CSE 1-2 2022

1.
A)What is software? Write down the importance and limitations of computer.

What is Software?

Software is a set of programs, instructions, and data that tell a computer how to perform specific
tasks. It acts as an interface between the user and the computer hardware.

Importance of Computer

I. Speed – Performs tasks much faster than humans.

II. Accuracy – Provides error-free results if input is correct.
III. Storage – Stores vast amounts of data efficiently.
IV. Automation – Reduces human effort by performing repetitive tasks.
V. Communication – Helps in connecting people worldwide via the internet.

Limitations of Computer

I. No Intelligence – Cannot think or make decisions on its own.

II. Dependent on Instructions – Needs humans to give commands/programs.
III. Lacks Common Sense – Cannot judge situations beyond its programming.
IV. No Emotions – Cannot feel or understand human emotions.
V. Garbage In, Garbage Out (GIGO) – Wrong input leads to wrong output.

B)What is a motherboard? Briefly discuss the classification of computer based on

capacity.

The motherboard is the main circuit board of a computer that connects and allows communication
between all its hardware components like CPU, memory, and storage devices.

Classification of Computers Based on Capacity

I. Microcomputer – Small in size, designed for individual users. Examples are personal computers,
laptops, and desktops.

II. Minicomputer – Larger and more powerful than microcomputers. It supports multiple users
simultaneously. For example, it is used in small organizations for business data processing.

III. Mainframe Computer – Very powerful and capable of handling large amounts of data. It
supports hundreds or thousands of users at the same time. Examples are computers used in banks,
airlines, and large businesses.
IV. Supercomputer – The most powerful type of computer with extremely high speed and capacity.
It is used for complex scientific calculations, weather forecasting, space research, and nuclear
simulations.

C)What is meant by computer generation? Explain different types of computer

generations.

What is Meant by Computer Generation?

Computer generation refers to the evolution and development of computer technology over time.

Types of Computer Generations

I. First Generation (1940–1956): Used vacuum tubes, very large, slow, and programmed in
machine language. Example: ENIAC, UNIVAC.

II. Second Generation (1956–1963): Used transistors, smaller, faster, and more reliable.
Programming in assembly and early high-level languages. Example: IBM 1401.

III. Third Generation (1964–1971): Used Integrated Circuits (ICs), faster, cheaper, and supported
multitasking with operating systems. Example: IBM 360.

IV. Fourth Generation (1971–1980s): Used microprocessors, led to personal computers, and
common use of high-level languages. Example: Apple II, IBM PC.

V. Fifth Generation (1980s–Present): Based on Artificial Intelligence, advanced microprocessors,

and parallel processing. Used in robotics, AI, and supercomputers.

2.
A) What is cache memory? How it reduce the mismatch of processor and main
memory speed?

What is Cache Memory?

Cache memory is a small, high-speed memory located inside or very close to the CPU.

How Cache Memory Reduces the Mismatch Between Processor and Main Memory Speed

The processor works much faster than the main memory. Without cache, the CPU would spend a lot
of time waiting for data from RAM, causing a speed mismatch. Cache memory solves this by
holding copies of frequently accessed data and instructions. When the CPU needs data, it first checks
the cache. If the data is found (a cache hit), it can be read much faster than from main memory. This
reduces waiting time and improves overall system performance.
B) Define main function. Explain the basic structure of a C program.

Definition of Main Function

The main() function is the starting point of execution in a C program.

Basic Structure of a C Program

A typical C program has the following structure:

I. Preprocessor Directives: These lines start with # and are used to include header files or define
macros. For example, #include <stdio.h> allows the program to use standard input/output functions.

II. Main Function: Every C program must have a main() function. The execution of the program
begins from here. Its general form is:

int main() {
// declarations
// statements
return 0;
}

III. Local Declarations and Statements: Inside the main() function, variables can be declared, and
program logic (statements, loops, conditionals, function calls) is written.

IV. Return Statement: return 0; indicates that the program executed successfully and returns
control to the operating system.

C) What is user define function? Why do we need to use comments in programs?

What is a User-Defined Function?

A user-defined function is a function created by the programmer to perform a specific task.

Why Do We Need to Use Comments in Programs?

Comments are used to explain the code for better understanding. They help programmers remember
what the code does, make debugging easier, and allow others reading the program to understand its
logic. Comments are ignored by the compiler and do not affect program execution.
3.
A)Define (i) operating system, ii) Source code and iii) Object code.

I. Operating System (OS): An operating system is system software that manages computer
hardware and software resources and provides services for computer programs, acting as an interface
between the user and the computer.

II. Source Code: Source code is the human-readable set of instructions written by a programmer in a
programming language like C, C++, or Java, which needs to be compiled to run on a computer.

III. Object Code: Object code is the machine-readable code generated by compiling the source code.
It consists of binary instructions that the computer’s processor can execute directly.

B)What is the importance of trigraph characters? Differentiate between

keywords and identifiers.

Importance of Trigraph Characters

Trigraph characters in C are sequences of three characters starting with ?? that represent a single
character which may not be available on some keyboards. They ensure portability of programs
across different systems by allowing characters like {, }, #, and \ to be written even if the keyboard
doesn’t have them. For example, ??= represents #.

Difference Between Keywords and Identifiers

Keywords are reserved words in C that have a predefined meaning and cannot be used as names for
variables, functions, or identifiers. Examples include int, return, if, while.

Identifiers are names given by the programmer to variables, functions, arrays, or other user-
defined items in a program. They must follow naming rules but do not have a predefined meaning.
Examples include total, sum, myFunction.

C) What is string? Differentiate between string and character constant. Find

error of the code.

What is a String?

A string in C is a sequence of characters enclosed within double quotes (" ").

Difference Between String and Character Constant

String: A string is a sequence of one or more characters enclosed in double quotes (" "). Example:
"C Programming". Strings are treated as arrays of characters in memory.

Character Constant: A character constant is a single character enclosed in single quotes (' ').
Example: 'A', '5', '#'. It represents one character and occupies one byte of memory.

Corrected Code
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>

int main() {
float x, y;
x = 2.5;
y = exp(x);
printf("x = %f, y = %f\n", x, y);
return 0;
}
1. main{} syntax: You wrote main{} which is wrong. It should be int main() or void main() (but int
main() is standard).
2. Variable type FLOAT: C is case-sensitive. The type FLOAT should be lowercase: float x;.
3. X=2.5; C is case-sensitive. You declared x but assigned X=2.5;
4. Y=exp(x); The variable y is not declared. You need float y; before using it. Also, C is case-
sensitive: Y → y.
5. Print(x,y); C does not have Print(). You should use printf()

4.
A)What is initialization? How do overflow and underflow differ?

I. Initialization:
Initialization is the process of assigning an initial value to a variable at the time of its declaration.
II. Overflow vs Underflow:

These terms are related to situations when numbers exceed the storage capacity of a data type.

Feature Overflow Underflow

Occurs when a value exceeds the Occurs when a value goes below the minimum
Definition maximum limit that a data type positive limit that a data type can represent (often for
can store. floating-point numbers).

For unsigned char (0–255), 255 +

For a float, 1.0 × 10^-50 may be too small to
Example 1 → overflow → wraps around to
represent → underflow → treated as 0.
0.

Both integer and floating-point

Occurs in Mostly floating-point types.
types (mostly integer).

Leads to wrap-around or
Effect Leads to loss of precision, sometimes becomes zero.
unexpected large values.

C)When dealing with very small and very large numbers, what steps would you
take to improve the accuracy of the calculations?

Improving Accuracy with Very Small or Large Numbers

I. Use proper data types – double or long double for precision; avoid float.
II. Scale numbers – normalize to avoid underflow/overflow.
III. Avoid subtracting nearly equal numbers – prevents loss of significant digits.
IV. Use higher-precision arithmetic – libraries or long double.
V. Use logarithms for large products/powers – converts multiplication to addition.
VI. Check for overflow/underflow – use isfinite() or conditional checks.

D)Write a C program to find the largest element of an array?

C program to find the largest element in an array:

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int n, i, largest;
 // Ask user for array size
printf("Enter the number of elements in the array: ");
scanf("%d", &n);
int arr[n];
// Input array elements
printf("Enter %d elements:\n", n);
for(i = 0; i < n; i++) {
scanf("%d", &arr[i]);
}
// Assume the first element is the largest
largest = arr[0];
// Compare with each element
for(i = 1; i < n; i++) {
if(arr[i] > largest) {
largest = arr[i];
}
}
// Print the largest element
printf("The largest element in the array is: %d\n", largest);

return 0;
}

5.
A)What is operand? Discuss different types of C operators.

Operand

An operand is a data item on which an operator performs an operation.

Types of C Operators

I. Arithmetic Operators: + (addition), - (subtraction), * (multiplication), / (division), % (modulus)

II. Relational Operators: == (equal to), != (not equal to), > (greater than), < (less than), >=, <=
III. Logical Operators: && (AND), || (OR), ! (NOT)
IV. Assignment Operators: = (assign), +=, -=, *=, /=
V. Increment/Decrement Operators: ++ (increment), -- (decrement)
VI. sizeof Operator: returns the size of a data type or variable

B) Define branching in C program. Describe the function of "go to" statement.

Branching in C

Branching is the process of altering the normal sequential flow of program execution based on a
condition.

Function of "goto" Statement

The goto statement allows unconditional branching to a labeled statement within the same function.
Syntax is goto label; and then label: statement;. It transfers control directly to the specified label,
skipping the normal flow. For example,

#include <stdio.h>int main() {

int i = 1;
if(i == 1) {
goto skip;
}
printf("This will be skipped.\n");
skip:
printf("Control transferred using goto.\n");
return 0;
}

Excessive use of goto is discouraged because it makes programs hard to read and maintain.
c) Draw the flowchart of switch statement. Mention the advantages and
disadvantages of conditional operator.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Conditional Operator

I. Advantages of Conditional (Ternary) Operator ? :

I. Makes simple if-else statements more compact
II. Can be used inside expressions
III. Reduces the number of lines in the code

II. Disadvantages of Conditional Operator

I. Can reduce readability if used in complex expressions
II. Cannot replace statements requiring multiple lines; limited to single expressions
III. Nested ternary operators can be confusing and error-prone

6.
A)Define sentinel value. Differentiate between counter controlled and sentinel-
controlled loop with appropriate example.

Sentinel Value

A sentinel value is a special value used to terminate a loop when a condition is met. It signals the
end of input or processing.

Difference between Counter-Controlled and Sentinel-Controlled Loop

I. Counter-Controlled Loop
The loop runs a fixed number of times determined by a counter. Example:

for(int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {

printf("%d ", i);
}

II. Sentinel-Controlled Loop

The loop continues until a special sentinel value is encountered. Example: Input numbers until -1 is
entered (as shown above).

Counter-controlled loops depend on a fixed count whereas sentinel-controlled loops depend on a

special value to terminate.

B)Write down the features of a "for " loop. Discuss the function of break
statement.

The for loop in C is a pre-tested loop used for iteration when the number of repetitions is known.
It consists of three parts: initialization, condition, and increment/decrement. The loop executes as
long as the condition is true. Its syntax is:

for(initialization; condition; increment/decrement) {

// statements
}
The main features are: it has a definite number of iterations, initialization happens only once, the
condition is tested before each iteration, and the increment/decrement updates the loop variable
automatically.

Function of Break Statement

The break statement is used to exit a loop or switch statement immediately, regardless of the
loop’s condition. It transfers control to the statement following the loop. For example:

for(int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {

if(i == 5) {
break;
}
printf("%d ", i);
}
//output 1 2 3 4
c) Write a program to display the following pattern:
*****
****
***
**
*
Ans:
Here’s the program
#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
int i, j, n;

// Ask user for number of rows

printf("Enter the number of rows: ");
scanf("%d", &n);

// Outer loop for each row

for(i = n; i >= 1; i--) {
// Inner loop to print stars
for(j = 1; j <= i; j++) {
printf("*");
}
// Move to next line after each row
printf("\n");
}

return 0;
}
7.
A)What is dynamic memory allocation? What are the various dynamic memory
allocation functions? Discuss.

Dynamic Memory Allocation

Dynamic memory allocation in C is the process of allocating memory at runtime rather than at
compile time.

Dynamic Memory Allocation Functions

I. malloc() allocates a specified number of bytes and returns a pointer, but the memory contains
garbage values.
II. calloc() allocates memory for an array of elements and initializes all bytes to zero.
III. realloc() resizes a previously allocated memory block without losing existing data.
IV. free() releases previously allocated memory back to the heap.

C)Define Pointer and Union. What are the difference between compiler and
interpreter?

Pointer
A pointer in C is a variable that stores the address of another variable.

Union
A union is a user-defined data type in C in which all members share the same memory location.

Difference between Compiler and Interpreter

Feature I. Compiler II. Interpreter

Translates the entire program into machine Translates and executes the program
Translation
code at once line by line

Execution Speed Usually faster Slower due to line-by-line execution

Reports errors immediately during

Error Detection Reports all errors after compilation
execution

Program Creates an executable file that can run Requires the interpreter to run each
Requirement independently time

Used for languages like Python,

Usage Used for languages like C, C++
JavaScript
8.
A)What is C++? What are the advantages of C++ over C language?
C++
C++ is a general-purpose, object-oriented programming language that supports both procedural and
object-oriented programming.

Advantages of C++ over C

I. Supports object-oriented programming with classes, objects, and inheritance
II. Allows function and operator overloading for more flexibility
III. Provides stronger type checking and better data abstraction
IV. Supports templates and the Standard Template Library (STL) for reusable code
V. Can handle complex applications like GUI, graphics, and real-time systems more effectively

B)Define structure and polymorphism. Write down the rules for initializing
structures.

Structure

A structure in C/C++ is a user-defined data type that allows grouping of variables of different data
types under a single name, making it easier to handle related data together.

Polymorphism

Polymorphism in C++ is the ability of a function, object, or operator to take many forms, allowing
the same interface to be used for different data types or classes.

Rules for Initializing Structures

I. All members can be initialized in the order of declaration.

II. If fewer members are initialized, the remaining members are set to zero (for basic data types).
III. Structures can be initialized at the time of declaration only.
IV. Arrays or nested structures within a structure can be partially initialized, with remaining elements
set to zero.

Example:

struct Point {
int x;
int y;
};
struct Point p1 = {10, 20}; // initialization
C) Define constructor. Write the properties of constructor.

Constructor
A constructor in C++ is a special member function of a class that is automatically called when an
object is created.

Properties of Constructor

I. It has the same name as the class.

II. It does not have a return type, not even void.
III. It is automatically invoked when an object is created.
IV. A class can have multiple constructors (constructor overloading).
V. If no constructor is defined, the compiler provides a default constructor.
VI. It can have parameters (parameterized constructor) to initialize objects with specific values.