SCIENCE 8 STUDY GUIDE

Lesson 1: The Subatomic Particles

Key Concepts

• Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter.

• An atom is composed of:
o Nucleus – the dense center containing protons and neutrons.
o Electron shells – the space around the nucleus where electrons move.

The Three Subatomic Particles

Subatomic Particle Symbol Charge Relative Mass Location

Proton p⁺ +1 1 amu Inside the nucleus
Neutron n⁰ 0 1 amu Inside the nucleus
Electron e⁻ –1 1/1840 amu Outside the nucleus (in shells)

• The nucleus is positively charged because of the protons.

• The mass of an atom is mostly concentrated in its nucleus.

Electron Shells

• Electrons occupy specific energy levels called shells.

• The number of electrons each shell can hold is determined by the formula:
2n², where n is the shell number.

Shell Symbol Max Number of Electrons

1st K 2
2nd L 8
3rd M 18
4th N 32
5th O 50
6th P 72
7th Q 98

Ions

• Electrically neutral atom: same number of protons and electrons.

• Ion: atom with unequal numbers of protons and electrons.
o Cation – positively charged (fewer electrons)
o Anion – negatively charged (more electrons)

Examples:

Element Protons Neutrons Electrons Total Charge

Carbon 6 6 6 0
Lithium ion (Li⁺) 3 4 2 +1
Chloride ion (Cl⁻) 17 18 18 –1

Lesson 2: Pure Substances – Elements and Compounds

Matter

• Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.

• Matter can be pure or a mixture.

Pure Substances

• Have a definite composition and unique properties.

• Are homogeneous (uniform throughout).
• Cannot be separated by physical means.
Two Types of Pure Substances:

1. Elements
2. Compounds

Elements

• Made up of only one kind of atom.

• Represented by symbols (H for Hydrogen, O for Oxygen, etc.).
• Identified by atomic number (Z) – the number of protons.
• Found in the Periodic Table.
• Examples: gold (Au), copper (Cu), sulfur (S).

Forms of Elements:

• Single atom: helium (He), sodium (Na).

• Molecule form: H₂, O₂, N₂, Cl₂, Br₂, I₂, P₄, S₈.

Historical Note:

• Ancient idea by Aristotle: matter made of earth, air, fire, and water.
• Robert Boyle disproved this and defined elements scientifically.

Compounds

• Formed when two or more elements combine chemically in fixed ratios.

• Have different properties from the elements that make them up.
• Represented by chemical formulas (e.g., H₂O, NaCl, NaOH).

Elements Common Name Chemical Name Formula

Hydrogen + Oxygen Water Dihydrogen oxide H₂O
Sodium + Chlorine Table salt Sodium chloride NaCl
Sodium + Hydrogen + Carbon + Oxygen Baking soda Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO₃

Law of Definite Proportions:

A compound always contains the same elements in the same ratio by mass.

Decomposition Example:

• Electrolysis of water splits H₂O into hydrogen (H₂) and oxygen (O₂) gases.

Lesson 3: History of the Periodic Table

Purpose of the Periodic Table

• Organizes elements based on atomic number, mass, and properties.

• Helps predict chemical behavior and reactivity.

Early Ideas

• Aristotle (Ancient Greece): all matter is made of earth, air, fire, water.
• Alchemy: early practice mixing science and mysticism.
• Paracelsus: proposed tria prima – mercury, sulfur, and salt.
• Robert Boyle (1661): defined an element as a pure substance that can’t be broken down further.

Early Lists of Elements

• Antoine Lavoisier: listed 33 elements; discovered oxygen and role in combustion.

• John Dalton: proposed atomic symbols.
• Leopold Gmelin: created a handbook of elements and compounds.
Early Organization Systems

1. Johann Döbereiner (1817) – Law of Triads

o Groups of 3 elements with related properties (e.g., Li, Na, K).
2. Alexandre de Chancourtois (1862) – Telluric Screw
o 3D spiral arrangement of elements by atomic mass.
3. John Newlands (1864) – Law of Octaves
o Every 8th element had similar properties (like musical notes).

Modern Periodic Table Development

• Julius Lothar Meyer

o Organized elements by valency and atomic volume.
o Discovered periodic patterns in element behavior.
• Dmitri Mendeleev (1869)
o Arranged elements by increasing atomic mass.
o Left gaps for undiscovered elements (e.g., eka-aluminum = gallium).
o Predicted properties of unknown elements.
• Henry Moseley (1913)
o Rearranged table based on atomic number, not mass.
o Established the Periodic Law:

"The properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers."

Modern Additions

• There are 118 known elements.

• The newest ones (added in 2016) include:
Nihonium (Nh, 113), Moscovium (Mc, 115), Tennessine (Ts, 117), and Oganesson (Og,
118).

Lesson 4: Diving Deeper into the Periodic Table

I. Overview of the Periodic Table

• The Periodic Table of Elements is a systematic and organized arrangement of all known
elements.
• It is arranged according to increasing atomic number and recurring chemical properties.
• Each element is represented in a box that contains important information.

II. Information Found in an Element Box

Each box in the periodic table generally contains:

1. Atomic Number (Z) – Number of protons in the nucleus.

2. Chemical Symbol – One- or two-letter abbreviation of the element’s name.
3. Element Name – Full name of the element.
4. Atomic Mass – Average mass of an element’s atoms.

Some periodic tables may also include:

• Electron configuration
• Density
• Boiling and melting points

Example of an Element Box:

Information Example (Carbon)

Atomic Number 6
Chemical Symbol C
Element Name Carbon
Atomic Mass 12.01
III. Common Element Symbols

Below are the symbols of the first 20 elements and some commonly encountered elements:

Atomic No. Element Symbol Atomic No. Element Symbol

1 Hydrogen H 16 Sulfur S
2 Helium He 17 Chlorine Cl
3 Lithium Li 18 Argon Ar
4 Beryllium Be 19 Potassium K
5 Boron B 20 Calcium Ca
6 Carbon C 22 Titanium Ti
7 Nitrogen N 24 Chromium Cr
8 Oxygen O 25 Manganese Mn
9 Fluorine F 26 Iron Fe
10 Neon Ne 30 Zinc Zn
11 Sodium Na 47 Silver Ag
12 Magnesium Mg 53 Iodine I
13 Aluminum Al 78 Platinum Pt
14 Silicon Si 79 Gold Au
15 Phosphorus P 80 Mercury Hg

IV. Types of Elements

Elements in the periodic table are categorized into metals, nonmetals, and metalloids.

1. Metals

• Make up the largest part of the periodic table.

• Found on the left and center of the table.
• Examples: lithium (Li), sodium (Na), iron (Fe), gold (Au).
• Properties:
o Shiny (lustrous)
o Good conductors of heat and electricity
o Malleable and ductile
o Usually solid at room temperature

2. Nonmetals

• 17 elements in this group.

• Mostly found on the right side of the table.
• Hydrogen is a nonmetal even though it is located on the left side.
• Properties:
o Dull appearance
o Poor conductors
o Brittle when solid
o Can exist as gases, liquids, or solids

3. Metalloids

• Have properties of both metals and nonmetals.

• Found along the stair-step line dividing metals and nonmetals.
• Common metalloids: boron (B), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), tellurium
(Te).
• Sometimes considered metalloids: polonium (Po) and astatine (At).

V. Structure of the Periodic Table

A. Groups (Columns)

• Vertical columns of elements.

 • Also called families.
• Numbered 1–18 (IUPAC) or 1A–8A and 1B–8B (CAS notation).
• Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties.

Examples of Groups:

Group (IUPAC) CAS Notation Family Name Example Element

1 1A Alkali metals Sodium (Na)
2 2A Alkaline earth metals Calcium (Ca)
17 7A Halogens Chlorine (Cl)
18 8A Noble gases Neon (Ne)

B. Periods (Rows)

• Horizontal rows of elements.

• Indicate the number of energy levels (shells) of electrons.
• There are 7 periods in the modern periodic table.
• As you move from top to bottom, atomic size increases.

C. Blocks

The periodic table can also be divided into four blocks based on electron configurations.

Block Range of Groups Description

s-block Groups 1–2 Contains alkali and alkaline earth metals
p-block Groups 13–18 Contains nonmetals, metalloids, and some metals
d-block Groups 3–12 Contains transition metals
f-block Below the table Contains lanthanides and actinides (radioactive elements)

VI. Physical and Chemical Properties of Element Families

A. Representative (Main Group) Elements

• Found in Groups 1–2 and 13–17 (or Groups 1A–7A).

• Located in s-block and p-block.
• Families include:
o Group 1: Alkali metals
o Group 2: Alkaline earth metals
o Group 13: Boron group
o Group 14: Carbon group
o Group 15: Nitrogen group
o Group 16: Chalcogens
o Group 17: Halogens
o Group 18: Noble gases

B. Noble Gases

• Found in Group 18 (8A).

• Also called inert gases because they are nonreactive under normal conditions.

C. Transition Metals

• Found in Groups 3–11 (1B and 3B–8B).

• Located in the d-block.
• Examples: iron (Fe), copper (Cu), silver (Ag), gold (Au).
• Have variable oxidation states and form colored compounds.

D. Lanthanides and Actinides

• Found in the f-block, placed separately at the bottom of the table.
• Lanthanides: Period 6 elements (atomic numbers 57–71).
• Actinides: Period 7 elements (atomic numbers 89–103).
• Mostly radioactive and rare in nature.