SOCIAL RESEARCH METHODS – Dr.

Fred Kindi

One of the major purposes is to held learners understand how to write a research proposal.

Key resources:

- Social Research – Sarantakos, Sotirios (1993)

- Research Methodology: a Step by Step Guide for beginners – Kumar Ranjit (2011)

The meaning of Social Research:

INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL RESEARCH

What is social research?

- Research is about knowing things but not necessarily, what we know but how we
know them e.g. (1). In the earlier centuries people used to know that the earth is flat and
that the sun rotates around the earth. This was simply because it is what people used to
observe. But with research it was discovered that actually the earth is round, and it (the
earth) is the one that rotates and revolves around the sun.

 how do we know that the earth is round? We know because we have been told by
scientists that the world is round and revolves around the sun.

o E.g., (2). Some things we claim to know because we have been told since childhood
that it is true, and so we believe them without questioning.

 So most of the things we know may be a matter of agreement and beliefs.

 A big part of our growing up in society is a process of learning to accept what

everybody around you knows is so!!

 So we may know certain things through ‘tradition’ others from ‘experts’

 Other ways of knowing may be through observation – by seeing, touch, testing, etc

o However, there are situations when we encounter some contradictions to the extent
that we start to put whatever we believed as true into question! This is a point of confusion,
where one may seek to find out what actually is the correct thing to believe!

o In attempting to clear the confusion, one starts to think about the best way to find
the answer.

 One begins to Research about it to clear the confusion

From the above, research has been variously defined as:

C.C. Crawford: “Research is simply a systematic and refined technique of thinking,

employing specialized tools, instruments and procedures in order to obtain a more adequate
solution of a problem than would be possible under ordinary means.” It starts with a
problem, collects data or facts, analyses these critically based decisions actual evidence. It
involves original work instead of mere exercise of personal opinion. It is quantitative,
seeking to know not only what but much and measurement is therefore a central feature of
it.

Webster Dictionary: “A careful inquiry or examination in seeking facts or principles, diligent

investigation in order to ascertain something.”

Ranjit Kumar: The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search. The dictionary
defines the former as a prefix meaning again, anew or over again and the latter as a verb
meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe.

Together they form a noun describing a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation
in some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles. (Grinnell 1993: 4)

Grinnell further adds: research is a structured inquiry that utilises acceptable scientific
methodology to solve problems and creates new knowledge that is generally applicable.’
(1993: 4)

The main difference between our day-to-day generalizations and the conclusions usually
recognised as scientific method lies in the degree of formality, rigorousness, verifiability and
general validity of the latter. (Lundberg 1942: 5)

According to Kerlinger (1986: 10), ‘scientific research is a systematic, controlled empirical

and critical investigation of propositions about the presumed relationships about various
phenomena’.

Hence, when one claims to be doing research, he/she may imply some of the following:

 Finding answer to a problem/ question;

 is undertaking the investigation within a framework of a set of philosophies;
 uses procedures, methods and techniques that have been tested for their validity
and reliability;
 avoid being biased, and tries to be objective.

Types of Research

Types of research can be looked at from three different perspectives.

- Applications of the findings of the research study;

- Objectives of the study;
- Mode of enquiry used in conducting the study.

If you examine a research question from the perspective of its application, there are two
broad categories: pure research and applied research. Pure research involves developing
and testing theories and hypotheses that are intellectually challenging to the researcher but
may or may not have practical application at the present time or in the future.

Most of the research in the social sciences is applied. Research may be undertaken to solve
a problem or to inform policy such that an intervention is done to solve the problem.

If you examine a research study from the perspective of its objectives, in that case a
research can be classified as descriptive, co-relational, explanatory or exploratory.

A research study classified as a descriptive study attempts to describe systematically a

situation, problem, phenomenon, service or programme, or provides information about, say,
the living conditions of a community, or describes attitudes towards an issue. For example, it
may attempt to describe the types of service provided by an organisation, the
administrative structure of an organisation, how a child feels living in a house with domestic
violence, or the attitudes of employees towards management. The main purpose of such
studies is to describe what is prevalent with respect to the issue/problem under study.

The main emphasis in a correlational study is to discover or establish the existence of a

relationship/association/interdependence between two or more aspects of a situation. What
is the impact of an advertising campaign on the sale of a product? What is the relationship
between stressful living and the incidence of heart attack? What is the relationship between
fertility and mortality? What is the relationship between technology and unemployment?
What is the effect of a health service on the control of a disease, or the home environment
on educational achievement? These studies examine whether there is a relationship
between two or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon and, therefore, are called
correlational studies.

Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between two
aspects of a situation or phenomenon. This type of research attempts to explain, for
example, why stressful living results in heart attacks; why a decline in mortality is followed
by a fertility decline; or how the home environment affects children’s level of academic
achievement.

The other is called exploratory research. This is when a study is undertaken with the
objective either to explore an area where little is known or to investigate the possibilities of
undertaking a particular research study. When a study is carried out to determine its
feasibility it is also called a feasibility study or a pilot study. It is usually carried out when a
researcher wants to explore areas about which s/he has little or no knowledge. A small-scale
study is undertaken to decide if it is worth carrying out a detailed investigation. On the basis
of the assessment made during the exploratory study, a full study may eventuate.
Exploratory studies are also conducted to develop, refine and/or test measurement tools and
procedures.

Note: Although, theoretically, a research study can be classified in one of the above
objectives–perspective categories, in practice, most studies are a combination of the first
three; that is, they contain elements of descriptive, correlational and explanatory research.

The third perspective concerns the process you adopt to find answers to your research
questions. Broadly, there are two approaches to enquiry:

- The structured approach;

- The unstructured approach.

The structured approach to enquiry is usually classified as quantitative research and

unstructured as qualitative research.

• Principles of Social Research

Social researchers generally are expected to adhere to certain standards and principles.
These are like guidelines that help the researchers to ensure the quality of their studies.

- Precision in measurement:
This is the measure of an instrument concerning the exact distinctions made between the
attributes that compose a variable. For instance, the description of a woman as 43 years old
is more precise than saying she is in her forties.

- Validity

This is the ability of an instrument to measure what it is designed to measure: it is the

degree to which the researcher has measured what he has set out to measure. For instance,
suppose you have designed a study to ascertain the security needs of students around
Makerere university campus. In doing so, you have developed an interview schedule. But in
the most of the questions in the interview schedule relate to the attitude of the students
towards the security services being provided to them. Note that your aim was to find out
about security needs of the students but the interview schedule is finding out what attitudes
students have to the security services; thus, the instrument is not measuring what it was
designed to measure.

This has to do with an instrument.

- Reliability

We use the word ‘reliable’ very often in our lives. In common parlance when say a person is
reliable, we often mean that person is dependable, consistent, predictable, stable and
honest. Hence, in research the concept of reliability means that a research tool is consistent
and stable, it is predictable and accurate. The greater the degree of consistency and
stability in an instrument, the greater its reliability.

- Representativeness

This is when a sample employed reflects the attributes of a target population, the findings it
produces relate to the whole population and the conclusions drawn through the study are
pertinent to the whole population. Researchers try to achieve representativeness to enable
generalization, without which it becomes difficult.

The sample one is going to examine has to represent the general population.

A study may not be representative, especially when it concerns qualitative research.

- Ethics:

Social research is general about human beings; hence their certain ethical
principles/standards researchers are expected to conform to when conducting studies. For
instance, there are certain standards that a researcher has to follow when it comes to the
researcher-respondents relationship during fieldwork.

This has to do with data collection, sampling etc. it depends on the kind of research being
conducted – investigating traumatic experiences may elicit ethical considerations.

- Objectivity

Social research endeavors to be objective. In this sense tries to minimize personal prejudice
and bias, and guarantee that social reality is presented as it is rather than as it is
interpreted or imagined by the investigator.
This emphasizes that one must minimize personal prejudice and bias and guarantee that
reality is presented as it is interpreted to be.

• Aims of research: refer to types of research

Philosophy of research

- Ontology – What is reality? It explores the subject of research.

- Epistemology - How do you know something?
- Methodology – How do you go about finding it out?

Epistemology in research

- Epistemology is the theory of knowledge; how we know what we know.

Types of epistemological stance:

◦ Objectivism: this holds that meaningful reality or the object of study exists
irrespective of our awareness of it or not e.g., that tree in the forest is a tree regardless of
whether anyone is aware of its existence or not. Therefore, when a researcher studies
something, he/she is simply discovering a meaning that has been lying there in wait for
them.

◦ Constructionism: this rejects objective knowledge. Instead, meaningful reality comes

into existence in and out of our engagement with the realities in our world. If a researcher is
not aware of a reality then it does not exist. What we call meaningful reality, truth or
knowledge is simply constructed when human beings interact with the object of study.

◦ Subjectivism: here, the subject imposes meaning on the object.

Feminist epistemology

Feminist epistemology studies the ways in which gender influences our understanding of
knowledge, the knowing subject (the knower), and practices of inquiry and justification.

It identifies ways in which traditional/mainstream understanding and practices of knowledge

attribution, acquisition, and justification systematically disadvantage women and other
subordinated groups, and strives to reform these understandings and practices so that they
serve the interests of these groups.

 Situated Knower: The central concept of feminist epistemology is that of a situated

knower, and hence of situated knowledge: knowledge that reflects the particular
perspectives of the subject. In other words, what is known, and the way that it is
known, reflects the situation or perspective of the knower. Examples of how people
may understand the same object in different ways that reflect the distinct relations in
which they stand to it include:
 Emotions, attitudes, interests, and values: People often understand objects in relation
to their emotions, attitudes and interests. A thief represents a lock as a frustrating
obstacle while its owner represents the lock as a comforting source of security.
 Background beliefs and worldviews: People form different beliefs about an object, in
virtue of different background beliefs. These background beliefs influence the way
they interpret things or persons or events. For instance, a Muslim may understand a
 non-Muslim as an infidel because of his background belief in the Koran, but to a
Christian or an infidel may see a Muslim as one who is actually lost.
 Location in space and time: people may understand phenomenon differently
depending on their physical locations. Observers who stand in front of an object have
different information about it than observers who have a distant but bird's eye view
of it.

In research, the kind of epistemological stance one holds will inform the research paradigm
or theoretical perspective of the research.

Normally, those who subscribe to objectivism are quantitative researchers while the
constructionism and subjectivism tend be qualitative researchers

Forms of epistemology

Paradigms are common sets of belief that guide how an issue should be
investigated. They are influenced by epistemology – how do we know what we
know? Epistemologists posit that there are several ways of knowing; objectivism,
constructionism, interpretivism, subjectivism.

PARADIGM Ontology Epistemolog Theoretical Methodology Methods

y Perspectiv
What is How do we go What techniques
e
reality How do we about finding to we use to find
know reality What out out?
approach do
we use to
know
something

POSITIVISM/ There is a Reality can Positivism Experimental Quantitative,

OBJECTIVISM single reality be measured research include:
Post-
or truth and hence
positivism Survey research -sampling
(more the focus is
realist) on reliable -measurement
and valid and scaling
tools to
obtain that -statistical
analysis

Questionnaire

FGD

CONSTRUCTIVIS There is no Therefore Interpretivis Ethnography: a Usually

T/INTERPRETIVE single reality reality needs m (reality kind of research qualitative:
or truth. to be needs to be where one
-Qualitative
interpreted. interpreted) immerses
interviews
oneself in the
-
Reality is environment of -Observation
Phenomenol
created by It is used to investigations
ogy: the -Case study
individuals discover the
study to Grounded
 in groups underlying understand theory -Life history
(less reality) meaning of people’s
Phenomenologic -Narrative
events and experience,
al research
activities attitude and -Theme
perception Heuristic inquiry identification, etc
of
something Action research

-Symbolic Discourse
interactionis analysis
m
Feminist
- standpoint
Hermeneutic research, etc
s

-Critical
inquiry

-Feminism

PRAGMATISM: Reality is The best Deweyan Mixed methods Combines both

“the means constantly method is pragmatism qualitative and
Designed based
justifies the end” renegotiated one that quantitative
Research research
, debated, solves the methods
through
interpreted problems. Action research
design
in light of its Finding out is
usefulness in the means,
new change is the
unpredictabl underlying
e situations aim

SUBJECTIVISM Reality is All knowledge Postmoderni Discourse Autoethnography

what we is purely a sm theory
Semiotics
perceive to matter of
Structuralis Archaeology
be real perspective Literary analysis
m
Genealogy
pastiche
Post-
Deconstruction
structuralis Intertextuality,
m etc

CRITICAL Reality are Reality and Marxism Critical Ideological review

PERSPECTIVE social knowledge is discourse
Queer Civil actions
constructed both socially analysis
theory
entities that constructed Open-ended
Critical
are under and Feminism interviews, FGDs,
ethnography
constant influenced by open ended
internal power Action research questionnaires/
influence relations from
within society Ideology Open ended
observations, and
 Critique journal

Critical theorists are interested in change

Characteristics of Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches

The differences and similarities in the paradigms have resulted into two major
methodologies. That is quantitative and qualitative methodologies. Critical approach which
entails basically Marxists and feminists is yet to be accepted to have a methodology of its
own.

Quantitative Approach

Quantitative methodology is based on the positivist principles, hence:

- Reality is objective, simple and positive and consists of sense experience

- Human beings are determined by their social world in the same way the natural
world is governed by fixed laws. The purpose of social research is to discover laws
that explain human behaviour

- Facts should be kept aside from values; social scientists should not make value
judgments

- Natural and social sciences share common logical and methodological foundations.

- Use of metaphysical and speculative reasoning cannot offer reliable and verifiable
data, they do not have empirical relevance, and do not use a clear procedure that
would allow replication and retesting

- Explanation is restricted purely to positive phenomena and is derived exclusively

from experience

- The logical form of theory is deductive

Strengths of quantitative methodology

- Study findings can be generalized to the population about which information is

required.

- Samples of individuals, communities, or organizations can be selected to ensure that

the results will be representative of the population studied.

- Clear documentation can be provided regarding the content and application of the
survey instruments so that other researchers can assess the validity of the findings.

- Standardized approaches permit the study to be replicated in different areas or over

time with the production of comparable findings.

Critique of quantitative methodology

 - Social phenomena exist not ‘out there’ but in the minds of people and their
interpretation

- Reality cannot be defined objectively but subjectively

- The emphasis on quantitative measurement cannot capture the real meaning of

social behaviour

- Quantitative research fails to distinguish between appearance and essence of social

events

- The methodology employs theoretical perspectives that supports the status quo and
existing power structures

- This kind of research perceives reality as sum of measured or measurable attributes

- It attempts to neutralize the researcher or eliminates the researcher’s influence on

the researched

- Many kinds of information are difficult to obtain through structured data collection
instruments, particularly on sensitive topics such as domestic violence or income.

- Self-reported information obtained from questionnaires may be inaccurate or

incomplete.

- There is often no information on contextual factors to help interpret the results or to

explain variations in behavior between households with similar economic and
demographic characteristics.

- The administration of a structured questionnaire creates an unnatural situation that

may alienate respondents.

- Research methods are inflexible because the instruments cannot be modified once
the study begins.

- Reduction of data to numbers results in lost information.

- The correlations produced (e.g., between costs and benefits, gender, and access to
services or benefits) may mask or ignore underlying causes or realities.

Qualitative methodology

This is the opposite of quantitative methodology, and is characterized by some of the

following:

- It assumes that the social world is always a human creation not discovery

- It tries to capture reality in interaction

- It studies a small number of the respondents

- It employs no random sampling

- It presents its information verbally in detailed and complete form, and not numbers
 - It perceives the researcher and the researched as two equally important elements of
the same situation. Respondents are not reduced variables

- Its purpose is to interpret meaningful human actions and interpretations that people
give of themselves or others

- Context sensitivity, placing findings in a social, historical and temporal content

- Employs inductive reasoning where the researcher in the details and specifics of data
to discover important categories

Strengths of qualitative study

- Researches people in their natural settings

- Stresses interpretation and meanings

- Achieves a deeper understanding of the respondent’s world

- Treats a respondent as a human being and not just a variable

- Highly flexible

Weaknesses

- Problems of reliability which is caused by extreme subjectivity

- Risk of collecting meaningless and useless information

- It is very time consuming

- Has problems of representativeness and generalisability of findings

- Problem of objectivity

- Problems of ethics – entering the personal sphere of the subject

FEMINIST METHODOLOGY

Feminist researchers try to understand the world from the perspective that account for
feminist values and interests. It pouts gender at the center of social enquiry. It seeks to
include women’s interests in the process and also recognizes the idea that much of the
institutions in the world are patriarchal – fraught with male interest.

It has the object of bringing about social change.

Conducting feminist research

There is no single way of conducting feminist research, but it relies of qualitative approaches
rather that quantitative approaches. It allows the context and purpose of research to guide
the method of choice.

It also uses standard surveys when collecting statistical information.

It may use indexed interviews, recordings, etc.

LECTURE 3

Methodology

Study Design

The research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different
components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring you will effectively
address the research problem; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement,
and analysis of data. The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence
obtained enables you to effectively address the research problem logically and as
unambiguously as possible. Research designs can be categorized according to the number
of contacts with the study population; the reference period of the study; and the nature of
investigation.

The Number of Contacts

- Cross-sectional studies

- Before – and –after studies

- Longitudinal studies

 Cross-sectional studies
This is also called one-shot or status studies, and are commonly used in social sciences.
Cross-sectional research designs have three distinctive features: no time dimension; a
reliance on existing differences rather than change following intervention; and, groups are
selected based on existing differences rather than random allocation. The cross-sectional
design can only measure differences between or from among a variety of people, subjects,
or phenomena rather than a process of change. These designs are best suited to studies
aimed at finding out the prevalence of a phenomenon, situation, problem, attitude or issue,
by taking a cross-section of the population. They are useful in obtaining an overall picture as
it stands at the time of the study. For instance, a cross-sectional study would be useful for
such studies:

- The attitude of the study population toward an issue

- The incidence of HIV positive cases in a country

- The reason for homelessness among young people

- The impact of unemployment and street crime

- The relationship between the home environment and the academic performance of a
child at school

 Before – and – after study design

This is also known as pre-test/post-test design. This designs measures change in a situation,
phenomenon, issue, problem or attitude. It is appropriate design for measuring the impact
or effectiveness of a programme. This design can be described as a two sets of cross-
sectional design on the same population to find out the change in the phenomenon or
variable(s) between two points in time. The change is measured by comparing the difference
in the phenomenon or variables at the before and after observations. Examples of studies
suitable for this design include:

- The impact of administrative restructuring on the quality of the services provided by

an organisation

- The impact of sex education on sexual behavior among school children

- The impact of incentives on the productivity of employees in an organisations

- The impact of increased funding on the quality of teaching in universities

- The impact of maternal and child health services on the infant mortality rate

- The effect of an advertisement on the sale of a product

 The longitudinal study design

Whereas the before and after is suitable for studying the extent of change in a phenomenon
it is less helpful for studying the pattern of change. To study the pattern of change in
relation to time, a longitudinal design is used. With longitudinal surveys, the same group of
people is interviewed at regular intervals, enabling researchers to track changes over time
and to relate them to variables that might explain why the changes occur. For instance, if
you wish to study the proportion of people adopting a program in relation to time,
longitudinal design is appropriate. It is also useful when one wants to ascertain the trends in
the demand of labour, immigration trends, changes in the incidence of disease or in
mortality and fertility for instance. In this design the study population is visited a number of
times, at regular intervals, usually over a long period. These intervals are not fixed so their
length may vary from study to study. It might be as short as a week or longer than a year.
The main advantage of this design is that it allows researchers to measure the pattern of
change and obtain factual information requiring collection on a regular or continuing basis.

The Reference Period of the Study

The reference period refers to the time-frame in which study is exploring a phenomenon,
situation, event or problem. Studies within this perspective are thus categorized as
retrospective, prospective, and retrospective-prospective.

 The retrospective study design

This investigates a phenomenon, situation, problem or issue that has happened in the past.
They are usually conducted either on the basis of the data available for that period or on the
basis of respondents’ recall of the situation. Such studies may include:

- the utilization of land before the land policy

- historical analysis of migratory movements of people from rural areas to urban areas

- the relationship between levels of unemployment and street crime

- the living conditions of people in Kampala before the 21 st century

 The prospective study design

Prospective studies refer to the likely prevalence of a phenomenon, situation, problem,

attitude or outcome in the future. Such studies attempt to establish the outcome of an event
or what is likely to happen. The following are classified as prospective studies:

 To determine, under field conditions, the impact of maternal and child health services
on the level of infant mortality.

 To find out the effect of parental involvement on the level of academic achievement
of their children.

 The retrospective-prospective study design

This design focuses on past and present trends in a phenomenon and studies it into future. A
study is classified under this category when you measure the impact of an intervention
without having a control group. Most before – and- after studies, if carried out without
having a control – where the baseline is constructed from the same population before
introducing the intervention – will be classified as retrospective-prospective studies. In this
kind of a design, a part of the data is collected retrospectively from the existing records
before the intervention is introduced and then the study population is followed is followed to
ascertain the impact of the investigation. Example of studies using this design may include:

- the impact of incentives on the productivity of the employees of an organisation

- the impact of maternal and child health services on the infant mortality rate

- the effect of an advertisement on the sale of a product

The Nature of Investigation

Designs that fall in this category include experimental, non-experimental, and quasi or semi-
experimental designs. To understand the differences among all these form of designs
consider some examples: suppose you want to test:

- the impact of a particular teaching method on the level of comprehension of students

- the effectiveness of a programme such as random breath testing on the level of road
accidents

- the usefulness of a drug such as AZT in treating people who are HIV positive.

In the above scenarios there are assumed to be a cause and effect relationship. There are
two ways of studying these relationships.

The first would require one to introduce an intervention that is assumed to be the ‘cause’ of
change and waiting until it has produced the change. The second would require one
observing a phenomenon and attempting to establish what caused it. In this second case
one starts from the effect(s) or outcomes and attempts to determine causation.

Where the relationship is studied in the first way, starting from the cause to establish the
effects, the study is classified an experimental one. If the study is conducted in the second
way, that is, starting from the effects to trace the cause, it is classified as a non-
experimental study.

In the former case the independent variables can be either ‘observed’, introduced,
controlled or manipulated by the researcher, whereas in the latter, this cannot happen as
the assumed cause already occurred. Instead the researcher retrospectively links the
cause(s) to the outcome(s). A semi-experimental design has the properties of both
experimental and non-experimental studies; part of the study may be non-experimental and
the other part experimental.

What do these studies tell you?

 Experimental research designs assist researchers in understanding why the world

works the way it does through the process of proving a causal link between variables
and by the process of eliminating other possibilities.

 Replication is possible.

What these studies don't tell you?

 Not all relationships are casual! The possibility always exists that, by sheer
coincidence, two unrelated events appear to be related

 Conclusions about causal relationships are difficult to determine due to a variety of

extraneous and confounding variables that exist in a social environment. This means
causality can only be inferred, never proven.

 If two variables are correlated, the cause must come before the effect. However,
even though two variables might be causally related, it can sometimes be difficult to
determine which variable comes first and, therefore, to establish which variable is the
actual cause and which is the actual effect.

 Some research problems cannot be studied using an experiment because of ethical

or technical reasons

 Difficult to apply ethnographic and other qualitative methods to experimentally

designed studies

Other Categories of Research Design

 Action research design

This design starts as an exploratory study, where an understanding of a problem is

developed and plans are made for some form of interventionary strategy. Then the
intervention is carried out during which time, pertinent observations are collected in various
forms. The new interventional strategies are carried out, and this cyclic process repeats,
continuing until a sufficient understanding of [or a valid implementation solution for] the
problem is achieved. The protocol is iterative or cyclical in nature and is intended to foster
deeper understanding of a given situation, starting with conceptualizing and particularizing
the problem and moving through several interventions and evaluations

 Case study design

A case study is an in-depth study of a particular research problem rather than a sweeping
statistical survey or comprehensive comparative inquiry. It is often used to narrow down a
very broad field of research into one or a few easily researchable examples. The case study
research design is also useful for testing whether a specific theory and model actually
applies to phenomena in the real world. It is a useful design when not much is known about
an issue or phenomenon.
Sampling In Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Population

In social research a population is a group of individuals persons from which samples are
taken for measurement.

Sampling

This is a process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such a way that the
individuals represent the large group from which they were selected. It is the act, process,
or technique of selecting a suitable representative part of a population for the purpose of
determining parameters or characteristics of the whole population.

Sampling units

The persons, groups, systems, etc chosen to be studied.

Purpose/reasons for sampling

- In many cases a complete coverage of the population is not possible. Hence, we

obtain a sample rather than a complete enumeration (a census) of the population as
a representative. A sample is expected to mirror the population from which it comes;
however, there is no guarantee that any sample will be precisely representative of
the population from which it comes.

- Sampling provides a better option since it addresses the survey population in a short
period of time and produces comparable and equally valid results

- Sampling is less demanding in terms of labour requirements, since it covers only a

small portion of the target population.

Sampling error

Sometimes a sample may be unrepresentative of the population. One of the most frequent
causes is sampling error. Sampling error comprises the differences between the sample and
the population that are due solely to the particular units that happen to have been selected.
For example, suppose that a sample of 100 Makerere students are selected for interview
and are all found to be law students, it is very clear that this would be a highly
unrepresentative sample leading to invalid conclusions. There is also sampling bias, which is
a tendency to favour the selection of units that have particular characteristics.

Principles of sampling

Samples are expected to be representative. To achieve this require following certain

standards and methodological principles. In quantitative research, the following are
important:
 - Sample units must be chosen in a systematic and objective manner

- Sample units must be easily identifiable and clearly defined

- Sample units must be independent of each other, uniform and of the same size, and
should appear only once in the population

- The selection process should be based on sound criteria and should avoid errors, bias
and distortions.

- Researcher should adhere to the principles of research

Types of sampling in quantitative research

- probability /random sampling

This is a type of sampling whereby everyone has an equal chance of being selected. For
example, if you want to select 10 players randomly from a population of 100, you can write
their names, fold them up, mix them thoroughly then pick ten. In this case, every name had
any equal chance of being picked.

Types of random sampling

o simple random sampling

This is where sampling units have an equal chance of being selected, and are independent
from each other. Their chance of being selected does not depend on the selection of other
units.

o systematic random sampling

A systematic random sampling is obtained by selecting one unit on a random basis and
choosing additional elementary units at evenly spaced intervals until the desired number of
units is obtained. For example, there are 100 students in your class. You want a sample of
20 from these 100 and you have their names listed on a piece of paper may be in an
alphabetical order. If you choose to use systematic random sampling, divide 100 by 20, you
will get 5. Randomly select any number between 1 and five. Suppose the number you have
picked is 4, that will be your starting number. So student number 4 has been selected. From
there you will select every 5th name until you reach the last one, number one hundred. You
will end up with 20 selected students.

o Stratified Random Sampling

- A stratified sample is obtained by independently selecting a separate simple random

sample from each population stratum. A population can be divided into different
groups may be based on some characteristic or variable like income, education, sex,
age, ethnic background. Like anybody with ten years of education will be in group A,
 between 10 and 20 group B and between 20 and 30 group C. These groups are
referred to as strata. You can then randomly select from each stratum a given
number of units which may be based on proportion like if group A has 100 persons
while group B has 50, and C has 30 you may decide you will take 10% of each. So
you end up with 10 from group a, 5 from group B and 3 from group C.

o Multi-Stage Sampling

In multi-stage sampling, the selection of sample units begins with the choice of a large
sample, and proceeds with new samples taken in succession from those previously selected,
thus facilitating the construction of a more suitable and more effective choice. More
specifically a large sample is chosen, using a random sampling procedure, and then another
sample is taken from within this sample, excluding excess and unrelated units. The process
is continued for as long as is required, until a more specific, focused and more relevant
sample is chosen.

For instance, assume you want to study the attitudes of nurses to the proposal that
compulsory reporting of suspected domestic violence injuries should be abolished. The
sample is to be determined by means of multi-stage sampling procedures. To obtain the
sample we proceed as follow:

- a list of nurses from all hospitals in the region is obtained

- from this list, 2000 nurses are chosen

- using hospital unit as criterion, 600 nurses are chosen, representing all major
hospitals of the country

- these 600 nurses are finally screened, first using gender as a criterion, and then
specialisation, age, and length of employment, resulting in a balanced sample of 150
respondents.

- These respondents constitute the final research sample.

Non-Probability Sampling

Non-probability sampling is mostly used in exploratory research and qualitative analysis.

o Convenience Sampling

This sampling employs no systematic techniques to choose the respondents. Instead the
sample units are those people who accidentally come into contact with the researcher. For
instance, you many stand at a street-corner, in front of a school or church, or at the main
exit of a shopping centre, and ask a number of people passing by to take part in the study.
They are chosen by accident – they just happen to there at that time – hence the name
convenient sampling or accidental sampling or chunk sampling, grab sampling and
haphazard sampling. In this kind of sampling the researcher is not interested in
representativeness, objectivity, validity but simply in getting information that would reveal
certain aspects of the lifestyle in question, among others.

o Snowball Sampling

In this sampling, the researcher chooses a few respondents, using accidental sampling or
any other method, and asks them to recommend other people who meet the criteria of the
research and who might be willing to participate in the project. This process is continued
with the new respondents until saturation – that is, until no more substantial information can
be acquired through additional respondents – or until no more respondents are available.

o Quota Sampling

This is where the researcher sets a quota of respondents to be chosen from specific
population groups, defining the basis of choice (gender, marital status, ethnicity, education,
etc) and determining its size (for instance, 60 policewomen, 70 teachers, etc). For instance,
the health commission is interested in identifying the state of health of workers employed in
mining industries around the country. Instead of going through the process of compiling
sampling frames in each industry, and then choosing the respondents, the researcher
decides to use quota sampling. This proceeds as follows:

- interviewers are sent to each major mining industry

- the interviewers are told to study, in each unit: 10 workers aged below 20; 10
workers aged 21-30; 10 aged 31-40; 10 aged 41-50, etc

- The interviewers are also told to consider length of service in their selection. Each of
the above quotas must contain the same proportions of workers employed in these
industries for more and for less than two years.

- The persons who took part in the study constitute the sample

o Purposive Sampling

This is where the researcher purposively chooses subjects who in their opinion are relevant
to the project. The choice of respondents is guided by the judgment of the investigator. It is
for this reason that it is also called judgmental sampling. For instance, suppose you want to
conduct research on how laws of the country are made. To explore this topic you decide to
interview MPs because in you view these people can offer adequate and useful information
on the procedure of law making.

Sample Size
Determining sample size varies significantly depending whether the study is qualitative or
quantitative. A wise rule is that the sample must be ‘as large as necessary, and as small as
possible’. This critical figure is reached in some cases through logical estimates, and in
others through statistical computation.

In qualitative research sample size is determined by two major factors: the paradigm that
guides the research, and the nature of the target population. The study will stop when
saturation is achieved and this emerges out of the data and not out of logical thinking or
other calculations. In general terms, the following are some of the principles that help in
determining sample size:

- Underlying methodology: quantitative research requires larger samples than

qualitative

- Nature of the study object: some research topics require large and others small
samples

- Available time and resources

- Homogeneity of the target population: the more homogeneous the target population
the smaller the sample can be, and vice versa.

- Accuracy: the higher the degree of accuracy required, the large the sample

- Nature of the data required. If quantitative data are required, a large sample is
needed; if qualitative data are required, a small sample will be sufficient

- Purpose of the study. If the study aims to achieve inductive generalizations, a large
sample will be required

- Intensity of the study: the more intense and in-depth the method of data collection,
the smaller the sample

- Nature of the study : survey requires a large sample; case studies do not

- Response rate: the lower the expected response rate, the larger the sample size.

How to Choose a Sample Size without Formulas

When one decides to conduct a study, usually a survey, the common question asked is “how
big should my sample size be”? While expert statisticians may find it easier to determine
because of their training in the statistical formulae, non-statisticians find it rather difficult.

A simple guide for those without statistics background explained here is helpful. The guide
proposed here is for those doing basic surveys such as feedback forms, needs assessments,
opinion surveys, among others and surveys that use random sampling.
 - Most statisticians agree that for any meaningful sample size a minimum number of
100 is acceptable. And if the population one is going to survey is less than 100 it is
advisable to survey them all.

- A good maximum sample size is usually about 10% of the population, as long as this
does not exceed 1000. For instance, in a population of 5000, 10% would be 500. In a
population of 200,000, 10% would be 20,000. This exceeds 1000, so in this case the
maximum would be 1000. Sampling of 1000 in a population of 200,000 will normally
give a fairly accurate result. Sampling more than 1000 people won’t add much to the
accuracy given the extra time and money it would cost.

- It is advisable that you can choose a minimum of 100 as the sample size if:

o You have limited time and money

o You only need a rough estimate of the results

o You don’t plan to divide the sample into different groups during the analysis

o You think most people will give similar answers

o The decisions that will be made based on the results do not have significant
consequences

- Choose a number closer to the maximum if:

o You have time and money

o It is important to get accurate results

o You plan to disaggregate the sample into many different groups during the
analysis, for instance, different age groups, socio-economic level, etc.

o You think people are likely to give very different answers

o The decisions that will be made based on the results of the survey are
important, expensive or have serious consequences

Writing a research proposal

- A research proposal is an overall plan, scheme, structure and strategy designed to

obtain answers to the research questions or problems that constitute your research
project. The proposal adheres to certain principles.

- In simple terms a research problem looks at:

o What you proposal to do (look at)?

 o Why you proposal to do what you intend?

o How you plan to proceed to investigate the object? The area of epistemology.

- The proposal should have a preamble/introduction

One must consider the history of the topic, the current trends and statistics, the
major issues for the persistence of the issue under investigation.

- The problem statement

This frames the question/gap regarding the area of study that forms the essence of
the problem question.

- Objectives

o Overall objective

o Specific objectives (at least 3 specifics

- Research questions/hypothesis to be tested

 These are general guidelines for conducting the study – positivists

prefer hypotheses.

- Literature review

- Conceptual framework/theoretical framework

A conceptual framework relates variables and concepts e.g. investigating the

persistence of HIV/AIDS involves a relationship between the cause and effects. A
variable is a concept that is capable of being measured. Certain concepts cannot be
measured e.g. democracy – in their case one uses indicators.

Independent variables are such that can cause a change in the phenomena under
examination. Intervening variables create a link between independent and
dependent variables.

- Methodology – this is the overall strategy of how one is going to investigate.

o the study design: they may be cross-sectional, longitudinal, prospective,

retrospective etc. Generally, the most common design is cross-sectional –
where one contacts the population only once.

o the setting/area of data collection

o sampling procedure – this is the selection procedure: probability sampling and

non-probability sampling; snowboat sampling;

o methods and instruments/tools of data collection – this may include

questionnaires etc as an instrument of data collection. A questionnaire and an
interview schedule are similar but for the means of administration.

Focus Group Discussions have a minimum of 6 people and a maximum of 12

people. It should take a minimum of 30 minutes and a maximum of 40.
 Observation – this is an ethnographic method where the researcher observes.
It may be participant observation and non-participant observation.

o data analysis – we normally investigate correlation: experimental research

investigates causation.

Quantitative data

Quantitative data

o ethical considerations

Consent is a major ethical consideration and the most common ethical issue.

o References

This constitutes the books used in the text while a bibliography includes other
books.

- report writing

Writing the introduction

- An introduction gives an overview of the main areas under the study

- A historic perspective relevant to the study

- Philosophical or ideological issues relating to the topic

- Trends in terms of prevalence, if appropriate

- Major theories, if any

- The main issues, problems and advances in the subject area under study

- Etc.

o Example I: suppose that you are conducting a study to investigate the impact
of immigration on the family. The preamble/introduction should include a brief
description of the following:

 The origins of migratory movements in the world

 General theories developed to explain migratory behavior

 The reasons for migration

 Current trends in migration (national)

 The impact of migration on family roles and relationships (e.g., on

husband and wife, on children and parents, on parental expectations of
children, etc)

 Occupational mobility
  Etc

o Example II: suppose that you plan to study the relationship between academic
achievement and social environment. The preamble or introduction would
include the following:

 The role of education in our society

 Major changes in the philosophy of education over time

 Factors affecting attitudes toward education

 The development of education in the country

 Trends in education participation rates in the country with particular

reference to the region in which the study is being carried out

 Changing educational values

 Etc.

Problem statement

After the introduction to the area of study, one has to focus on the issues relating to its
central themes, identifying gaps in the existing body knowledge. Identify some of the
unanswered questions. Some of the main research questions that you would like to answer
through your study should also be raised, and a rationale for each should be provided.
Knowledge gained from other studies and the literature about the issues you are proposing
to investigate should be an integral part of this section. Specifically, this section should:

- identify the issues that the basis of your study

- identify the main gaps in the existing body knowledge

- raise some of the main research questions that you want to answer through your
study

- identify what knowledge is available concerning your questions, specifying the

differences of opinion in the literature regarding these questions if differences exist;
and

- develop a rationale for your study with particular reference to how your study will fill
the identified gaps

Example I: in the example I regarding immigration, the following will be some of the
indicators of the problem statement

- What settlement process does a family go through after immigration?

- What adjustments do immigrants have to make?

- What types of change can occur in family members’ attitudes? (theory of

acculturation, etc)

- What is the possible impact of settlement on family roles and relationship

 - In terms of impact, what specific questions do you want to answer through your
study? What does literature say about these questions? What are the different
viewpoints on these issues?

Objectives of the study

This section should include your overall and specific objectives. The main objective indicates
the central thrust of your study whereas the specific objectives identify the specific issues
you propose to examine. The objectives should be clearly stated and specific in nature. Each
specific objective should consider only one issue. It is advisable to use terms such as ‘to
determine’ to find out’, to ascertain’ in formulating specific objectives

Example I: In our example for instance, the main objective would read like:

- To ascertain the impact of immigration on the family

o Specific objectives would be:

 To determine the impact of immigration on husband/wife roles as

perceived by immigrants

 To find out the impact of immigration on marital relations

 To ascertain perceived changes in parental expectations of children’s

academic and professional achievements

 To determine perceived change of attitude towards marriage in the

study population

Hypothesis to be tested

A hypothesis is a statement of your assumption about the prevalence of a phenomenon or

about a relationship between two variables that you plan to test within the framework of the
study. When formulating a hypothesis you have to draw conclusions about it in the text of
the report. Hypotheses have a particular study of formation, which one has to be well
acquainted with. For instance, in our example I, you could formulate the hypotheses thus:

- H1: in most cases there be a change in husband/wife roles after immigration

- H2: in a majority of cases there will be a change in parents’ expectations of their

children.

- H3: etc, etc

Literature review
 - If you do not have a specific research problem, you should review the literature in
your broad area of interest with the aim of gradually narrowing down to what you
want to find out about.

- After that the literature review should focus around your research problem.

- However, it is often advisable that you have a research problem before you review
literature. Otherwise the literature can bias or condition your thinking process,
resulting in less innovative choice of research problem.

- Reviewing literature is a continuous process. Although you need to complete most of

the literature review before you undertake your study, you have to continue with it
until you write your report as you need to integrate the findings from your study with
those of others, stating whether your findings support or contradict other studies.

- There are four steps involved in conducting a literature review:

o Search the existing literature in your area of study

o Review the literature selected

o Develop theoretical frameworks; and

o Develop conceptual framework

- Reviewing literature entails reading critically by noticing themes related to your

study

- Major theories relating to your problem statement

- Trends, if necessary

- Gaps in literature vis-à-vis your study

- Methodologies used and their outcomes; short comings of such methodology

Conceptual framework

- A conceptual framework is often made up of variables/concepts

- A conceptual framework comes from a theoretical framework

o Variables:

An image, perception or concepts that are capable of being measured are called variables.
In other words, a concept that is capable of being measured is a variable. Examples of
variables include age, income, weight, height, religion (catholic, protestants, Muslim, etc),
gender (male/female)

o Concept

There is a difference between concepts and variables. Concepts are mental images or
perceptions or constructs. Concepts cannot be measured.
Examples of concepts include effectiveness, satisfaction, impact, excellent, rich, self-
esteem, and domestic violence alcoholic consumption.

- If you are using concepts in your study, one need to consider its operationalization,
how it should be measured.

- In most cases to operationalize a concept you needs to identify indicators. Some

concepts such a rich can easily be converted into indicators and then variables. If you
are investigating if a person is rich, you need to develop the indicators. For example
income, which can be measured in dollars, shillings, pounds, etc? Assets, for
instance, a house, car, investments are indictors. Converting these into say shillings
will give one the total value of assets owned by a person.

- Types of variables

- Independent variables – the cause supposed to bring about a change in a

phenomenon or situation

- Dependent variable – the outcome of the change(s) brought about by the change in
an independent variable

- Extraneous variable – several other factors operating in real-life situation may affect
changes attributed to independent variables.

- Intervening variables or confounding variables – these link the independent and

dependent variables. Sometimes the relationship between an independent and
dependent variable cannot be established without the intervention of another
variable. The cause variable will have the assumed effect only in the presence of an
intervening variables

By way of example, assume you want to study the relationship between smoking and
cancer. You assume that smoking is a cause of cancer. Studies show that many factors
affect this relationship such as the number of cigarettes or the amount of tobacco, duration
of smoking, the age of a smoker, dietary habits, etc. all these may affect the extent to which
smoking cause cancer. The variables my increase or decrease the magnitude of the
relationship but you are not interested in measuring the impact. In this example the extent
of smoking is the independent variable, cancer is the dependent variable and all the
variables that might affect this relationship, either positively or negatively are extraneous
variables.
Smoking Cancer
(Assumed cause) (Assumed effect)
Dependent variable
Independent variable

Affect the relationship

The age of a person

The extent of smoking
The duration of smoking
etc
Social Research Methods -