Module 4

Vector-Valued Functions and Motion in Space

Outline

In this module, we’ll discuss the following topics:

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 2 / 68
Outline

In this module, we’ll discuss the following topics:

1 Curvature and normal vectors of a curve

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 2 / 68
Outline

In this module, we’ll discuss the following topics:

1 Curvature and normal vectors of a curve

2 Tangential and normal components of acceleration

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 2 / 68
 Section 13.4
Curvature and Normal
Vectors of a Curve
Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 3 / 68
Curvature of a curve
Suppose that a particle P moves along a smooth curve
in the plane. The unit tangent vector at P is T = dr
ds .
Note that T turns accordingly the curve bends.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 4 / 68
Curvature of a curve

Since the length of T remains constant, it’s only

direction changes as P moves along the curve. The
(magnitude of) rate at which T turns per unit arc length
along the curve is called the curvature of the curve.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 5 / 68
Curvature of a curve

If T is the unit tangent vector of a smooth curve in the

plane, then the curvature of the curve is

dT
κ= .
ds

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 6 / 68
Curvature of a curve

If T is the unit tangent vector of a smooth curve in the

plane, then the curvature of the curve is

dT
κ= .
ds

If dT
ds is large, T turns sharply as the particle passes
through the point P and the curvature at P is large.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 6 / 68
Curvature of a curve

If T is the unit tangent vector of a smooth curve in the

plane, then the curvature of the curve is

dT
κ= .
ds

If dT
ds is large, T turns sharply as the particle passes
through the point P and the curvature at P is large.
If dT
ds is small, T turns slowly as the particle passes
through the point P and the curvature at P is small.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 6 / 68
Formula for Curvature
If the smooth curve r(t) is already given in terms of the
parameter t, then we can calculate curvature as

dT 1 dT
κ= = .
ds |v| dt

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 7 / 68
Curvature of a straight line

A straight line can be parametrized by

r(t) = C + tw, t ∈ R,

where C and w are constant vectors.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 8 / 68
Curvature of a straight line

A straight line can be parametrized by

r(t) = C + tw, t ∈ R,

where C and w are constant vectors. This gives

r′ (t) w
T(t) = ′ = ,
|r (t)| |w|
dT
which is a constant. Thus dt = 0 and hence κ = 0.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 8 / 68
Curvature of a circle
The parametric equation of a circle of radius a and
center at origin is
r(t) = (a cos t)i + (a sin t)j, 0 ⩽ t ⩽ 2π.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 9 / 68
Curvature of a circle
The parametric equation of a circle of radius a and
center at origin is
r(t) = (a cos t)i + (a sin t)j, 0 ⩽ t ⩽ 2π.
This gives that v(t) = −(a sin t)i + (a cos t)j and
|v(t)| = a. Thus,

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 9 / 68
Curvature of a circle
The parametric equation of a circle of radius a and
center at origin is
r(t) = (a cos t)i + (a sin t)j, 0 ⩽ t ⩽ 2π.
This gives that v(t) = −(a sin t)i + (a cos t)j and
|v(t)| = a. Thus,
v
T(t) = (t) = −(sin t)i + (cos t)j.
|v|
Consequently, we get
dT dT 1
= −(cos t)i − (sin t)j and = 1 =⇒ κ = .
dt dt a
Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 9 / 68
Observation

Since T is a vector of constant length, so

dT
T· =0
ds
dT
ds dT
T· dT
= 0, provided ̸= 0.
ds
ds
dT
ds
Thus, dT
is a unit vector orthogonal to the unit
ds
tangent vector T.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 10 / 68
Principal unit normal vector
Principal unit normal vector N
dT
The unit vector that is perpendicular to the tangent
ds
| | dT
ds
vector T is called the principal unit normal vector and we
denote it by N.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 11 / 68
Principal unit normal vector
Principal unit normal vector N
dT
The unit vector that is perpendicular to the tangent
ds
| | dT
ds
vector T is called the principal unit normal vector and we
denote it by N.
Thus
dT
ds
N= dT
.
ds

Remark
In the case dT dT
ds = 0 (i.e., ds = 0), the curve would be a
straight line and so principal unit normal vector N (or
even only normal vector) can not be obtained.
Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 11 / 68
Computational formulae for N

dT
1 N= ds
.
| |
dT
ds

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 12 / 68
Computational formulae for N

dT
1 N= ds
.
| |
dT
ds

1 dT
2 N= κ ds .

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 12 / 68
Computational formulae for N

dT
1 N= ds
.
| |
dT
ds

1 dT
2 N= κ ds .

dT
3 N= dt
.
| |
dT
dt

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 12 / 68
Remark
The vector dT
ds always points in the direction in
which T is turning.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 13 / 68
Remark
The vector dTds always points in the direction in
which T is turning.
If we face in the direction of increasing arc length,
then dT
ds points

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 13 / 68
Remark
The vector dTds always points in the direction in
which T is turning.
If we face in the direction of increasing arc length,
then dT
ds points
towards the right if T turns clockwise

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 13 / 68
Remark
The vector dTds always points in the direction in
which T is turning.
If we face in the direction of increasing arc length,
then dT
ds points
towards the right if T turns clockwise
towards the left if T turns anticlockwise.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 13 / 68
Remark
The vector dTds always points in the direction in
which T is turning.
If we face in the direction of increasing arc length,
then dT
ds points
towards the right if T turns clockwise
towards the left if T turns anticlockwise.
Thus, N will point towards the concave side of the curve.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 13 / 68
 Figure

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 14 / 68
Question
For the plane curve y = f (x), show that its curvature at
the point (x, f (x)) is

|f ′′ (x)|
κ= ,
[1 + f ′ (x)2 ]3/2
provided f is twice differentiable.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 15 / 68
Question
For the plane curve y = f (x), show that its curvature at
the point (x, f (x)) is

|f ′′ (x)|
κ= ,
[1 + f ′ (x)2 ]3/2
provided f is twice differentiable.

Sol. We have r(x) = xi + f (x)j, so

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 15 / 68
Question
For the plane curve y = f (x), show that its curvature at
the point (x, f (x)) is

|f ′′ (x)|
κ= ,
[1 + f ′ (x)2 ]3/2
provided f is twice differentiable.

Sol. We have r(x) = xi + f (x)j, so

v(x) = i + f ′ (x)j
p
|v(x)| = 1 + (f ′ (x))2 .
Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 15 / 68
Now
v i + f ′ (x)j
T= =p
|v| 1 + (f ′ (x))2
dT −f ′ (x)f ′′ (x)i + f ′′ (x)j
=
dx [1 + (f ′ (x))2 ]3/2
dT |f ′′ (x)|
=
dx 1 + (f ′ (x))2

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 16 / 68
Now
v i + f ′ (x)j
T= =p
|v| 1 + (f ′ (x))2
dT −f ′ (x)f ′′ (x)i + f ′′ (x)j
=
dx [1 + (f ′ (x))2 ]3/2
dT |f ′′ (x)|
=
dx 1 + (f ′ (x))2
Hence

1 dT |f ′′ (x)|
κ= = .
|v| dx [1 + (f ′ (x))2 ]3/2
Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 16 / 68
Question
Find the curvature for the curve

y = ln(cos x), −π/2 < x < π/2.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 17 / 68
Question
Find the curvature for the curve

y = ln(cos x), −π/2 < x < π/2.

Sol. Here
y = f (x) = ln(cos x)
f ′ (x) = − tan x and f ′′ (x) = − sec2 x.
Thus |f ′′ (x)| sec2 x
κ= =
[1 + f ′ (x)2 ]3/2 [1 + tan2 x]3/2
sec2 x sec2 x
= = , as − π/2 < x < π/2
|sec3 x| sec3 x
= cos x.
Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 17 / 68
Question
Find T, N, κ, for the space curve

r(t) = (et cos t)i + (et sin t)j + 2k.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 18 / 68
Question
Find T, N, κ, for the space curve

r(t) = (et cos t)i + (et sin t)j + 2k.

Sol. Given r(t) = (et cos t)i + (et sin t)j + 2k, so

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 18 / 68
Question
Find T, N, κ, for the space curve

r(t) = (et cos t)i + (et sin t)j + 2k.

Sol. Given r(t) = (et cos t)i + (et sin t)j + 2k, so
v(t) = (et cos t − et sin t)i + (et sin t + et cos t)j
√
|v(t)| = 2et .

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 18 / 68
Question
Find T, N, κ, for the space curve

r(t) = (et cos t)i + (et sin t)j + 2k.

Sol. Given r(t) = (et cos t)i + (et sin t)j + 2k, so
v(t) = (et cos t − et sin t)i + (et sin t + et cos t)j
√
|v(t)| = 2et .
Thus
   
v cos t − sin t sin t + cos t
T= = √ i+ √ j.
|v| 2 2
Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 18 / 68
Now
   
dT − sin t − cos t cos t − sin t
= √ i+ √ j
dt 2 2
dT
= 1.
dt

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 19 / 68
Now
   
dT − sin t − cos t cos t − sin t
= √ i+ √ j
dt 2 2
dT
= 1.
dt
Thus
dT    
dt − sin t − cos t cos t − sin t
N= dT
= √ i+ √ j.
dt 2 2

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 19 / 68
Now
   
dT − sin t − cos t cos t − sin t
= √ i+ √ j
dt 2 2
dT
= 1.
dt
Thus
dT    
dt − sin t − cos t cos t − sin t
N= dT
= √ i+ √ j.
dt 2 2
Now
1 dT 1
κ= =√ .
|v| dt 2et
Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 19 / 68
Question
Show that the parabola y = ax2 , a ̸= 0 has its largest
curvature at its vertex and has no minimum curvature.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 20 / 68
Question
Show that the parabola y = ax2 , a ̸= 0 has its largest
curvature at its vertex and has no minimum curvature.
Sol. We have
y = f (x) = ax2
f ′ (x) = 2ax and f ′′ (x) = 2a.
Thus
|f ′′ (x)| 2 |a|
κ= =
[1 + (f ′ (x))2 ]3/2 [1 + 4a2 x2 ]3/2
dκ 24 |a| a2 x
=− .
dx [1 + 4a2 x2 ]5/2
Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 20 / 68
Now for max/min, we have
dκ
= 0 ⇒ x = 0.
dx
dκ
Now note that dx > 0 for x < 0, so κ is increasing
in (−∞, 0].

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 21 / 68
Now for max/min, we have
dκ
= 0 ⇒ x = 0.
dx
Now note that dκ
dx > 0 for x < 0, so κ is increasing
in (−∞, 0].
Also dκ
dx < 0 for x > 0, so κ is decreasing in [0, ∞).

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 21 / 68
Now for max/min, we have
dκ
= 0 ⇒ x = 0.
dx
Now note that dκdx > 0 for x < 0, so κ is increasing
in (−∞, 0].
Also dκ
dx < 0 for x > 0, so κ is decreasing in [0, ∞).
So κ is maximum at x = 0. Also at x = 0, we have
y = 0. Hence κ is maximum at the vertex (0, 0) and
κmax = 2 |a|.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 21 / 68
Now for max/min, we have
dκ
= 0 ⇒ x = 0.
dx
Now note that dκdx > 0 for x < 0, so κ is increasing
in (−∞, 0].
Also dκ
dx < 0 for x > 0, so κ is decreasing in [0, ∞).
So κ is maximum at x = 0. Also at x = 0, we have
y = 0. Hence κ is maximum at the vertex (0, 0) and
κmax = 2 |a|.
Since x = 0 is the only critical point for κ, the curvature
has no minimum value.
Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 21 / 68
Circle of Curvature for Plane Curves

Figure: The center of the osculating circle at P (x, y) lies toward the
inner side of the curve.
Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 22 / 68
Circle of Curvature for Plane Curves
The circle of curvature or osculating circle at a point
P on a plane curve where κ ̸= 0 is the circle in the plane
of the curve

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 23 / 68
Circle of Curvature for Plane Curves
The circle of curvature or osculating circle at a point
P on a plane curve where κ ̸= 0 is the circle in the plane
of the curve that
1 is tangent to the curve at P

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 23 / 68
Circle of Curvature for Plane Curves
The circle of curvature or osculating circle at a point
P on a plane curve where κ ̸= 0 is the circle in the plane
of the curve that
1 is tangent to the curve at P
2 has the same curvature the curve has at P

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 23 / 68
Circle of Curvature for Plane Curves
The circle of curvature or osculating circle at a point
P on a plane curve where κ ̸= 0 is the circle in the plane
of the curve that
1 is tangent to the curve at P
2 has the same curvature the curve has at P
3 has center that lies toward the concave or inner side
of the curve

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 23 / 68
Circle of Curvature for Plane Curves
The circle of curvature or osculating circle at a point
P on a plane curve where κ ̸= 0 is the circle in the plane
of the curve that
1 is tangent to the curve at P
2 has the same curvature the curve has at P
3 has center that lies toward the concave or inner side
of the curve
The radius of curvature of the curve at P is the radius
of the circle of curvature

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 23 / 68
Circle of Curvature for Plane Curves
The circle of curvature or osculating circle at a point
P on a plane curve where κ ̸= 0 is the circle in the plane
of the curve that
1 is tangent to the curve at P
2 has the same curvature the curve has at P
3 has center that lies toward the concave or inner side
of the curve
The radius of curvature of the curve at P is the radius
of the circle of curvature, which is
1
Radius of curvature = ρ = .
κ

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 23 / 68
Circle of Curvature for Plane Curves
The circle of curvature or osculating circle at a point
P on a plane curve where κ ̸= 0 is the circle in the plane
of the curve that
1 is tangent to the curve at P
2 has the same curvature the curve has at P
3 has center that lies toward the concave or inner side
of the curve
The radius of curvature of the curve at P is the radius
of the circle of curvature, which is
1
Radius of curvature = ρ = .
κ
The center of curvature of the curve at P is the center
of the circle of curvature.
Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 23 / 68
Question
Show that the centre of the osculating circle for the
parabola y = x2 at the point (a, a2 ) is located at
(−4a3 , 3a2 + 1/2).

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 24 / 68
Question
Show that the centre of the osculating circle for the
parabola y = x2 at the point (a, a2 ) is located at
(−4a3 , 3a2 + 1/2).
Sol. The parametric eq. of y = x2 is

r(t) = ti + t2 j, t ∈ R.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 24 / 68
Question
Show that the centre of the osculating circle for the
parabola y = x2 at the point (a, a2 ) is located at
(−4a3 , 3a2 + 1/2).
Sol. The parametric eq. of y = x2 is

r(t) = ti + t2 j, t ∈ R.

After computation, we get

1 dT 2
κ= = .
|v(t)| dt (1 + 4t2 )3/2

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 24 / 68
 2
At t = a, we get κ = (1+4a2 )3/2
. Thus, the radius of the
2 (1+4a2 )3/2
osculating circle at (a, a ) is r = 2 .

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 25 / 68
 2
At t = a, we get κ = (1+4a2 )3/2
. Thus, the radius of the
2 3/2
osculating circle at (a, a ) is r = (1+4a2 ) . Now show
2

the following:
(i). The distance between (a, a2 ) and (−4a3 , 3a2 + 1/2)
is equal to r.
(ii). The line containing (a, a2 ) and (−4a3 , 3a2 + 1/2) is
perpendicular to the tangent at (a, a2 ).

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 25 / 68
 Section 13.5
Tangential and Normal
Components of
Acceleration
Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 26 / 68
Components of acceleration
Suppose that a particle is moving with an acceleration a.
We are interested in the tangential and normal
components of a. Note that v = |v| T. Thus, we get
dv d |v| dT
a= = T + |v| .
dt dt dt
Also, we have
dT dT ds
= = κ|v|.
dt ds dt
This gives
dT dT
=N = κ |v| N.
dt dt
Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 27 / 68
Components of acceleration

Substituting these values in the expression of a, we get

d |v|
a= T + κ |v|2 N.
dt

We write a = aT T + aN N, where aT = d|v|dt and

2
aN = κ |v| are called the tangential and normal
components of acceleration respectively.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 28 / 68
Formula for aN without calculating T and N.

Thus, we get
|a|2 = a2T + a2N
q
=⇒ aN = |a|2 − a2T .

d|v|
Using aT = dt , we can express

a = aT T + aN N,

without finding T and N.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 29 / 68
Question
Write a in the form a = aT T + aN N without finding T
and N for

r(t) = (a cos t)i + (a sin t)j + btk.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 30 / 68
Question
Write a in the form a = aT T + aN N without finding T
and N for

r(t) = (a cos t)i + (a sin t)j + btk.

Sol. Given r(t) = (a cos t)i + (a sin t)j + btk, so

v(t) = (−a sin t)i + (a cos t)j + bk

p
|v| = a2 + b2
d
aT = |v| = 0.
dt
Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 30 / 68
Now

a(t) = (−a cos t)i + (−a sin t)j

|a(t)| = |a| ,

and so
q q
aN = |a| − a2T = |a|2 − 0 = |a| .
2

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 31 / 68
Now

a(t) = (−a cos t)i + (−a sin t)j

|a(t)| = |a| ,

and so
q q
aN = |a| − a2T = |a|2 − 0 = |a| .
2

Hence
a = 0T + |a| N.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 31 / 68
Binormal Vector B
The binormal vector of a curve in space is given by

B = T × N,

which is a unit vector orthogonal to both T and N.

Remark
For a straight line (since N is not defined and hence) the
binormal vector B is not defined.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 32 / 68
Frenet or TNB frame

Frenet or TNB frame

The moving right-handed vector frame associated to the
curve formed by the vectors T, N and B is called Frenet
or TNB frame.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 33 / 68
Figure: The T N B frame of mutually orthogonal unit vectors
traveling along a curve in space.
Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 34 / 68
The TNB frame is like XY Z frame, the difference is
that XY Z frame is fixed frame (with respect to the
fixed point at origin) with unit vectors i, j and k in the
direction of X, Y and Z axis respectively, while the
TNB frame is a moving frame (origin is still a fixed
point, a point on the curve is given by its position vector
from origin only) with T, N and B unit vectors in
tangential, normal and a direction perpendicular to both
T and N, directions respectively. Note that T, N and B
are not unit vectors in the direction of X, Y and Z axis
respectively.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 35 / 68
The direction of T, N and B in space is given by the
right handed rule.

Figure: The vectors T, N and B make a right handed frame of

mutually orthogonal unit vectors traveling along a curve in space.
Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 36 / 68
Co-ordinate planes in TNB frame
Osculating plane at a point P
A plane passing through P and spanned by T and N. It
is orthogonal to B.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 37 / 68
Co-ordinate planes in TNB frame
Osculating plane at a point P
A plane passing through P and spanned by T and N. It
is orthogonal to B.

Normal plane at a point P

A plane passing through P and spanned by N and B. It
is orthogonal to T.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 37 / 68
Co-ordinate planes in TNB frame
Osculating plane at a point P
A plane passing through P and spanned by T and N. It
is orthogonal to B.

Normal plane at a point P

A plane passing through P and spanned by N and B. It
is orthogonal to T.

Rectifying plane at a point P

A plane passing through P and spanned by B and T. It
is orthogonal to N.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 37 / 68
 Figure: Three planes determined by T, N and B.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 38 / 68
Equation of a Plane

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 39 / 68
Equation of a Plane

Equation of a plane passing through the point

x0 i + y0 j + z0 k and orthogonal to the vector ai + bj + ck
is
a(x − x0 ) + b(y − y0 ) + c(z − z0 ) = 0.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 39 / 68
Question
Find T, N and B at the given value of t for

r(t) = (cos t)i + (sin t)j + tk, t = 0.

Then find equations for osculating, normal and rectifying

planes at that value of t.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 40 / 68
Question
Find T, N and B at the given value of t for

r(t) = (cos t)i + (sin t)j + tk, t = 0.

Then find equations for osculating, normal and rectifying

planes at that value of t.

Sol. We have to find equation of a plane passing

through a point and orthogonal to a given vector.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 40 / 68
Question
Find T, N and B at the given value of t for

r(t) = (cos t)i + (sin t)j + tk, t = 0.

Then find equations for osculating, normal and rectifying

planes at that value of t.

Sol. We have to find equation of a plane passing

through a point and orthogonal to a given vector.
Think about what values we need here?

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 40 / 68
Question
Find T, N and B at the given value of t for

r(t) = (cos t)i + (sin t)j + tk, t = 0.

Then find equations for osculating, normal and rectifying

planes at that value of t.

Sol. We have to find equation of a plane passing

through a point and orthogonal to a given vector.
Think about what values we need here?
We need
r(0), T(0), N(0), B(0).
Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 40 / 68
Given r(t) = (cos t)i + (sin t)j + tk, so

v(t) = (− sin t)i + (cos t)j + k

√
|v| = 2
     
v sin t cos t 1
T= = −√ i+ √ j+ √ k
|v| 2
  2  2
dT cos t sin t
= −√ i+ −√ j
dt 2 2
dT 1
=√
dt 2

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 41 / 68
 dT
dt
N= dT
= (− cos t)i − (sin t)j.
dt
Now

r(0) = i = (1, 0, 0)
   
1 1
T(0) = √ j + √ k
2 2
N(0) = −i

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 42 / 68
Now
i j k
1 √1
B(0) = T(0) × N(0) = 0 √2 2
−1 0 0
1 1
= − √ j + √ k.
2 2

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 43 / 68
 The osculating plane (orthogonal to B): Plane
passing through (1, 0, 0) and orthogonal to
− √12 j + √12 k, that is

1 1
0(x − 1) − √ (y − 0) + √ (z − 0) = 0
2 2
y − z = 0.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 44 / 68
 The normal plane (orthogonal to T): Plane passing
through
  (1,  0, 
0) and orthogonal to
√1 j + √12 k, that is
2

1 1
0(x − 1) + √ (y − 0) + √ (z − 0) = 0
2 2
y + z = 0.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 45 / 68
 The rectifying plane (orthogonal to N): Plane
passing through (1, 0, 0) and orthogonal to −i, that
is

−1(x − 1) + 0(y − 0) + 0(z − 0) = 0

x = 1.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 46 / 68
Vector Formula for Curvature
For a smooth curve, show that
|v × a|
κ= .
|v|3

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 47 / 68
Vector Formula for Curvature
For a smooth curve, show that
|v × a|
κ= .
|v|3
Proof. We have
v × a = v × (aT T + aN N)
= aT (v × T) + aN (v × N).

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 47 / 68
Vector Formula for Curvature
For a smooth curve, show that
|v × a|
κ= .
|v|3
Proof. We have
v × a = v × (aT T + aN N)
= aT (v × T) + aN (v × N).
Since v and T are parallel so v × T = 0. Thus

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 47 / 68
Vector Formula for Curvature
For a smooth curve, show that
|v × a|
κ= .
|v|3
Proof. We have
v × a = v × (aT T + aN N)
= aT (v × T) + aN (v × N).
Since v and T are parallel so v × T = 0. Thus
v × a = aN (v × N)
= aN (|v| T × N)
Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 47 / 68
 v × a = aN |v| (T × N)
= aN |v| B.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 48 / 68
 v × a = aN |v| (T × N)
= aN |v| B.
Taking absolute values:
|v × a| = aN |v| , as |B| = 1
= (κ |v|2 ) |v|
= κ |v|3 .

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 48 / 68
 v × a = aN |v| (T × N)
= aN |v| B.
Taking absolute values:
|v × a| = aN |v| , as |B| = 1
= (κ |v|2 ) |v|
= κ |v|3 .
Hence
|v × a|
κ= .
|v|3
Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 48 / 68
Question
Show that the curvature of smooth curve

r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j,

defined by twice differentiable functions x(t), y(t) is

given by the formula
|ẋÿ − ẏẍ|
κ= .
(ẋ2 + ẏ 2 )3/2

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 49 / 68
Question
Show that the curvature of smooth curve

r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j,

defined by twice differentiable functions x(t), y(t) is

given by the formula
|ẋÿ − ẏẍ|
κ= .
(ẋ2 + ẏ 2 )3/2

Sol. We know that

|v × a|
κ= .
|v|3
Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 49 / 68
Given r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j, so we have

v = ẋi + ẏj
a = ẍi + ÿj.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 50 / 68
Given r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j, so we have

v = ẋi + ẏj
a = ẍi + ÿj.

Thus
i j k
v × a = ẋ ẏ 0
ẍ ÿ 0
= (ẋÿ − ẏẍ)k

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 50 / 68
 |v × a| = |ẋÿ − ẏẍ|
p
|v| = ẋ2 + ẏ 2 .

Hence
|v × a| |ẋÿ − ẏẍ|
κ= 3 = 2 .
|v| (ẋ + ẏ 2 )3/2

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 51 / 68
Question

Find the curvature of the curve

r(t) = ti + (ln sin t)j, 0 < t < π.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 52 / 68
Question

Find the curvature of the curve

r(t) = ti + (ln sin t)j, 0 < t < π.

Sol. We use the formula

|ẋÿ − ẏẍ|
κ= .
(ẋ2 + ẏ 2 )3/2

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 52 / 68
Here
x(t) = t, y(t) = ln sin t,

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 53 / 68
Here
x(t) = t, y(t) = ln sin t,
and so

ẋ = 1, ẏ = cot t
ẍ = 0, ÿ = − csc2 t.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 53 / 68
Here
x(t) = t, y(t) = ln sin t,
and so

ẋ = 1, ẏ = cot t
ẍ = 0, ÿ = − csc2 t.

So
− csc2 t − 0
κ= = sin t.
(1 + cot2 t)3/2

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 53 / 68
 dB
Behaviour of ds

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 54 / 68
 dB
Behaviour of ds

We have B = T × N. Differentiating with respect to s:

dB dN dT
=T× + ×N
ds ds ds
dN dT
=T× , as is parallel to N
ds ds
which shows that dB dB
ds is orthogonal to T. Also ds is
orthogonal to B as B is a vector of constant length.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 54 / 68
Hence dB ds is orthogonal to the plane B and T. Thus
dB
ds
is parallel to N i.e.,
dB
= −τ N,
ds
where τ is called torsion along the curve (minus sign is
just convention which we have to follow). On taking dot
product by N, we obtain
dB
τ =− .N
ds

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 55 / 68
Torsion

Torsion
The torsion of a smooth curve is defined as
dB
τ =− .N
ds

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 56 / 68
Torsion

Torsion
The torsion of a smooth curve is defined as
dB
τ =− .N
ds

Torsion measures how the curve twists.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 56 / 68
Torsion

Torsion
The torsion of a smooth curve is defined as
dB
τ =− .N
ds

Torsion measures how the curve twists.

Torsion is a measure of how much the osculating
plane turns about T as the parameter increases.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 56 / 68
 Figure: Three planes determined by T, N and B.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 57 / 68
For example, if the particle is moving in a single fixed
plane, then the osculating plane is fixed (i.e., no turn in
the osculating plane) and consequently, the torsion
τ = 0.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 58 / 68
For example, if the particle is moving in a single fixed
plane, then the osculating plane is fixed (i.e., no turn in
the osculating plane) and consequently, the torsion
τ = 0.
In fact, τ = 0 only if motion is in a plane.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 58 / 68
For example, if the particle is moving in a single fixed
plane, then the osculating plane is fixed (i.e., no turn in
the osculating plane) and consequently, the torsion
τ = 0.
In fact, τ = 0 only if motion is in a plane.
Unlike κ which is never negative, the torsion τ may be
positive, negative or zero.
Remark
Curvature κ = dTds is a measure of how much the
normal plane turns as the point P moves along its path.
Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 58 / 68
A Computational Formula for Torsion

ẋ ẏ ż
ẍ ÿ z̈
... ... ...
x y z
τ= , provided v × a ̸= 0.
|v × a|2

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 59 / 68
Question
Find T, N, B, κ, τ for the curve given by

r(t) = (et cos t)i + (et sin t)j + 2k.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 60 / 68
Question
Find T, N, B, κ, τ for the curve given by

r(t) = (et cos t)i + (et sin t)j + 2k.

Sol. Given r(t) = (et cos t)i + (et sin t)j + 2k, so

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 60 / 68
Question
Find T, N, B, κ, τ for the curve given by

r(t) = (et cos t)i + (et sin t)j + 2k.

Sol. Given r(t) = (et cos t)i + (et sin t)j + 2k, so

v(t) = (et cos t − et sin t)i + (et sin t + et cos t)j

√
|v(t)| = 2et
a = (−2et sin t)i + (2et cos t)j
da
= −2et (cos t + sin t)i + 2et (cos t − sin t)j
dt
Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 60 / 68
    
cos t − sin t sin t + cos t
T= √ i+ √ j
 2   2 
dT − sin t − cos t cos t − sin t
= √ i+ √ j
dt 2 2
dT
=1
dt
dT    
dt − sin t − cos t cos t − sin t
N = dT = √ i+ √ j.
dt 2 2

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 61 / 68
Now

B=T×N
i j k
cos t−sin t sin t+cos t
= √
2
√
2
0
− sin√t−cos t cos t−sin t
2
√
2
0
= k.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 62 / 68
Now
i j k
t t t t
v × a = e cos t − e sin t e sin t + e cos t 0
−2et sin t 2et cos t 0
= 2e2t k,

and so
|v × a| = 2e2t .

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 63 / 68
Now
|v × a|
κ=
|v|3
2e2t
= √
2 2e3t
e−t
=√ .
2

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 64 / 68
Now
ẋ ẏ ż
ẍ ÿ z̈
... ... ...
x y z
τ=
|v × a|2
et cos t − et sin t et sin t + et cos t 0
−2et sin t 2et cos t 0
t t
−2e (cos t + sin t) 2e (cos t − sin t) 0
=
4e4t
= 0.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 65 / 68
Question
A 270-kilogram go-cart is driven at a speed of 60
kilometers per hour around a circular racetrack of radius
12 meters. To keep the cart from skidding off course,
what frictional force must the track surface exert on the
tires?

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 66 / 68
Question
A 270-kilogram go-cart is driven at a speed of 60
kilometers per hour around a circular racetrack of radius
12 meters. To keep the cart from skidding off course,
what frictional force must the track surface exert on the
tires?

Sol. If a cart, moving with constant speed, is rounding a

turn, the roadway exerts a frictional force that keeps the
car from sliding off the road.

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 66 / 68
Question
A 270-kilogram go-cart is driven at a speed of 60
kilometers per hour around a circular racetrack of radius
12 meters. To keep the cart from skidding off course,
what frictional force must the track surface exert on the
tires?

Sol. If a cart, moving with constant speed, is rounding a

turn, the roadway exerts a frictional force that keeps the
car from sliding off the road. If the car is not sliding, the
frictional force is perpendicular to the direction of motion

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 66 / 68
Question
A 270-kilogram go-cart is driven at a speed of 60
kilometers per hour around a circular racetrack of radius
12 meters. To keep the cart from skidding off course,
what frictional force must the track surface exert on the
tires?

Sol. If a cart, moving with constant speed, is rounding a

turn, the roadway exerts a frictional force that keeps the
car from sliding off the road. If the car is not sliding, the
frictional force is perpendicular to the direction of motion
and has magnitude equal to the normal component of
acceleration.
Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 66 / 68
Hence, the frictional force must equal the mass times the
normal component of acceleration. For the circular path,
we know that the curvature is

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 67 / 68
Hence, the frictional force must equal the mass times the
normal component of acceleration. For the circular path,
we know that the curvature is
1
κ= .
12

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 67 / 68
Hence, the frictional force must equal the mass times the
normal component of acceleration. For the circular path,
we know that the curvature is
1
κ= .
12
Therefore, the frictional force is

Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 67 / 68
Hence, the frictional force must equal the mass times the
normal component of acceleration. For the circular path,
we know that the curvature is
1
κ= .
12
Therefore, the frictional force is

maN = mκ |v|2

 2
1 60, 000m
= (270kg)
12m 3600sec
= 6250(kg)(m)/sec2 .
Shailesh Trivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F101 (Multivariable Calculus) September 4, 2025 67 / 68