

Example Ramp Input Example Ramp Input

4.5

Plot the forced response of 𝑥̈ + 3𝑥̇ + 5𝑥 = 10𝑓(𝑡) 4

to a ramp input, 𝑓(𝑡) = 1.5𝑡, over the time interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 2. 3.5

>> t = linspace(0,2,300); 3
x(t) f(t)
x(t) and f(t)

>> f = 1.5*t;
2.5

>> sys = tf(10, [1, 3, 5]); 1.5

>> [x, t] = lsim(sys,f,t); 1

>> plot(t,x,t,f),xlabel('t'),ylabel('x(t) and f(t)'),...

0.5

gtext('x(t)'), gtext('f(t)')
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
172 173
t

172 173

Example Sine Response Example Sine Response

20
Plot the forced response of 𝑥̈ + 3𝑥̇ + 5𝑥 = 10𝑓(𝑡)
15
x(t)
to a ramp input, 𝑓 𝑡 = 15sin3𝑡, over the time interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 4.
10 f(t)
>> t = linspace(0,4,500);
5

>> f = 15*sin(3*t); 0

>> sys = tf(10, [1, 3, 5]); -5

>> [x, t] = lsim(sys,f,t); -10

>> plot(t,x,t,f),xlabel('t'),ylabel('x(t) and f(t)'),... -15

gtext('x(t)'), gtext('f(t)') 174

-20
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 175
t

174 175

27
 Example Free Response Example Free Response

Use the MATLAB step function to obtain a plot of the free If we multiply the numerator and denominator by s, we obtain
response of the following model, where 𝑥(0) = 4 and 𝑥̇ (0) = 2.
5𝑥̈ + 3𝑥̇ + 10𝑥 = 0
Applying the Laplace transform gives Thus we may compute the free response by using the step
function with the transfer function

>> sys = tf([20, 22, 0],[5, 3, 10]);

>> step(sys)
176 177

176 177

Text and Reference Books

• K. Ogata, Modern Control Engineering (5th edition), Prentice Hall

India, 2003, ISBN-13: 978-0136156734.
• I.J. Nagrath and M. Gopal, Control System Engineering (2nd
edition), Wiley Eastern, 1982, ISBN: 9788122405033.
• W.J. Palm, System Dynamics, (2nd edition), TATA McGRAW-HILL
Edition, 2012, ISBN: 9781259027505)
Reference Books
• Bohdan T. Kulakowski, John F. Gardner, J. Lowen Shearer, Dynamic
Modeling and Control of Engineering Systems, (3rd edition),
Cambridge University Press, 2007, ISBN: 9780521864350)
178
Puneet Tandon, IIIT DM Jabalpur 11

178

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