Subsurface Flow Module

User’s Guide
Subsurface Flow Module User’s Guide
© 1998–2023 COMSOL
Protected by patents listed on [Link]/patents, or see Help>About COMSOL Multiphysics on the
File menu in the COMSOL Desktop for less detailed lists of U.S. Patents that may apply. Patents pending.
This Documentation and the Programs described herein are furnished under the COMSOL Software License
Agreement ([Link]/sla) and may be used or copied only under the terms of the license
agreement.
COMSOL, the COMSOL logo, COMSOL Multiphysics, COMSOL Desktop, COMSOL Compiler,
COMSOL Server, and LiveLink are either registered trademarks or trademarks of COMSOL AB. All other
trademarks are the property of their respective owners, and COMSOL AB and its subsidiaries and products
are not affiliated with, endorsed by, sponsored by, or supported by those trademark owners. For a list of such
trademark owners, see [Link]/trademarks.
Version: COMSOL 6.2

Contact Information
Visit the Contact COMSOL page at [Link]/contact to submit general inquiries
or search for an address and phone number. You can also visit the Worldwide Sales Offices
page at [Link]/contact/offices for address and contact information.

If you need to contact Support, an online request form is located on the COMSOL Access
page at [Link]/support/case. Other useful links include:

• Support Center: [Link]/support

• Product Download: [Link]/product-download
• Product Updates: [Link]/product-update
• COMSOL Blog: [Link]/blogs
• Discussion Forum: [Link]/forum
• Events: [Link]/events
• COMSOL Video Gallery: [Link]/videos
• Support Knowledge Base: [Link]/support/knowledgebase

Part number: CM020701

C o n t e n t s

Chapter 1: Introduction

About the Subsurface Flow Module 14

How the Subsurface Flow Module Helps Improve Your Modeling . . . . 14
The Subsurface Flow Module Physics Interface Guide . . . . . . . . . 15
Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes . . . . . . 19
Subsurface Flow Module Study Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
The Liquids and Gases Materials Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries? . . . . 20

Overview of the User’s Guide 23

Chapter 2: Subsurface Flow Modeling

Where Do I Start with Subsurface Flow Modeling? 28

Selecting the Right Fluid Flow Interface 29

Note About the Groundwater Flow Equation 32

Dual Porosity & Dual Permeability Modeling 35

Pressure, Pressure Head, and Hydraulic Head Formulation 37

Gravity Effects 38

Chapter 3: Single- and Multiphase Flow Interfaces

The Laminar Flow and Creeping Flow Interfaces 40

The Creeping Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
The Laminar Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

CONTENTS |3
 Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow . . . . . 47
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Volume Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Boundary Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Periodic Flow Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Porous Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Flow Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Pressure Point Constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Point Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Line Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces 67

General Single-Phase Flow Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Compressible Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Weakly Compressible Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
The Mach Number Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Incompressible Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
The Reynolds Number. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Theory for the Wall Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Fully Developed Flow (Inlet) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Fully Developed Flow (Outlet). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
No Viscous Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Normal Stress Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Pressure Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Porous Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Mass Sources for Fluid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow . . . . . . 90
Solvers for Laminar Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models . . . . . . . . . . . 95

4 | CONTENTS
 Nitsche Constraints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Particle Tracing in Fluid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
References for the Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow Interfaces . . . . . 98

Chapter 4: Porous Media and

Subsurface Flow Interfaces

Theory for the Darcy’s Law Interface 103

About Darcy’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Darcy’s Law — Equation Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Storage Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Average Linear Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Dual Porosity and Dual Permeability Theory . . . . . . . . . . . 106
References for the Darcy’s Law Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

The Darcy’s Law Interface 110

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Darcy’s
Law Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Porous Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Unsaturated Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Dual Porosity Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Dual Permeability Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Unsaturated Dual Permeability Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Macropores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Micropores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Contributing Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Thickness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Porous Electrode Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Electrode Surface Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

CONTENTS |5
 Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Mass Flux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Line Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Point Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
No Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Flux Discontinuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Thin Barrier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Pressure Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Hydraulic Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Atmosphere/Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Pervious Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Fluid (Fracture) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Fracture Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

Theory for the Richards’ Equation Interface 148

About Richards’ Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Retention and Permeability Relationships. . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
References for the Richards’ Equation Interface . . . . . . . . . . 153

The Richards’ Equation Interface 155

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Richards’
Equation Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Flownet Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

Theory for the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface 158

About the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Capillary Pressure Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
References for the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface . . . . . . . . 160

The Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface 161

Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law

6 | CONTENTS
 Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Fluid and Matrix Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
No Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Pressure and Saturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Mass Flux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Thin Barrier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

Theory for the Fracture Flow Interface 168

About Fracture Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Equations and Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

The Fracture Flow Interface 171

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Fracture
Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

Theory for the Brinkman Equations Interface 175

About the Brinkman Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Brinkman Equations Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
References for the Brinkman Equations Interface. . . . . . . . . . 177

The Brinkman Equations Interface 178

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Brinkman
Equations Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Porous Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Volume Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

CONTENTS |7
 Theory for the Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman
Interface 189
Reference for the Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman Interface . . 189

The Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman Interface 190

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Free and Porous
Media Flow, Brinkman Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Porous Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Volume Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

Theory for the Free and Porous Media Flow, Darcy Interface
199
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

The Free and Porous Media Flow, Darcy Interface 202

Free and Porous Media Flow Coupling (Multiphysics Coupling) . . . . 202

Chapter 5: Shallow Water Equations Interface

The Shallow Water Equations, Time Explicit Interface 208

The Shallow Water Equations, Time Explicit Interface . . . . . . . . 208
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Shallow
Water Equations Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Domain Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Domain Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

8 | CONTENTS
 Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Water Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

Theory for the Shallow Water Equations Interface 217

The Shallow Water Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
The Numerical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Wave Speed and Flow Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Forces on Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
References for the Shallow Water Equations Interfaces . . . . . . . 222

Chapter 6: Chemical Species Transport Interfaces

The Transport of Diluted Species Interface 224

The Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media Interface . . . . . 228
Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Diluted
Species Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Prescribing Conditions on Fluid-Solid Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . 232
Species Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Transport Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Solid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Mass-Based Concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
No Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Inflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Outflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Flux Discontinuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Partition Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Periodic Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Line Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Point Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

CONTENTS |9
 Thin Diffusion Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Thin Impermeable Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Equilibrium Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Surface Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Surface Equilibrium Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Fast Irreversible Surface Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Porous Electrode Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Reaction Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Electrode Surface Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Porous Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Unsaturated Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Liquid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Volatilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Species Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Hygroscopic Swelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Out-of-Plane Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Fluid (Fracture) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Fracture Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

The Transport of Diluted Species in Fractures Interface 266

Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Diluted
Species in Fractures Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Inflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
No Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Outflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Species Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274

10 | C O N T E N T S
 Theory for the Transport of Diluted Species Interface 276
Mass Balance Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Equilibrium Reaction Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Convective Term Formulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Solving a Diffusion Equation Only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Mass Sources for Species Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Adding Transport Through Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Supporting Electrolytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Crosswind Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Danckwerts Inflow Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Mass Balance Equation for Transport of Diluted Species in Porous
Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Convection in Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Diffusion in Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Mass Transport in Fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

Chapter 7: Heat Transfer Interfaces

The Mechanisms for Heat Transfer 300

Selecting the Right Heat Transfer Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Heat Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Heat Convection and Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Phase Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

Chapter 8: Multiphysics Interfaces and Couplings

Theory for the Poroelasticity Interfaces 306

Small Strain Poroelasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Darcy’s Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Large Strain Poroelasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Unsaturated Poroelasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313

CONTENTS | 11
 References for the Poroelasticity Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

The Poroelasticity Interfaces 315

The Poroelasticity, Solid Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Poroelasticity (Multiphysics Coupling) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316

Theory for the Multiphase Flow in Porous Media Interface 319

Pressure-Saturation Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Thin Barrier (Multiphysics Coupling) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324

The Multiphase Flow in Porous Media Interface 325

Multiphase Flow in Porous Media (Multiphysics Coupling) . . . . . . 326
Well (Multiphysics Coupling) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Thin Barrier (Multiphysics Coupling) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

The Reacting Flow in Porous Media Interface 333

The Nonisothermal Flow, Brinkman Equations Interface 334

Settings for the Brinkman Equations Interface and the Coupling
Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334

Index 337

12 | C O N T E N T S
 1

Introduction

This guide describes the Subsurface Flow Module, an optional add-on package
that extends the COMSOL Multiphysics® modeling environment with customized
physics interfaces for modeling fluid flow below the ground level or in porous
media in general. It allows to combine this flow with other phenomena, such as
poroelasticity, heat transfer, chemistry, and electromagnetic fields.

This chapter introduces you to the capabilities of this module. A summary of the
physics interfaces and where you can find documentation and model examples is
also included. The last section is a brief overview with links to each chapter in this
guide.

• About the Subsurface Flow Module

• Overview of the User’s Guide

| 13
 About the Subsurface Flow Module
In this section:

• How the Subsurface Flow Module Helps Improve Your Modeling

• The Subsurface Flow Module Physics Interface Guide
• Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes
• Subsurface Flow Module Study Availability
• The Liquids and Gases Materials Database
• Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

The Physics Interfaces and Building a COMSOL Multiphysics Model in

the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

How the Subsurface Flow Module Helps Improve Your Modeling

The earth and surrounding planets are a giant laboratory filled with an unlimited array
of basic physics and multiphysics interactions. Whether in concert or alone, these
physical phenomena alter our access to important resources, affect the quality of the
environment, shape the ground beneath our feet on earth, and form other planets.

The Subsurface Flow Module is used in the quantitative investigation of geophysical

and environmental phenomena, especially within the area of subsurface flow. The
module combines physics interfaces for fundamental processes and links to COMSOL
Multiphysics and the other modules for structural mechanics and electromagnetics
analyses. New physics represented include heating from radiogenic decay that
produces the geotherm, which is the increase in background temperature with depth.
You can use the variably saturated flow interfaces to analyze unsaturated zone processes
(important to environmental engineers) and two-phase flow (of particular interest in
the petroleum industry as well as steam-liquid systems). Important in subsurface flow,
the heat transfer and chemical transport interfaces explicitly account for physics in the
liquid, solid, and gas phases.

The physics interfaces, options, and functions are tailored to account for subsurface
flow and geologic process terminology. The Heat Transfer interfaces, for example,
include features to superpose a background geotherm without incorporating it as a

14 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
boundary condition. These physics interfaces also include options to automate the
calculation of effective thermal properties for multicomponent systems.

The Fluid Flow branch represent a wide range of possibilities. The Richards’ Equation
interface describes nonlinear flow in variably saturated porous media. The options for
saturated porous media include the Darcy’s Law interface for slow flow and the
Brinkman Equations interface where shear is nonnegligible. The Laminar Flow
interface uses the Navier-Stokes equations to cover free flows and the Fracture Flow
interface is used for modeling flow in fractures.

The module also treats the transport of chemicals and their reactions with the
Chemical Species Transport branch. The Transport of Diluted Species in Porous
Media interface account for chemical transfer in solid, liquid, and gas phases for free,
saturated, and variably saturated fluid flows. The Subsurface Flow Module Application
Library has a number examples linking these physics interfaces together.

The Subsurface Flow Module Physics Interface Guide

The table below lists all the physics interfaces specifically available with this module in
addition to the core physics interfaces included in COMSOL Multiphysics. The
Subsurface Flow Module enhances the COMSOL Multiphysics basic interfaces
regarding the “Transport of Diluted Species” interface and adds the Poroelasticity
interface to structural mechanics.

The Subsurface Flow Module has a set of physics interfaces adopted for a broad
category of simulations important in earth investigations. These physics interface and
models can serve equally well as tools for research, applied investigations, and
classroom education.

The predefined physics interfaces available in this module cover three main application
areas. The Subsurface Flow Module interfaces are available in 2D, 2D axisymmetry,
and 3D. The physics interfaces for heat transfer and species transport are also available
in 1D and 1D axisymmetry. All physics interfaces are available for both stationary and
time-dependent analyses. The physics interfaces can be combined to model, for

ABOUT THE SUBSURFACE FLOW MODULE | 15

 example, reacting systems and nonisothermal flow. Alternatively, predefined
multiphysics interfaces can be used.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Studies and Solvers

• The Physics Interfaces
• For a list of all the core physics interfaces included with a COMSOL
Multiphysics license, see Physics Interface Guide.

PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE

DIMENSION

Chemical Species Transport

Transport of Diluted tds all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Species1
Transport of Diluted tds all dimensions stationary; time dependent
Species in Porous Media
Transport of Diluted dsf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Species in Fractures axisymmetric
Reacting Flow

Laminar Flow, Diluted — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Species1 axisymmetric

Reacting Flow in Porous Media

Transport of Diluted — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Species axisymmetric
Fluid Flow

Single-Phase Flow

Creeping Flow spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric

16 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Laminar Flow1 spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric
Multiphase Flow

Phase Transport

Phase Transport phtr all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Phase Transport in phtr all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Porous Media
Phase Transport in phtr all dimensions stationary; time dependent
Free and Porous Media
Flow
Porous Media and Subsurface Flow

Brinkman Equations br 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric
Darcy’s Law dl all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Fracture Flow ff 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric
Richards’ Equation dl all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Multiphase Flow in — all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Porous Media
Two-Phase Darcy’s Law tpdl 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric
Free and Porous Media fp 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Flow, Brinkman axisymmetric
Free and Porous Media — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Flow, Darcy axisymmetric

ABOUT THE SUBSURFACE FLOW MODULE | 17

 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Nonisothermal Flow

Brinkman Equations — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;

axisymmetric stationary, one-way NITF;
time dependent, one-way
NITF
Shallow Water Equations

Shallow Water swe 1D and 2D time dependent

Equations, Time
Explicit
Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer in Solids ht all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Heat Transfer in Fluids1 ht all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Heat Transfer in Solids and ht all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Fluids1
Heat Transfer in htlsh 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
Fractures axisymmetric thermal perturbation,
frequency domain
Heat Transfer in ht all dimensions stationary; time dependent
Porous Media
Structural Mechanics

Poroelasticity

Poroelasticity, Solid2 — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric
1 This physics interface is included with the core COMSOL Multiphysics software but has
added functionality for this module.
2
This physics interface is a predefined multiphysics coupling that automatically adds all the
physics interfaces and coupling features required.

18 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes
There are several common settings and sections available for the physics interfaces and
feature nodes. Some of these sections also have similar settings or are implemented in
the same way no matter the physics interface or feature being used. There are also some
physics feature nodes that display in COMSOL Multiphysics.

In each module’s documentation, only unique or extra information is included;

standard information and procedures are centralized in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for

links to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes.
You can also search for information: press F1 to open the Help
window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

Subsurface Flow Module Study Availability

All the physics interfaces included with the module have the Stationary and Time
Dependent preset studies available. Custom studies are also available based on the
physics interface.

Studies and Solvers and The Physics Interfaces in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual

The Liquids and Gases Materials Database

The Liquids and Gases material database provides temperature-dependent fluid
dynamic and thermal properties such as dynamic viscosity, heat capacity at constant
pressure, density, and thermal conductivity.

For detailed information, see Liquids and Gases Material Library and
Materials in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

ABOUT THE SUBSURFACE FLOW MODULE | 19

 Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?
A number of online resources have more information about COMSOL, including
licensing and technical information. The electronic documentation, topic-based (or
context-based) help, and the Application Libraries are all accessed through the
COMSOL Desktop.

If you are reading the documentation as a PDF file on your computer,

the blue links do not work to open an application or content
referenced in a different guide. However, if you are using the Help
system in COMSOL Multiphysics, these links work to open other
modules, application examples, and documentation sets.

THE DOCUMENTATION AND ONLINE HELP

The COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual describes the core physics interfaces
and functionality included with the COMSOL Multiphysics license. This book also has
instructions on how to use COMSOL Multiphysics and how to access the electronic
Documentation and Help content.

Opening Topic-Based Help

The Help window is useful as it is connected to the features in the COMSOL Desktop.
To learn more about a node in the Model Builder, or a window on the Desktop, click
to highlight a node or window, then press F1 to open the Help window, which then
displays information about that feature (or click a node in the Model Builder followed
by the Help button ( ). This is called topic-based (or context) help.

To open the Help window:

• In the Model Builder, Application Builder, or Physics Builder, click a node

or window and then press F1.
• On any toolbar (for example, Home, Definitions, or Geometry), hover the
mouse over a button (for example, Add Physics or Build All) and then
press F1.
• From the File menu, click Help ( ).
• In the upper-right corner of the COMSOL Desktop, click the Help ( )
button.

20 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
 To open the Help window:

• In the Model Builder or Physics Builder, click a node or window and then
press F1.
• In the main toolbar, click the Help ( ) button.
• From the main menu, select Help>Help.

Opening the Documentation Window

To open the Documentation window:

• Press Ctrl+F1.
• In the main toolbar, click the Documentation ( ) button.
• From the main menu, select Help>Documentation.

THE APPLICATION LIBRARIES WINDOW

Each model or application includes documentation with the theoretical background
and step-by-step instructions to create a model or application. The models and
applications are available in COMSOL Multiphysics as MPH-files that you can open
for further investigation. You can use the step-by-step instructions and the actual
models as templates for your own modeling. In most models, SI units are used to
describe the relevant properties, parameters, and dimensions, but other unit systems
are available.

Once the Application Libraries window is opened, you can search by name or browse
under a module folder name. Click to view a summary of the model or application and
its properties, including options to open it or its associated PDF document.

Opening the Application Libraries Window

To open the Application Libraries window ( ):

CONTACTING COMSOL BY EMAIL

For general product information, contact COMSOL at info@[Link].

COMSOL ACCESS AND TECHNICAL SUPPORT

To receive technical support from COMSOL for the COMSOL products, please
contact your local COMSOL representative or send your questions to
support@[Link]. An automatic notification and a case number will be sent to you

ABOUT THE SUBSURFACE FLOW MODULE | 21

 by email. You can also access technical support, software updates, license information,
and other resources by registering for a COMSOL Access account.

COMSOL ONLINE RESOURCES

COMSOL website [Link]

Contact COMSOL [Link]/contact
COMSOL Access [Link]/access
Support Center [Link]/support
Product Download [Link]/product-download
Product Updates [Link]/product-update
COMSOL Blog [Link]/blogs
Discussion Forum [Link]/forum
Events [Link]/events
COMSOL Application Gallery [Link]/models
COMSOL Video Gallery [Link]/videos
Support Knowledge Base [Link]/support/knowledgebase

22 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Overview of the User’s Guide
The Subsurface Flow Module User’s Guide gets you started with modeling using
COMSOL Multiphysics. The information in this guide is specific to this module.
Instructions how to use COMSOL in general are included with the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

As detailed in the section Where Do I Access the Documentation and

Application Libraries? this information can also be searched from the
COMSOL Multiphysics software Help menu.

TABLE OF CONTENTS AND INDEX

To help you navigate through this guide, see the Contents and Index.

THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW BRANCH

The single-phase flow interfaces Laminar Flow and Creeping Flow are described in
Chapter Single- and Multiphase Flow Interfaces.

THE MULTIPHASE FLOW BRANCH

The Phase Transport Interfaces section describes the transport of multiple immiscible
phases in free and porous media flow.

THE POROUS MEDIA FLOW BRANCH

Porous Media and Subsurface Flow Interfaces chapter describes the following physics
interfaces and includes the underlying theory for each physics interface at the end of
the chapter.

• The Porous Media and Subsurface Flow group of interfaces estimates the pressure
and velocity of fluids flowing in free systems and within the interstices of a porous
medium. Theory for the Darcy’s Law Interface helps you choose the right physics
interface to use.
• The Darcy’s Law Interface is for flow in porous media that is relatively slow.
• The Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface to simulate two-phase slow flow through
interstices in a porous medium.
• The Richards’ Equation Interface is for variably saturated systems.

OVERVIEW OF THE USER’S GUIDE | 23

 • The Fracture Flow Interface is a special application of Darcy’s law for modeling flow
in fractures.
• The Brinkman Equations Interface is for fast flow in porous media flow.
• The Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman Interface and The Free and Porous
Media Flow, Darcy Interface are for modeling fluid flow in systems with both free
and porous media flow.

THE SHALLOW WATER EQUATIONS BRANCH

The Shallow Water Equations Interface chapter describes the The Shallow Water
Equations, Time Explicit Interface and includes the underlying theory. It is suitable in
cases where the horizontal length scale is much greater than the vertical length scale.

THE CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT BRANCH

Chemical Species Transport Interfaces chapter describes the physics interfaces found
under the Chemical Species Transport branch when adding a physics interface. The
Transport of Diluted Species interface is used to compute the concentration field of a
dilute solute in a solvent. Transport and reactions of the species dissolved in a gas,
liquid, or solid can be computed.

The Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media Interface characterizes the fate and
transport of individual or multiple and interacting chemical species for systems
containing fluids, solids, and gases. Theory for the physics interfaces is included at the
end of the chapter.

The Transport of Diluted Species in Fractures Interface is used to model the transport
of a solute species along thin fractures. The interface takes into account diffusion,
dispersion, convection, and chemical reactions in fractures. The fractures are defined
by boundaries in 2D and 3D, and the solute species is assumed to be diluted in a
solvent. The mass transport equation solved along the fractures is the tangential
differential form of the convection-diffusion-reaction equation.

THE HEAT TRANSFER BRANCH

Heat Transfer Interfaces chapter describe the group of interfaces that estimate the
temperature distribution in solids, fluids, and fluid-solid systems. The Mechanisms for
Heat Transfer helps you choose the physics interface to use. It includes physics
interfaces to estimate effective properties in multicomponent systems. All heat transfer
interfaces come with interfaces to account for a geotherm brought about through
radiogenic decay.

24 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The Heat Transfer Interface models heat transfer by conduction and convection.
Surface-to-ambient radiation effects around edges and boundaries can also be
included. The physics interfaces are available in 1D, 2D, and 3D and for axisymmetric
models with cylindrical coordinates in 1D and 2D.

The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface lets you describe heat transferred both
with and without flowing fluids. You can define the velocity in the convective term
with any of the flow equations just mentioned or set it with an arbitrary expression.
With convective heat transfer, the effective thermal properties also include an option
to estimate the dispersion or spreading of heat from small-scale velocity variations.

When you have the Subsurface Flow Module plus the Chemical Reaction
Engineering and/or Heat Transfer Modules, the Heat Transfer interface
also has extended features available.

THE MULTIPHYSICS COUPLING NODES

In the Multiphysics Interfaces and Couplings chapter the predefined multiphysics
interfaces are introduced.

The Poroelasticity Interfaces chapter describes the physics interface for Biot’s
poroelasticity, and combines Darcy’s law with solid mechanics to provide suitable
settings to describe the interaction between porous media and fluids.

The Multiphase Flow in Porous Media Interface combines the functionality of the
Darcy’s Law and Phase Transport in Porous Media interfaces.

The Reacting Flow in Porous Media Interface combines the Brinkman Equations and
the Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media interfaces.

The Nonisothermal Flow, Brinkman Equations Interface couples porous media flow
and heat transfer by combining the Brinkman Equations and the Heat Transfer in
Porous Media interfaces.

OVERVIEW OF THE USER’S GUIDE | 25

26 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
 2

Subsurface Flow Modeling

A variety of modeling techniques are discussed in the following sections:

• Where Do I Start with Subsurface Flow Modeling?
• Selecting the Right Fluid Flow Interface
• Note About the Groundwater Flow Equation
• Dual Porosity & Dual Permeability Modeling
• Pressure, Pressure Head, and Hydraulic Head Formulation
• Gravity Effects

| 27
 Where Do I Start with Subsurface
Flow Modeling?
Before beginning with modeling, it is important to be aware of the following
questions:

• Which goal do I pursue with the simulation?

• What accuracy is required from the results?

• Which physical effects play a role?

The first question refers to the results that the simulation should deliver. The system
under consideration is often very complex in structure and the physical processes
involved. Not everything is relevant for the specific task. Together with the second and
third question, the simulation model can then be reduced to the most essential.

Often a 2D or 2D axial symmetric model, sometimes even a 1D model is sufficient.

Especially in subsurface flow problems, one has to deal with very large areas. The
question is to what extent small-scaled structures are relevant for the result and
therefore have to be represented in the geometry. The physical effects to be considered
also depend on how accurate the results should be: Does gravity play a role or do I
have to take temperature fluctuations into account? These questions should be
answered before starting the simulation.

The accuracy of the results also depends on the accuracy of the input quantities.
Especially in geophysical questions the exact structure, the material and its properties
are not exactly known. Therefore the result cannot be more exact than the accuracy of
these and it is not necessary to represent every smallest detail in the model.

Regardless of the above answers, it is always advisable to make the models successively
more complex. Complex 3D models are always significantly more computationally
demanding and often make high demands on the meshing, whereas in 2D models the
focus can be placed on the physical processes and effects. This implies using a simplified
model as a starting point in the project. Complexities can then be introduced gradually
so that the effect of each refinement of the model description is well understood before
introducing new complexities.

28 | CHAPTER 2: SUBSURFACE FLOW MODELING

Selecting the Right Fluid Flow
Interface
The Fluid Flow physics features included with the Subsurface Flow Module are used
to characterize movements of liquids, gases, and other flowing media, such as molten
rock. The physics interfaces are set up using terms like pressure and hydraulic heads,
that are familiar to hydrologists.

variably saturated
water table
free

transitional
saturated

fractured rock

Figure 2-1: Different areas of subsurface flow regimes.

Saturated porous media flow can be modeled through either Darcy’s Law or
Brinkman's extension to Darcy's Law, depending on the size of the pores involved. If
the pore is such that viscous effects to the fluid flow can be ignored, then Darcy’s Law
can be used, and flow is described exclusively by the pressure variable. If the size of the
pores is such that the fluid can impose momentum changes through shear effects, then
the Brinkman equations are suitable. They solve for the same variables as the Navier–

SELECTING THE RIGHT FLUID FLOW INTERFACE | 29

 Stokes equations, but include terms that consider the porosity of the media the fluid
is flowing through.

Read more About Darcian and Non-Darcian Flow and Permeability

Models in the Porous Media Flow User’s Guide.

In variably saturated porous media flow (usually above the water table), hydraulic
properties may change as fluids move through the medium, filling some pores and
draining others. Richards’ equation is employed to model this type of flow, and the van
Genuchten and Brooks and Corey formulations can be applied to take retention in the
pores into account. Density, dynamic viscosity, saturated and residual liquid fraction,
hydraulic conductivities, and storage models can be provided.

The Fracture Flow interface solves for pressure on internal (2D) boundaries within a
3D matrix and is automatically coupled to the physics describing the porous media
flow in the surrounding matrix. This approximation saves you from meshing the actual
fractures and the computational resources this entails. If a fluid happens to flow from
one medium to the other (and back) in the same model, all of the porous media physics
are automatically coupled to descriptions of free flow within the Subsurface Flow
Module.

The Navier–Stokes equation describes free flow of liquid. In the above picture it is valid
to model the flow in the river bank but it can also be used to model flow through the
porous medium on the microscopic scale.

If more than one phase is present in the porous medium, such as in oil reservoirs,
where also the Richard’s Equation is not valid the flow can be modeled using the
Multiphase flow in Porous Media interface which couples Darcy’s Law with a transport
equation for the phases.
TABLE 2-1: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES.

PHYSICS INTERFACE FLOW REGIME EQUATION

Laminar Flow Free Flow Navier–Stokes Equation

Free and Porous Free flow and fast flow in Navier–Stokes Equation in
Media Flow, porous media free flow
Brinkman Brinkman equations in porous
media
Free and Porous Free flow and slow flow in Navier–Stokes Equation in
Media Flow, Darcy porous media free flow
Darcy’s Law in porous media

30 | CHAPTER 2: SUBSURFACE FLOW MODELING

TABLE 2-1: POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACES.

PHYSICS INTERFACE FLOW REGIME EQUATION

Brinkman Equations Fast flow in porous media Brinkman equations

Darcy’s Law Slow flow in porous media Darcy’s Law
Richards’ Equation Variably saturated porous Richards’ equation
media
Fracture Flow Flow along surfaces of Darcy’s Law
fractures
Multiphase Flow in Flow of more than one fluid Darcy’s Law
Porous Media through a porous medium Transport equation for each
phase
Two-Phase Darcy’s Two-phase flow in porous Darcy’s law
Law media Transport equation

SELECTING THE RIGHT FLUID FLOW INTERFACE | 31

 Note About the Groundwater Flow
Equation
In the area of hydrogeology, the groundwater flow equation is commonly used to
describe the groundwater flow through an aquifer. In COMSOL Multiphysics,
equation-based models of physical processes are solved by ensuring a balance of
modeled quantities, such as mass or energy.

The derivation of the groundwater flow equations starts with the mass balance in a
representative elementary volume (REV). This entails ensuring that the fluxes into and
out of the REV are in equilibrium with the mass stored within the volume. This
relationship can be expressed as follows:

q in = q out + ΔS

with S denoting the storage within the volume.

z
qx

qy

Δz

x y
Δx
Δy

qz

Figure 2-2: Fluxes through an elementary volume.

The flux in the x direction is:

( q x, out – q x, in )
( q x, out – q x, in ) Δy Δz = ------------------------------------- Δx Δy Δz
Δx

32 | CHAPTER 2: SUBSURFACE FLOW MODELING

or in differential form

∂q
--------x- Δx Δy Δz
∂x

The flux balance in the y and z directions are defined accordingly and the total flux
balance in the volume is

 ∂q ∂q ∂q
--------x- + --------y- + --------z- Δx Δy Δz = ΔS (2-1)
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

The specific storage Ss is defined as

ΔV w
S s = ---------------------------
-
Δ h Δ x Δy Δ z

where Δh denotes the change in hydraulic head, a specific measure of fluid pressure.
The rate of change in volume of water Vw then is

ΔV w Δh
----------- = – S s ------- Δx Δy Δz
Δt Δt

together with Equation 2-1, the definition of the flux q = ρu, and accounting for
source/sink terms Qm this leads to the formulation of the groundwater flow equation

∂h
S s ------ + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = Q m (2-2)
∂t

In the COMSOL Multiphysics® software Equation 2-2 is formulated in terms of

pressure within the Darcy’s Law interface (See Pressure, Pressure Head, and Hydraulic
Head Formulation). Use the Storage Model to include the Storage term on the left
hand side of the equation and add a mass source to include the sink term on the right
hand side.

HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
The velocity u in Equation 2-2 is commonly described by the formulation of Darcy
law in terms of the gradient of the hydraulic head as follows:

u = – K ∇h (2-3)

where K(m/s) is the hydraulic conductivity which is primarily used in hydrology

applications where the fluid is water. It is related to the permeability according to

NOTE ABOUT THE GROUNDWATER FLOW EQUATION | 33

 K = kρg
----------
μ

Note that the hydraulic conductivity is a property of both the porous matrix and the
fluid, whereas the permeability describes solely the properties of the fluid.

34 | CHAPTER 2: SUBSURFACE FLOW MODELING

Dual Porosity & Dual Permeability
Modeling
The concept of dual porosity and dual permeability is a valuable framework used to
describe the flow of fluids within porous media, taking into account the existence of
two distinct types of pores. Typically, one type of pore is significantly smaller and is
referred to as “micropores”, while the other type is notably larger and is known as
“macropores”. This concept finds widespread application in various fields, including
subsurface hydrology, petroleum engineering, environmental science, and geology,
aiding in the comprehension of fluid movement within porous materials. For instance,
it is particularly relevant in scenarios involving fissured rocks or the upper soil layer,
where macropores may resemble wormholes.

While the terms “dual porosity” and “dual permeability” are occasionally employed
interchangeably and inconsistently in the literature, within COMSOL Multiphysics,
three distinct features are provided under the following names:

• Dual Porosity Medium: Use this feature when the flow through macropores is
governed by Darcy's law and the micropores do not significantly contribute to the
overall flow in the porous medium.
• Dual Permeability Medium: Use this feature when both macro- and micropores
significantly influence the flow field, with both following Darcy's law.
• Unsaturated Dual Permeability Medium: Use this feature for unsaturated porous
media, where both macro- and micropores play a role in fluid flow, and their
behavior is governed by the Richards' Equation.

DUAL POROSITY MEDIUM

Here, the flow through macropores is typically governed by Darcy's law where the
micropores do not significantly contribute to the overall flow in the porous medium.
This assumption can be made because the macropores, due to their larger size and
higher permeability, dominate the flow behavior. While micropores may not actively
participate in the flow, they are considered in terms of fluid exchange with the
macropores.

In practical terms, the Dual Porosity Medium is employed when you have a porous
medium where most of the flow occurs through a well-connected network of
macropores, and the contribution of the smaller micropores can be safely neglected.

DUAL POROSITY & DUAL PERMEABILITY MODELING | 35

 This simplifies the modeling process while still allowing you to capture the essential
features of the system's behavior. It's a valuable tool in various fields, including
hydrogeology, where it can be used to simulate the movement of groundwater in
complex geological formations.

DUAL PERMEABILITY MEDIUM

This feature can be applied in scenarios where the porous medium is saturated with a
fluid. One key difference between dual permeability and dual porosity is that, in a dual
permeability medium, both macro- and micropores contribute significantly to the flow
field. This means that Darcy's law, which governs fluid flow through porous media, is
applied to both pore types. In other words, the flow rates through both macropores
and micropores are considered. It can be applied to situations where both pore types
have varying permeabilities. This is in contrast to the dual porosity approach where it
is assumed that one material is highly permeable and the other is not.

In practical terms, the Dual Permeability Medium is used when modeling saturated fluid
flow in a porous medium with a complex internal structure that includes both
micropores and macropores, and where both pore types significantly influence the
overall flow behavior. This modeling approach is particularly valuable in fields such as
subsurface hydrology, petroleum reservoir engineering, and geology, where reservoirs
or aquifers exhibit dual permeability characteristics.

UNSATURATED DUAL PERMEABILITY MEDIUM

This feature extends the concept of having two types of pores within the porous
medium. Fluid flow through macro- and micropores is described by the Richards'
Equation and is solved separately for both the macropores and micropores, accounting
for the differing flow dynamics in each. This accounts for the heterogeneous nature of
unsaturated porous media which is particularly valuable for simulating real-world
subsurface environments where the presence of both matrix and fractures/channels
significantly affects fluid flow, such as in soil profiles or fractured rock formations. It
provides a more realistic representation of fluid movement in these environments
compared to models that assume homogeneous behavior.

In summary, the Unsaturated Dual Permeability Medium is designed to address the

complexities of fluid flow in unsaturated porous media by considering the presence of
both macro- and micropores, each governed by Richards' Equation. This approach
enhances the accuracy and realism of subsurface simulations in situations where
unsaturated conditions are prevalent, leading to more informed decisions in various
scientific and engineering applications.

36 | CHAPTER 2: SUBSURFACE FLOW MODELING

P r e s s ur e , P r e ssu re H ead , an d
Hydraulic Head Formulation
Within COMSOL Multiphysics, all equations are formulated in terms of pressure.
When working with the Subsurface Flow Module, you have the flexibility to define
pressure, hydraulic head, or pressure head as boundary conditions for your model.
Similarly, you can employ any of these three variables throughout your analysis and
postprocessing. It is important to note that these formulations are interchangeable,
and the software internally handles the conversion between them. For instance, if you
specify a boundary condition in terms of pressure or hydraulic head, the software
seamlessly translates it into the corresponding pressure variable for computation.

Hydraulic head (also known as piezometric head), H(m), and pressure head, Hp(m),
relate to pressure p as

p
H p = ------
ρg
H = Hp + D

where ρ is the fluid density, g denotes the acceleration of gravity, and D is the elevation
or elevation head. When defined as vertical elevation, the horizontal gradients in D
equal zero and vertical gradients in D equal one. Turning off gravity effects sets the
elevation D to zero, and the hydraulic head equals the pressure head.

PRESSURE, PRESSURE HEAD, AND HYDRAULIC HEAD FORMULATION | 37

 Gravity Effects
For large-scale applications it might be necessary to take gravity effects into account.
Darcy’s law then applies when the gradient in hydraulic potential drives fluid
movement in the porous medium. In this case Darcy’s law can be written as follows:

κ
u = – --- ( ∇p – ρg )
μ

In this equation g is the vector of gravitational acceleration. The hydraulic potential in

the equation comes from the pore pressure, p, and gravity, ρg.

Furthermore, in the Subsurface Flow Module, g can be defined as using the elevation
D according to

g = – g∇D

where g is the magnitude of gravitational acceleration. The direction of the elevation

is defined as

g-
e D = -------
g

If a reference position rref is specified the elevation is determined using

D = e D ⋅ ( r – r ref )

The choice of D has a significant impact on results and the physics involved. For
example, if D is the vertical coordinate z and if the flow is entirely horizontal within
the x-y-plane, then the gradient in D vanishes and the driving force is caused by
pressure gradients alone.

38 | CHAPTER 2: SUBSURFACE FLOW MODELING

 3

Single- and Multiphase Flow Interfaces

This chapter describes the interfaces found under the Fluid Flow>Single-Phase Flow
branch ( ).

• The Laminar Flow and Creeping Flow Interfaces

• Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces.

Under the Fluid Flow>Multiphase Flow branch ( ) the following interfaces are
available:

• The Phase Transport Interface

• The Phase Transport in Porous Media Interface
• The Phase Transport in Free and Porous Media Flow Interface

They are fully described in Section The Phase Transport Interfaces of the CFD
Module User’s Guide.

| 39
 The Laminar Flow and Creeping Flow
Interfaces
In this section:

• The Creeping Flow Interface

• The Laminar Flow Interface
• Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow

• Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for links to common
sections such as Discretization, Consistent Stabilization, Inconsistent Stabilization, and
Advanced Settings sections, some of them accessed by clicking the Show button ( )
and choosing the applicable option. You can also search for information: press F1 to
open the Help window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

The Creeping Flow Interface

The Creeping Flow (spf) interface ( ) is used for simulating fluid flows at very low
Reynolds numbers for which the inertial term in the Navier–Stokes equations can be
neglected. Creeping flow, also referred to as Stokes flow, occurs in systems with high
viscosity or small geometrical length scales (for example, in microfluidics and MEMS
devices). The fluid can be compressible or incompressible, as well as Newtonian or
non-Newtonian.

The equations solved by the Creeping Flow interface are the Stokes equations for
conservation of momentum and the continuity equation for conservation of mass.

The Creeping Flow interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analyses.

The main feature is the Fluid Properties node, which adds the Stokes equations and
provides an interface for defining the fluid material and its properties. Except where
noted below, see The Laminar Flow Interface for all other settings.

40 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE- AND MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

PHYSICAL MODEL
By default, the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box is selected. If unchecked,
the inertial terms are included in the computations.

DISCRETIZATION
By default, the Creeping Flow interface uses P2+P1 elements. Contrary to general
laminar and turbulent single-phase flow simulations employing purely linear P1+P1
elements, P2+P1 elements are well suited for most creeping flow simulations but are
not in general fully conservative. Full conservation properties and high accuracy is
obtained by selecting P2+P2 or P3+P3 elements.

Note that P1+P1, P2+P2, and P3+P3 discretizations (the so-called equal order
interpolations) require streamline diffusion to be active.

• The Laminar Flow Interface

• Theory for the Single-Phase Flow InterfacesTheory for the
Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

Pore-Scale Flow: Application Library path

Subsurface_Flow_Module/Fluid_Flow/pore_scale_flow

The Laminar Flow Interface

The Laminar Flow (spf) interface ( ) is used to compute the velocity and pressure
fields for the flow of a single-phase fluid in the laminar flow regime. A flow remains
laminar as long as the Reynolds number is below a certain critical value. At higher
Reynolds numbers, disturbances have a tendency to grow and cause transition to
turbulence. This critical Reynolds number depends on the model, but a classical
example is pipe flow, where the critical Reynolds number is known to be approximately
2000.

The physics interface supports incompressible flow, weakly compressible flow (the
density depends on temperature but not on pressure), and compressible flow at low
Mach numbers (typically less than 0.3). It also supports flow of non-Newtonian fluids.

The equations solved by the Laminar Flow interface are the Navier–Stokes equations
for conservation of momentum and the continuity equation for conservation of mass.

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 41

 The Laminar Flow interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analyses.
Time-dependent studies should be used in the high-Reynolds number regime as these
flows tend to become inherently unsteady.

When the Laminar Flow interface is added, the following default nodes are also added
in the Model Builder: Fluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary condition is No slip),
and Initial Values. Other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions and
volume forces, can be added from the Physics toolbar or from the context menu
displayed when right-clicking Laminar Flow.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Physics interface variables can be referred to using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is spf.

About the Physics Interface Label Names

The label for a single-phase flow interface (the node name in the Model Builder) is
dynamic and is reset according to the turbulence model and the neglect inertial term
(Stokes flow) property set at the physics interface level. The availability also depends
on the software license.

If the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box is selected, then the Label changes
to Creeping Flow, which is the same Label that displays when that interface is added
from the Model Wizard or Add Physics window.

PHYSICAL MODEL

Compressibility
Depending of the fluid properties and the flow regime, three options are available for
the Compressibility option. In general the computational complexity increases from
Incompressible flow to Weakly compressible flow to Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) but the
underlying hypotheses are increasingly more restrictive in the opposite direction.

When the Incompressible flow option (default) is selected, the incompressible form of
the Navier–Stokes and continuity equations is applied. In addition, the fluid density is

42 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE- AND MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

evaluated at the Reference pressure level defined in this section. The Reference
temperature is set to 293.15 K.

The Weakly compressible flow option models compressible flow when the pressure
dependency of the density can be neglected. When selected, the compressible form of
the Navier–Stokes and continuity equations is applied. In addition, the fluid density is
evaluated at the Reference pressure level defined in this section.

When the Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) option is selected, the compressible form of the
Navier–Stokes and continuity equations is applied. Ma < 0.3 indicates that the inlet
and outlet conditions, as well as the stabilization, may not be suitable for transonic and
supersonic flow. For more information, see The Mach Number Limit.

Neglect Inertial Term (Stokes Flow)

For low Reynolds number flows, the inertial terms in the Navier–Stokes equations may
be neglected.

Porous Media Domains

With the addition of various modules, the Enable porous media domains check box is
available. Selecting this option, a Fluid and Matrix Properties node, a Mass Source node,
and a Forchheimer Drag subnode are added to the physics interface. These are described
for the Brinkman Equations interface in the respective module’s documentation. The
Fluid and Matrix Properties can be applied on all domains or on a subset of the domains.

Porous Treatment of No Slip Condition

Porous treatment of no slip condition is available when Enable porous media domains is
activated. It controls how the No Slip condition on Wall boundaries and Interior Wall
boundaries adjacent to Porous Medium should be treated. The options are Standard no
slip formulation (default) and Porous slip. The latter option provides a unified treatment
when the porous matrix is fully resolved as well as when it is under resolved ensuring
a smooth transition between regions with different resolutions; see No Slip under Wall.

Include Gravity
When the Include gravity check box is selected, a global Gravity feature is shown in the
interface model tree, and the buoyancy force is included in the Navier–Stokes
equations.

Also, when the Include gravity check box is selected, the Use reduced pressure option
changes the pressure formulation from using the total pressure (default) to using the
reduced pressure. This option is suitable for configurations where the density changes
are very small; otherwise, the default formulation can be used. For more information,
see Gravity

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 43

 Reference Values
Reference values are global quantities used to evaluate the density of the fluid when
the Incompressible flow or the Weakly compressible flow option is selected.

Reference pressure level There are generally two ways to include the pressure in fluid
flow computations: either to use the absolute pressure pA=p+pref, or the gauge
pressure p. When pref is nonzero, the physics interface solves for the gauge pressure
whereas material properties are evaluated using the absolute pressure. The reference
pressure level is also used to define the reference density.

Reference temperature The reference temperature is used to define the reference

density.

Reference position When Include gravity is selected, the reference position can be
defined. It corresponds to the location where the total pressure (that includes the
hydrostatic pressure) is equal to the Reference pressure level.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface — the
Velocity field u and its components, and the Pressure p.

If required, the names of the field, component, and dependent variable can be edited.
Editing the name of a scalar dependent variable changes both its field name and the
dependent variable name. If a new field name coincides with the name of another field
of the same type, the fields share degrees of freedom and dependent variable names. A
new field name must not coincide with the name of a field of another type or with a
component name belonging to some other field. Component names must be unique
within a model except when two fields share a common field name.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To enable this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box.

There are two consistent stabilization methods: Streamline diffusion and Crosswind
diffusion. Usually, both check boxes for these methods are selected by default and
should remain selected for optimal performance. Consistent stabilization methods do
not perturb the original transport equation. Streamline diffusion must be selected
when using equal-order interpolation for pressure and velocity.

44 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE- AND MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Select the Use dynamic subgrid time scale check box to estimate the influence of
temporal variations in the velocity field, instead of using the inverse time step, in the
consistent stabilization terms. This check box is selected by default

Select the Limit small time steps effect on stabilization time scale check box to prevent
loss of stabilization at small time steps.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To enable this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box.

There is usually just one inconsistent stabilization method — Isotropic diffusion. This
method is equivalent to adding a term to the diffusion coefficient in order to dampen
the effect of oscillations by making the system somewhat less dominated by
convection. If possible, minimize the use of the inconsistent stabilization method
because by using it you no longer solve the original problem. By default, the Isotropic
diffusion check box is not selected because this type of stabilization adds artificial
diffusion and affects the accuracy of the original problem. However, this option can be
used to get a good initial guess for underresolved problems.

If required, select the Isotropic diffusion check box and enter a Tuning parameter δid as
a scalar positive value. The default value is 0.25 (a reasonable value to start with is
roughly 0.5 divided by the element order). A higher value adds more isotropic
diffusion.

• Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not
need to be changed.

The Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form is per default set to Automatic
from physics. This option can add pseudo time derivatives to the equation when the
Stationary equation form is used in order to speed up convergence. Pseudo time
stepping is triggered when the Laminar Flow interface is selected in some multiphysics
coupling features. Set Automatic from physics to On to apply pseudo time stepping also
for laminar flows. Set it to Off to disable pseudo time stepping completely.

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 45

 When Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form is set to Automatic from
physics or On, a CFL number expression should also be defined. For the default Automatic
option, the local CFL number (from the Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy condition) is
determined by a PID regulator.

The Use Block Navier-Stokes preconditioner check box under Linear solver is available
when the Compressibility option is set to Incompressible flow. When this check box is
selected, the default solver for time-dependent study steps will use the Block Navier–
Stokes preconditioner in iterative solvers for the velocity and pressure. Using this
preconditioner may result in shorter solution times for large time dependent problems
with high Reynolds numbers.

• Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models

• Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow
• Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces
• Block Navier–Stokes in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

DISCRETIZATION
The default discretization for Laminar Flow is P1+P1 elements — that is, piecewise
linear interpolation for velocity and pressure. This is suitable for most flow problems.

Some higher-order interpolations are also available, and they can be cost-effective
options to obtain high accuracy for flows with low Reynolds numbers.

The P2+P2 and P3+P3 options, the equal-order interpolation options, are the preferred
higher-order options because they have higher numerical accuracy than the
mixed-order options P2+P1 and P3+P2. The equal-order interpolation options do,
however, require streamline diffusion to be active.

Flow Past a Cylinder: Application Library path

COMSOL_Multiphysics/Fluid_Dynamics/cylinder_flow

46 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE- AND MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow
The following nodes, listed in alphabetical order, are available from the Physics ribbon
toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or by
right-clicking to access the context menu (all users).

• Boundary Stress • Periodic Flow Condition

• Flow Continuity • Point Mass Source1
• Fluid Properties • Porous Interface
• Gravity • Pressure Point Constraint
• Initial Values • Symmetry
• Inlet • Volume Force
• Line Mass Source1 • Wall
• Open Boundary
• Outlet
1 A feature that may require an additional license

For 2D axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and adds an Axial Symmetry
node that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for links to common
sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can also search for information:
press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

[Link]

Fluid Properties
The Fluid Properties node adds the momentum and continuity equations solved by the
physics interface, except for volume forces, which are added by the Volume Force
feature. The node also provides an interface for defining the material properties of the
fluid.

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 47

 MODEL INPUTS
Fluid properties, such as density and viscosity, can be defined through user inputs,
variables, or by selecting a material. For the latter option, additional inputs, for
example temperature or pressure, may be required to define these properties.

Temperature
By default, the Temperature model input is set to Common model input, and the
temperature is controlled from Default Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a
locally defined Model Input. If a Heat Transfer interface is included in the component,
it controls the temperature Common model input. Alternatively, the temperature field
can be selected from another physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own
tags (Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the
component, the Temperature (ht) option is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

Absolute Pressure
This input appears when a material requires the absolute pressure as a model input.
The absolute pressure is used to evaluate material properties, but it also relates to the
value of the calculated pressure field. There are generally two ways to calculate the
pressure when describing fluid flow: either to solve for the absolute pressure or for a
pressure (often denoted gauge pressure) that relates to the absolute pressure through
a reference pressure.

The choice of pressure variable depends on the system of equations being solved. For
example, in a unidirectional incompressible flow problem, the pressure drop over the
modeled domain is probably many orders of magnitude smaller than the atmospheric
pressure, which, when included, may reduce the stability and convergence properties
of the solver. In other cases, such as when the pressure is part of an expression for the
gas volume or the diffusion coefficients, it may be more convenient to solve for the
absolute pressure.

The default Absolute pressure pA is p + pref, where p is the dependent pressure variable
from the Navier–Stokes or RANS equations, and pref is from the user input defined at
the physics interface level. When pref is nonzero, the physics interface solves for a
gauge pressure. If the pressure field instead is an absolute pressure field, pref should be
set to 0.

48 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE- AND MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Absolute pressure field can be edited by clicking Make All Model Inputs Editable
( ) and entering the desired value in the input field.

Model Inputs and Multiphysics Couplings in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

FLUID PROPERTIES

Density
The density can either be specified by a material, or by a User defined expression. The
density in a material can depend on temperature and pressure, and these dependencies
are automatically replaced by pref for weakly compressible flows and pref and Tref for
incompressible flows (as specified by the Compressibility setting at the physics interface
level). If density variations with respect to pressure are to be included in the
computations, Compressibility must be set to compressible. Any dependencies in the
density on quantities other than temperature and pressure must be consistent with the
Compressibility setting at the interface level.

Dynamic Viscosity
The Dynamic viscosity μ describes the relationship between the shear rate and the shear
stresses in a fluid. Intuitively, water and air have low viscosities, and substances often
described as thick (such as oil) have higher viscosities.

Volume Force
The Volume Force node specifies the volume force F on the right-hand side of the
momentum equation.

∂u T 2
ρ + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I + F
∂t 3

If several volume-force nodes are added to the same domain, then the sum of all
contributions are added to the momentum equation.

Initial Values
The initial values serve as initial conditions for a transient simulation or as an initial
guess for a nonlinear solver in a stationary simulation. Note that for a transient
compressible-flow simulation employing a material for which the density depends on

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 49

 the pressure (such as air), discontinuities in the initial values trigger pressure waves
even when the Mach number is small. The pressure waves must be resolved and this
puts a restriction on the time step.

INITIAL VALUES
Initial values or expressions should be specified for the Velocity field u and the Pressure
p.

When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the interface
Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation (named
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for compressible flows) check box is available and
selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic pressure is automatically added
to the pressure entered in p user input.

Wall
The Wall node includes a set of boundary conditions describing fluid-flow conditions
at stationary, moving, and leaking walls. For turbulent flow, the description may
involve wall functions and asymptotic expressions for certain turbulence variables.

BOUNDARY CONDITION
Select a Boundary condition for the wall.

• No Slip • Leaking Wall

• Slip

No Slip
No slip is the default boundary condition to model solid walls. A no-slip wall is a wall
where the fluid velocity relative to the wall velocity is zero. For a stationary wall that
means that u = 0.

The option for Porous treatment of no slip condition is available when Enable porous
media domains is activated in the Physical Model section in the settings for the main
physics interface node. It specifies how Wall boundaries and Interior Wall boundaries
adjacent to porous domains are treated. When Standard no slip formulation is chosen,
a common no slip condition is applied on all solid walls. When the default Porous slip
is chosen, a blending analytic expression is instead applied on the corresponding wall
boundaries adjacent to the porous medium domain. It results in a no slip condition in
case the porous length scale is fully resolved by the mesh and a slip condition in the

50 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE- AND MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

opposite limit when the mesh is much coarser than the porous scale. A smooth
transition between these limits is ensured. Note that the interpretation and usage of
nonzero slip at the wall is the same as in the Navier slip boundary condition. By default,
Velocity formulation is on and the treatment is based on an approximate reconstruction
of the far field pressure gradient using the slip velocity at the wall. If the
Pressure-gradient formulation is chosen, the local pressure gradient at the wall is
employed.

Slip
The Slip option prescribes a no-penetration condition, u·n = 0. It is implicitly assumed
that there are no viscous effects at the slip wall and hence, no boundary layer develops.
From a modeling point of view, this can be a reasonable approximation if the main
effect of the wall is to prevent fluid from leaving the domain.

Leaking Wall
This boundary condition may be used to simulate a wall where fluid is leaking into or
leaving the domain with the velocity u = ul through a perforated wall. The
components of the Fluid velocity ul on the leaking wall should be specified.

WALL MOVEMENT
This section contains controls to describe the wall movement relative to the lab (or
spatial) frame.

The Translational velocity setting controls the translational wall velocity, utr. The list is
per default set to Automatic from frame. The physics automatically detects if the spatial
frame moves. This can for example happen if an ALE interface is present in the model
component. If there is no movement utr = 0. If the frame moves, utr becomes equal
to the frame movement. utr is accounted for in the actual boundary condition
prescribed in the Boundary condition section.

Select Zero (Fixed wall) from Translational velocity selection list to prescribe utr = 0.

Select Manual from Translational velocity selection list in order to manually prescribe
Velocity of moving wall, utr. This can for example be used to model an oscillating wall
where the magnitude of the oscillations are very small compared to the rest of the
model. Specifying translational velocity manually does not automatically cause the
associated wall to move. An additional Moving Mesh node needs to be added from
Definitions to physically track the wall movement in the spatial reference frame.

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 51

 The Sliding wall option is appropriate if the wall behaves like a conveyor belt with the
surface sliding in a tangential direction. A velocity is prescribed at the wall and the
boundary itself does not have to actually move relative to the reference frame.

• For 3D components, values or expressions for the Velocity of sliding wall uw should
be specified. If the velocity vector entered is not in the plane of the wall, COMSOL
Multiphysics projects it onto the tangential direction. Its magnitude is adjusted to
be the same as the magnitude of the vector entered.
• For 2D components, the tangential direction is unambiguously defined by the
direction of the boundary. For this reason, the sliding wall boundary condition has
different definitions in different space dimensions. A single entry for the Velocity of
the tangentially moving wall Uw should be specified in 2D.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show More Options button ( ) and selecting
Advanced Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. The Constraints settings
can be set to Automatic, Pointwise constraints, Nitsche constraints, or Weak constraints.
Mixed constraints can be selected when imposing a no slip condition exactly.

Depending on the constraint method selected, the following settings are available:

• Apply reaction terms on can be set to Individual dependent variables (default) or All
physics (symmetric). This setting is not available when Nitsche constraints is selected.
• Select Elemental (default) or Nodal under Constraint method. This setting is not
available for Nitsche constraints or Weak constraints.

• Theory for the Wall Boundary Condition

• The Moving Mesh Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual

Inlet
This condition should be used on boundaries for which there is a net flow into the
domain. To obtain a numerically well-posed problem, it is advisable to also consider
the Outlet conditions when specifying an Inlet condition. For example, if the pressure
is specified at the outlet, the velocity may be specified at the inlet, and vice versa.
Specifying the velocity vector at both the inlet and the outlet may cause convergence
difficulties.

52 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE- AND MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

BOUNDARY CONDITION
The available Boundary condition options for an inlet are Velocity, Fully developed flow,
and Pressure. After selecting a Boundary Condition from the list, a section with the same
or a similar name displays underneath. For example, if Velocity is selected, a Velocity
section, where further settings are defined, is displayed.

VELOCITY
The Normal inflow velocity is specified as u = −nU0, where n is the boundary normal
pointing out of the domain and U0 is the normal inflow speed.

The Velocity field option sets the velocity vector to u = u0. The components of the inlet
velocity vector u0 should be defined for this choice.

PRESSURE CONDITIONS
This option specifies the normal stress, which in most cases is approximately equal to
the pressure.

• For incompressible flow, the Pressure list has two options, Static and Total. For
weakly compressible and compressible flow, the static pressure should be specified
in the text field.
- If Pressure is Static, and the reference pressure pref, defined at the physics
interface level, is equal to 0, the value of the pressure p0, at the boundary, is the
absolute pressure. Otherwise, p0 is the relative pressure at the boundary.
- If Pressure is Total, the Average check box is available and cleared by default to
prescribe the total pressure pointwise. If it is selected, the averaged total pressure
is imposed in the weak forms instead.
When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the
interface Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure
approximation (named Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for incompressible flows)
check box is available and selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic
pressure is automatically added to the pressure entered in p0 user input.
• The Suppress backflow option adjusts the inlet pressure locally in order to reduce the
amount of fluid exiting the domain through the boundary. If you clear the suppress
backflow option, the inlet boundary can become an outlet depending on the
pressure field in the rest of the domain.

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 53

 • Flow direction controls in which direction the fluid enters the domain.
- For Normal flow, it prescribes zero tangential velocity component.
- For User defined, an Inflow velocity direction du (dimensionless) should be
specified. The magnitude of du does not matter, only the direction. du must
point into the domain.

FULLY DEVELOPED FLOW

The Fully developed flow option adds contributions to the inflow boundary, which force
the flow toward the solution for a fully developed channel flow. The channel can be
thought of as a virtual extrusion of the inlet cross section. The inlet boundary must
hence be flat in order for the fully developed flow condition to work properly. In 2D
axisymmetric models, the inlet normal must be parallel to the symmetry axis.

Select an option to control the flow rate at the inlet:

• Average velocity, Uav.

• Flow rate, V0. Two-dimensional models also require an Entrance thickness, Dz,
which is the out-of-plane thickness of the extruded entrance channel.
• Average pressure, Pav. Note that Pav is the average pressure on the inflow boundary.

The Apply condition on each disjoint selection separately check box is selected per
default. When this setting is selected, the fully developed flow condition is applied
separately on each disjoint selection. If this option is not selected, the condition is
applied over the whole feature selection. The Apply condition on each disjoint selection
separately should be disabled only if the flow conditions are known to be identical on
each disjoint boundary.

The fully developed flow condition requires any volume force to be approximately
aligned with the normal of the inlet boundary. The exception is gravity when the
Include gravity setting is selected in the physics interface settings. Unless Use reduced
pressure is also selected, an option to Compensate for hydrostatic pressure or
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation becomes available. It is selected per
default and should only be deselected if the inlet normal is aligned with the gravity
force and you want to specify an average pressure that includes the hydrostatic
pressure.

54 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE- AND MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

• Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions

• Normal Stress Boundary Condition

Fully Developed Flow (Inlet)

Outlet
This condition should be used on boundaries for which there is a net outflow from the
domain. To obtain a numerically well-posed problem, it is advisable to also consider
the Inlet conditions when specifying an Outlet condition. For example, if the velocity
is specified at the inlet, the pressure may be specified at the outlet, and vice versa.
Specifying the velocity vector at both the inlet and the outlet may cause convergence
difficulties. Selecting appropriate outlet conditions for the Navier–Stokes equations is
a nontrivial task. Generally, if there is something interesting happening at an outflow
boundary, the computational domain should be extended to include this
phenomenon.

BOUNDARY CONDITION
The available Boundary condition options for an outlet are Pressure, Fully developed flow,
and Velocity.

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 55

 PRESSURE CONDITIONS
This option specifies the normal stress, which in most cases is approximately equal to
the pressure. The tangential stress component is set to zero.

• For incompressible flow, the Pressure list has two options, Static and Total. For
weakly compressible and compressible flow, the static pressure should be specified
in the text field.
- If Pressure is Static, and the reference pressure pref, defined at the physics
interface level, is equal to 0, the value of the pressure p0, at the boundary, is the
absolute pressure. Otherwise, p0 is the relative pressure at the boundary.
- If Pressure is Total, the Average check box is available and selected by default to
prescribed the averaged total pressure in the weak forms. If it is cleared, the total
pressure is imposed pointwise.

When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the interface
Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation (named
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for incompressible flows) check box is available and
selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic pressure is automatically added
to the pressure entered in p0 user input.

• The Normal flow option changes the no tangential stress condition to a no tangential
velocity condition. This forces the flow to exit (or enter) the domain perpendicularly
to the outlet boundary.
• The Suppress backflow check box is selected by default. This option adjusts the outlet
pressure in order to reduce the amount of fluid entering the domain through the
boundary.

VELOCITY
See the Inlet node Velocity section for the settings.

FULLY DEVELOPED FLOW

This boundary condition is applicable when the flow exits the domain into a long pipe
or channel, at the end of which a flow profile is fully developed.

The channel can be thought of as a virtual extrusion of the outlet cross section. The
outlet boundary must hence be flat in order for the fully developed flow condition to
work properly. In 2D axisymmetric models, the outlet normal must be parallel to the
symmetry axis.

56 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE- AND MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Select an option to control the flow rate at the outlet:

• Average velocity, Uav.

• Flow rate, V0. Two-dimensional models also require an Entrance thickness, Dz,
which is the out-of-plane thickness of the extruded entrance channel.
• Average pressure, Pav. Observe that Pav is the average pressure on the outflow.

The Apply condition on each disjoint selection separately check box is selected per
default. When this setting is selected, the fully developed flow condition is applied
separately on each disjoint selection. If this option is not selected, the condition is
applied over the whole feature selection. The Apply condition on each disjoint selection
separately should be disabled only if the flow conditions are known to be identical on
each disjoint boundary.

The fully developed flow condition requires any volume force to be approximately
aligned with the normal of the outlet boundary. The exception is gravity when the
Include gravity setting is selected in the physics interface settings. Unless Use reduced
pressure is also selected, an option to Compensate for hydrostatic pressure or
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation becomes available. It is selected per
default and should only be deselected if the outlet normal is aligned with the gravity
force and you want to specify an average pressure that includes the hydrostatic
pressure.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions

Fully Developed Flow (Outlet)

Symmetry
This node provides a boundary condition for symmetry boundaries. It should only be
used when the geometry and expected solution have mirror symmetry. By using

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 57

 symmetries in a model its size can be reduced by one-half or more, making this an
efficient tool for solving large problems.

The Symmetry boundary condition prescribes no penetration and vanishing shear

stresses. The boundary condition is a combination of a Dirichlet condition and a
Neumann condition:

u ⋅ n = 0,  – pI +  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I  n = 0
  3 

u ⋅ n = 0, ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = 0

for the compressible and incompressible formulations. The Dirichlet condition takes
precedence over the Neumann condition, and the above equations are equivalent to
the following equation for both the compressible and incompressible formulations:

u ⋅ n = 0, K – ( K ⋅ n )n = 0
K = μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )n

BOUNDARY SELECTION
For 2D axial symmetry, a boundary condition does not need to be defined for the
symmetry axis at r = 0. The software automatically provides a condition that prescribes
ur = 0 and vanishing stresses in the z direction and adds an Axial Symmetry node that
implements these conditions on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

Open Boundary
The Open Boundary condition describes boundaries in contact with a large volume of
fluid. Fluid can both enter and leave the domain on boundaries with this type of
condition.

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The Boundary condition options for open boundaries are Normal stress and No viscous
stress.

Normal Stress
The Normal stress f0 condition implicitly imposes p ≈ f0.

58 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE- AND MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the interface
Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation (named
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for incompressible flows) check box is available and
selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic pressure is automatically added
to the pressure entered in f0 user input.

No Viscous Stress
The No Viscous Stress condition specifies vanishing viscous stress on the boundary. This
condition does not provide sufficient information to fully specify the flow at the open
boundary and must at least be combined with pressure constraints at adjacent points.

The No viscous stress condition prescribes:

 μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = 0
 3 

μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )n = 0

for the compressible and the incompressible formulations. This condition can be useful
in some situations because it does not impose any constraint on the pressure. A typical
example is a model with volume forces that give rise to pressure gradients that are hard
to prescribe in advance. To make the model numerically stable, this boundary
condition should be combined with a point constraint on the pressure.

Boundary Stress
The Boundary Stress node adds a boundary condition that represents a general class of
conditions also known as traction boundary conditions.

BOUNDARY CONDITION
The Boundary condition options for the boundary stress are General stress, Normal
stress, and Normal stress, normal flow.

General Stress
When General stress is selected, the components for the Stress F should be specified.
The total stress on the boundary is set equal to the given stress F:

 – pI +  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I  n = F
  3 

( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = F

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 59

 for the compressible and the incompressible formulations.

This boundary condition implicitly sets a constraint on the pressure that for 2D flows is

∂u n
p = 2μ ---------- – n ⋅ F (3-1)
∂n

If ∂un/∂n is small, Equation 3-1 states that p ≈ −n·F.

Normal Stress
Normal Stress is described for the Open Boundary node.

Normal Stress, Normal Flow

For Normal stress, normal flow, the magnitude of the Normal stress f0 should be
specified. The tangential velocity is set to zero on the boundary:

n  – pI +  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I  n = – f 0 ,
T 2
t⋅u = 0
3

T
n ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = – f 0 , t⋅u = 0

for the compressible and the incompressible formulations.

This boundary condition implicitly sets a constraint on the pressure that for 2D flows is

∂u n
p = 2μ ---------- + f 0 (3-2)
∂n

If ∂un/∂n is small, Equation 3-2 states that p ≈ f0.

When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the interface
Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation (named
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for incompressible flows) check box is available and
selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic pressure is automatically added
to the pressure entered in f0 or phydron is added to F depending of the selected option.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

If Normal Stress, Normal Flow is selected as the Boundary condition, then to Apply
reaction terms on all dependent variables, the All physics (symmetric) option should be

60 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE- AND MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

selected. Alternatively, the Individual dependent variables could be selected to restrict
the reaction terms as needed.

Periodic Flow Condition

The Periodic Flow Condition splits its selection into a source group and a destination
group (the Destination Selection section is optional). Fluid that leaves the domain
through one of the destination boundaries enters the domain through the
corresponding source boundary. This corresponds to a situation where the geometry
is a periodic part of a larger geometry. If the boundaries are not parallel to each other,
the velocity vector is automatically transformed.

If the boundaries are curved, the orientation of the source must be specified manually
(see Orientation of Source).

No input is required when Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) is selected for Compressibility

under the Physical Model section for the physics interface. Typically when a periodic
boundary condition is used with a compressible flow, the pressure is the same at both
boundaries and the flow is driven by a volume force.

BOUNDARY SELECTION

The software usually automatically identifies the boundaries as either source boundaries or
destination boundaries, as indicated in the selection list. This works fine for cases like opposing
parallel boundaries. In other cases, right-click Periodic Flow Condition and select Manual Destination
Selection to control the destination. By default it contains the selection that COMSOL
Multiphysics identifies.

DESTINATION SELECTION
This section is available for specifying the destination boundaries, if needed, when the
Manual Destination Selection option is selected in the context menu for the Periodic Flow
Condition node. You can only select destination boundaries from the union of all source
and destination boundaries.

FLOW CONDITION
This section is available when Incompressible flow is selected for Compressibility under
the Physical Model section for the physics interface.

The Flow Condition at the boundary is specified through a value or expression for either
· . The mass flow option ensures
the Pressure difference, psrc − pdst, or the Mass flow, m

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 61

 a pressure difference is achieved across the source and destination boundaries. This
pressure difference can, for example, drive the fully developed flow in a channel.

To set up a periodic boundary condition, both boundaries must be selected in the

Periodic Flow Condition node. COMSOL Multiphysics automatically assigns one
boundary as the source and the other as the destination. To manually set the
destination selection, a Destination Selection subnode is available from the context
menu (by right-clicking the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
All destination sides must be connected.

ORIENTATION OF SOURCE
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. For information about the
Orientation of Source section, see Orientation of Source and Destination in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

ORIENTATION OF DESTINATION
This section appears if the setting for Transform to intermediate map in the Orientation
of Source section is changed from the default value, Automatic, and Advanced Physics
Options is selected in the Show More Options dialog box. For information about the
Orientation of Destination section, see Orientation of Source and Destination in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

MAPPING BETWEEN SOURCE AND DESTINATION

To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. For information about the
Mapping Between Source and Destination section, see Mapping Between Source and
Destination in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Porous Interface
The Porous Interface condition is designed to properly account for a sudden jump in
porosity, εp, across a boundary between different domains. It describes possible
discontinuity of stress across the interface, and also reveals modified behavior of
tangential velocity due to boundary layer on the upstream side of the interface. Choose
among the following options under the Continuity conditions:

• Velocity and stress — stress continuity is invoked;

62 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE- AND MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

• Velocity and porosity-corrected stress (default)— the sum of stress and a contribution
due to the inertial term being constant across the interface;
• Velocity and porosity-corrected stress with loss — the sum of the stress and a
contribution due to the inertial term is lost in the downstream direction.

All three options give continuity of the velocity across the interface in constant-density
flows, while in case of a jump in density:

1 give continuity of the mass flux (product of density and normal velocity) and
tangential velocity;
2 account for the density-jump correction in the stress condition.

When Velocity and porosity-corrected stress with loss is chosen, a Pressure loss model
needs to be specified. The options are:

• User-defined loss coefficients (default). Enter values for Expansion loss coefficient and
Contraction loss coefficient;
• Borda–Carnot. Specify Vena contracta model.

Vena contracta model allows two options:

• User defined (default) — enter value of Vena contracta coefficient;

• Weisbach — enter values of Lower limit and Exponent.

Notice that the notions ‘expansion’ and ‘contraction’ used in this section correspond
not to geometrical changes, but to the variations of the microscopic structure across
the interface in the flow direction — increasing or decreasing porosity, εp, respectively.

Flow Continuity
The Flow Continuity condition is suitable for pairs where the boundaries match; it
prescribes that the flow field is continuous across the pair.

The parts of the boundary where a source boundary lacks a corresponding destination
boundary and vice versa will get conditions from other boundary conditions under the
physics interface acting as fallback boundary conditions on the nonoverlapping parts.
By default, the Wall node is used as fallback unless another feature has been selected
for the boundary.

When the condition is set for pairs adjacent to domains with different porosity εp, it
imposes conditions identical to the Porous Interface feature, which is designed to
properly account for a sudden jump in porosity. See the section Porous Interface above

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 63

 for further details (note that the Flow Continuity does not account for the density-jump
corrections),

About Identity and Contact Pairs

Pressure Point Constraint

The Pressure Point Constraint condition can be used to specify the pressure level. If it
is not possible to specify the pressure level using a boundary condition, the pressure
level must be set in some other way, for example, by specifying a fixed pressure at a
point.

PRESSURE CONSTRAINT
The relative pressure value is set by specifying the Pressure p0. If the reference pressure
pref defined at the physics interface level is equal to zero, p0 represents the absolute
pressure.

When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the interface
Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation (named
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for incompressible flows) check box is available and
selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic pressure is automatically added
to the pressure entered in p0 user input.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

The Apply reaction terms on setting is set per default to Individual dependent variables.
All physics (symmetric) cannot be used together with a segregated solver when fluid
flow is coupled with Moving Mesh, Level Set, or Phase Field in Fluids.

Point Mass Source

This feature requires at least one of the following licenses: Battery Design Module,
CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, Corrosion Module,
Electrochemistry Module, Electrodeposition Module, Fuel Cell & Electrolyzer
Module, Microfluidics Module, Pipe Flow Module, or Subsurface Flow Module.

64 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE- AND MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Point Mass Source feature models mass flow originating from an infinitely small
domain centered around a point.

For the Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Diluted Species interface, which is available
with the CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, or Battery Design
Module, there are two nodes: one for the fluid flow (Fluid Point Source) and one for
the species (Species Point Source).

SOURCE STRENGTH
The source Mass flux, q· p should be specified. A positive value results in mass being
ejected from the point into the computational domain. A negative value results in mass
being removed from the computational domain.

Point sources located on a boundary or on an edge affect the adjacent computational

domains. This has the effect, for example, that a point source located on a symmetry
plane has twice the given strength.

Mass Sources for Fluid Flow in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual

Line Mass Source

This feature requires at least one of the following licenses: Battery Design Module,
CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, Corrosion Module,
Electrochemistry Module, Electrodeposition Module, Fuel Cell & Electrolyzer
Module, Microfluidics Module, Pipe Flow Module, or Subsurface Flow Module.

The Line Mass Source feature models mass flow originating from a tube region with
infinitely small radius.

For the Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Diluted Species interface, which is available
with the CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, or Battery Design
Module, there are two nodes, one for the fluid flow (Fluid Line Source) and one for the
species (Species Line Source).

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 65

 SELECTION
The Line Mass Source feature is available for all dimensions, but the applicable selection
differs between the dimensions.

MODEL DIMENSION APPLICABLE GEOMETRICAL ENTITY

2D Points
2D Axisymmetry Points not on the axis of symmetry
3D Edges

SOURCE STRENGTH
The source Mass flux, q· l , should be specified. A positive value results in mass being
ejected from the line into the computational domain and a negative value means that
mass is removed from the computational domain.

Line sources located on a boundary affect the adjacent computational domains. This,
for example, has the effect that a line source located on a symmetry plane has twice the
given strength.

Mass Sources for Fluid Flow in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual

Gravity
The Gravity global feature is automatically added when Include gravity is selected at the
interface level in the Physical Model settings. It defines the gravity forces from the
Acceleration of gravity value.

ACCELERATION OF GRAVITY
The Acceleration of gravity (SI unit m/s, default value −gconstez in 2D axial symmetry
and 3D and −gconstey in 2D) is used to define the gravity forces. It should be a global
quantity.

66 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE- AND MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Theory for the Single-Phase Flow
Interfaces
The theory for the Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow interface is described in this
section:

• General Single-Phase Flow Theory

• Compressible Flow
• Weakly Compressible Flow
• The Mach Number Limit
• Incompressible Flow
• The Reynolds Number
• Gravity
• Theory for the Wall Boundary Condition
• Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions
• Fully Developed Flow (Inlet)
• Fully Developed Flow (Outlet)
• No Viscous Stress
• Normal Stress Boundary Condition
• Porous Interface
• Mass Sources for Fluid Flow
• Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow
• Solvers for Laminar Flow
• Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models
• Nitsche Constraints
• Particle Tracing in Fluid Flow
• References for the Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow Interfaces

The theory about most boundary conditions is found in Ref. 2.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 67

 General Single-Phase Flow Theory
The Single-Phase Fluid Flow interfaces are based on the Navier–Stokes equations,
which in their most general form read

∂ρ
------ + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0 (3-3)
∂t

∂u
ρ ------ + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – pI + K ] + F (3-4)
∂t

∂T- + ( u ⋅ ∇ )T = – ( ∇ ⋅ q ) + K:S – T ∂ρ-  ∂p

ρC p  ------ ---- ------ ------ + ( u ⋅ ∇ )p + Q (3-5)
∂t  ρ ∂T p  ∂t

where

• ρ is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)

• u is the velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)
• p is pressure (SI unit: Pa)
• I is the identity matrix (unitless)
• K is the viscous stress tensor (SI unit: Pa)
• F is the volume force vector (SI unit: N/m3)
• Cp is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure (SI unit: J/(kg·K))
• T is the absolute temperature (SI unit: K)
• q is the heat flux vector (SI unit: W/m2)
• Q contains the heat sources (SI unit: W/m3)
• S is the strain-rate tensor:

1
S = --- ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )
2

The operation “:” denotes a contraction between tensors defined by

a:b =   anm bnm (3-6)

n m

This is sometimes referred to as the double dot product.

Equation 3-3 is the continuity equation and represents conservation of mass.

Equation 3-4 is a vector equation which represents conservation of momentum.

68 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE- AND MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Equation 3-5 describes the conservation of energy, formulated in terms of
temperature. This is an intuitive formulation that facilitates boundary condition
specifications.

To close the equation system, Equation 3-3 through Equation 3-5, constitutive
relations are needed.

For a Newtonian fluid, which has a linear relationship between stress and strain, Stokes
(Ref. 1) deduced the following expression:

2
K = 2μS – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I (3-7)
3

The dynamic viscosity, μ (SI unit: Pa·s), for a Newtonian fluid is allowed to depend on
the thermodynamic state but not on the velocity field. All gases and many liquids can
be considered Newtonian.

For an inelastic non-Newtonian fluid, the relationship between stress and strain rate is
nonlinear, and an apparent viscosity is introduced instead of the dynamic viscosity.
Examples of non-Newtonian fluids are honey, mud, blood, liquid metals, and most
polymer solutions.

In theory, the same equations describe both laminar and turbulent flows. In practice,
however, the mesh resolution required to simulate turbulence with the Laminar Flow
interface makes such an approach impractical.

There are several books where derivations of the Navier–Stokes equations

and detailed explanations of concepts such as Newtonian fluids can be
found. See, for example, the classical text by Batchelor (Ref. 3) and the
more recent work by Panton (Ref. 4).

Many applications describe isothermal flows for which Equation 3-5 is decoupled from
Equation 3-3 and Equation 3-4.

2D AXISYMMETRIC FORMULATIONS
A 2D axisymmetric formulation of Equation 3-3 and Equation 3-4 requires ∂/∂φ to be
zero. That is, there must be no gradients in the azimuthal direction. A common
additional assumption is, however, that uφ = 0. In such cases, the φ-equation can be
removed from Equation 3-4. The resulting system of equations is both easier to
converge and computationally less expensive compared to retaining the φ-equation.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 69

 The default 2D axisymmetric formulation of Equation 3-3 and Equation 3-4 therefore
assumes that

∂ ⁄ ∂φ = 0
uφ = 0

Compressible Flow
The equations of motion for a single-phase fluid are the continuity equation:

∂ρ
------ + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0 (3-8)
∂t

and the momentum equation:

∂u
ρ ------ + ρu ⋅ ∇u = – ∇p + ∇ ⋅  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I + F
2
(3-9)
∂t 3

These equations are applicable for incompressible as well as for compressible flow with
density and viscosity variations.

Weakly Compressible Flow

The same equations as for Compressible Flow are applied for weakly compressible flow.
The only difference is that the density is evaluated at the reference pressure. The
density may be a function of other quantities, in particular it may be temperature
dependent.

The weakly compressible flow equations are valid for incompressible as well as
compressible flow with density variations independent of the pressure.

Provided that the densities dependency pressure is specified through model inputs, the
density is automatically evaluated at the reference pressure level.

The Mach Number Limit

An important dimensionless number in fluid dynamics is the Mach number, Ma,
defined by

u-
Ma = -----
a

70 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE- AND MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

where a is the speed of sound. A flow is formally incompressible when Ma = 0. This is
theoretically achieved by letting the speed of sound tend to infinity. The Navier–Stokes
equations then have the mathematical property that pressure disturbances are
instantaneously propagated throughout the entire domain. This results in a parabolic
equation system.

The momentum equation, Equation 3-9, is parabolic for unsteady flow and elliptic for
steady flow, whereas the continuity equation, Equation 3-8, is hyperbolic for both
steady and unsteady flow. The combined system of equations is thus hybrid
parabolic-hyperbolic for unsteady flow and hybrid elliptic-hyperbolic for steady flow.
An exception occurs when the viscous term in Equation 3-9 becomes vanishingly
small, such as at an outflow boundary, in which case the momentum equation becomes
locally hyperbolic. The number of boundary conditions to apply on the boundary then
depends on the number of characteristics propagating into the computational domain.
For the purely hyperbolic system, the number of characteristics propagating from the
boundary into the domain changes as the Mach number passes through unity. Hence,
the number of boundary conditions required to obtain a numerically well-posed
system must also change. The compressible formulation of the laminar and turbulent
interfaces uses the same boundary conditions as the incompressible formulation, which
implies that the compressible interfaces are not suitable for flows with a Mach number
larger than or equal to one. Yet, the practical Mach number limit is lower than one.
The main reason is that the numerical scheme (stabilization and boundary conditions)
of the Laminar Flow interface does not recognize the direction and speed of pressure
waves. The fully compressible Navier–Stokes equations do, for example, start to display
very sharp gradients already at moderate Mach numbers. But the stabilization for the
single-phase flow interface does not necessarily capture these gradients. It is impossible
to give an exact limit where the low Mach number regime ends and the moderate
Mach number regime begins, but a rule of thumb is that the Mach number effects start
to appear at Ma = 0.3. For this reason, the compressible formulation is referred to as
Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) in COMSOL Multiphysics.

Incompressible Flow
When the temperature variations in the flow are small, a single-phase fluid can often
be assumed incompressible; that is, ρ is constant or nearly constant. This is the case for
all liquids under normal conditions and also for gases at low velocities. For constant ρ,
Equation 3-8 reduces to

ρ∇ ⋅ u = 0 (3-10)

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 71

 and Equation 3-9 becomes

∂u T
ρ + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) ] + F (3-11)
∂t

Provided that the densities dependency on temperature and pressure is specified

through model inputs, the density is evaluated at the reference pressure level and at the
reference temperature. However, if the density is a function of other quantities such as
a concentration field, or if the density is specified by a user defined expression, the user
has to make sure that the density is defined as constant when the incompressible flow
formulation is used.

The Reynolds Number

A fundamental characteristic in analyses of fluid flow is the Reynolds number:

Re = ρUL
------------
μ

where U denotes a velocity scale, and L denotes a representative length. The Reynolds
number represents the ratio between inertial and viscous forces. At low Reynolds
numbers, viscous forces dominate and tend to damp out all disturbances, which leads
to laminar flow. At high Reynolds numbers, the damping in the system is very low,
giving small disturbances the possibility to grow by nonlinear interactions. If the
Reynolds number is high enough, the flow field eventually ends up in a chaotic state
called turbulence.

Note that the Reynolds number can have different meanings depending on the length
scale and velocity scale. To be able to compare two Reynolds numbers, they must be
based on equivalent length and velocity scales.

The Fluid Flow interfaces automatically calculate the local cell Reynolds number
Rec = ρ|u|h/(2μ) using the element length h for L and the magnitude of the velocity
vector u for the velocity scale U. This Reynolds number is not related to the character
of the flow field, but to the stability of the numerical discretization. The risk for
numerical oscillations in the solution increases as Rec grows. The cell Reynolds
number is a predefined quantity available for visualization and evaluation (typically it
is available as: [Link]).

72 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE- AND MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Gravity

DEFINITION
The gravity force is defined from the acceleration of gravity vector, g, and the density,
ρ. Under usual conditions and in Cartesian coordinates with the z-axis in the vertical
direction,

 0 
 
g =  0 .
 
 – g const 

When gravity is considered, a volume force equal to ρg is included in the momentum

equation. For example, for laminar weakly compressible flow, it reads:

∂u
ρ ------ + ρu ⋅ ∇u = ∇ ⋅  – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I + F + ρg
2
(3-12)
∂t  3 

Introducing a constant reference density ρref, and assuming that g is homogeneous,

this equation is equivalently written:

∂u
ρ ------ + ρu ⋅ ∇u=
∂t
(3-13)
∇ ⋅  – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I + ρ ref g ⋅ ( r – r ref ) + F + ( ρ – ρ ref )g
2
 3 

where r is the position vector and rref is an arbitrary reference position vector.

From this equation, it is convenient to define the reduced pressure which accounts for
the hydrostatic pressure, p̃ = p – ρ ref g ⋅ ( r – r ref )

∂u
ρ ------ + ρu ⋅ ∇u = ∇ ⋅  – p̃I + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I +
2
∂t 3 (3-14)
F + ( ρ – ρ ref )g

In Equation 3-14, the gravity force is written (ρ − ρref)g.

PRESSURE FORMULATION
When the relative pressure is used (default option) the interface dependent variable
represents the relative pressure and the absolute pressure is defined as pA = pref + p.
When the pressure is used to define a boundary condition (for example, when p0

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 73

 defines the pressure condition at an outlet), it represents the relative pressure. Hence
defining the outlet pressure as phydro,approx = −ρrefg ⋅ (r − rref) compensates for the
gravity force for an ambient reference pressure of 0 Pa when the density is constant,
there is no external force, and provided pref, g, and r0 are defined consistently.

When the reduced pressure is used, the interface dependent variable (named p by
default) represents the reduced pressure. The absolute pressure is then defined as
pA = pref − ρrefg ⋅ (r − rref) + p. In this case when the pressure is used to define a
boundary condition (for example, to define a pressure condition at an outlet), its value
corresponds to the reduced pressure. Hence, the prescribed pressure compensates for
an approximate hydrostatic pressure, phydro,approx = −ρrefg ⋅ (r − rref), which is exact
only when the density is constant and there is no external force.

PRESSURE BOUNDARY CONDITION

For an immobile fluid the momentum equation simplifies to ∇ ⋅ (pI) = F+ ρg or

∇ ⋅ ( – p̃I ) = F + ( ρ – ρ ref )g depending on the pressure formulation.

For incompressible flow, assuming there are no external forces, this leads respectively
to p = − ρrefg ⋅ (r − rref) + p0 or p̃ = p 0 .

Theory for the Wall Boundary Condition

See Wall for the node settings.

SLIP
The Slip condition assumes that there are no viscous effects at the slip wall and hence,
no boundary layer develops. From a modeling point of view, this is a reasonable
approximation if the important effect of the wall is to prevent fluid from leaving the
domain. Mathematically, the constraint can be formulated as:

u ⋅ n = 0, ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = 0

The no-penetration term takes precedence over the Neumann part of the condition
and the above expression is therefore equivalent to

u ⋅ n = 0, K n – ( K n ⋅ n )n = 0
K n = μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )n

expressing that there is no flow across the boundary and no viscous stress in the
tangential direction.

74 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE- AND MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

For a moving wall with translational velocity utr, u in the above equations is replaced
by the relative velocity urel = u − utr.

POROUS SLIP
The Porous slip option, which can be chosen in the Porous treatment of no slip condition
list when Enable porous media domains is activated, results in a special treatment of Wall
boundaries and Interior Wall boundaries adjacent to porous domains (Porous Medium
feature). Namely, similar to the Navier slip boundary condition, no penetration and
tangential stress conditions are applied at the wall:

μ u slip
u ⋅ n = 0, K n – ( K n ⋅ n )n = – ----- ---------- ,
ε p y ps
μ T
u slip = u – ( u ⋅ n )n , K n = ----- ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) )n
εp

Here, Kn is the viscous wall traction, n is the wall normal, uslip is the tangential velocity
at the wall while real no slip is assumed to be applied at a distance dw (half-height of
the first cell adjacent to the wall) outside the wall, and is the porous slip length. An
analytical derivation of the velocity profile in the boundary layer where the pressure
gradient is balanced by the sum of the Darcy term, the Forchheimer drag, and the
viscous term (neglecting convective terms) leads to the following expression for yps:

 1 + X e – ξp  1 + X e –ξ p 2 d l pore
ξ
= l̃  --------------------------  -------------------------- e p – 1 ,
p p w
y ps

ξ p = ------ , l̃ = ------------------------,
–ξp  1 + X p  l̃ 1 + 2c β
 1 – Xp e 

1 + 2c β – 1 + 4--- c β 1 + 4c D – 1 β ND κ 2
3
X p = --------------------------------------------------- , c β = -------------------------------- , c D = ----------- ------ ∇p - ρg
4 2 μ μ
1 + 2c β + 1 + --- c β
3

where l pore = κ ⁄ ε p is the porous length scale, β ND = ρc F ⁄ κ is the non-Darcian

coefficient (cF is the Forchheimer coefficient), g is the gravity vector, and ξp, l, Xp, cβ,
cD, are intermediate variables. This formula is used when the Pressure-gradient
formulation is chosen and it uses the pressure gradient at the wall. By default, the
Velocity formulation is activated and the corresponding formula is:

ξ wd l pore
y ps = l̃ ( e p – 1 ) , ξ p = ------ , l̃ = ------------------------,
l̃ 1 + 2c β
β ND κ u slip l pore 2 1⁄3
c β =  ---------------------------- ----------  ⁄ 2
 μ dw 

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 75

 Although this formulation is an approximation, since it uses the slip velocity at the wall
to reconstruct the pressure gradient, it is rather accurate. Moreover, the influence of
the convective terms is partially accounted for in this formulation.

SLIDING WALL
The sliding wall option is appropriate if the wall behaves like a conveyor belt; that is,
the surface is sliding in its tangential direction. The wall does not have to actually move
in the coordinate system.

• In 2D, the tangential direction is unambiguously defined by the direction of the

boundary, but the situation becomes more complicated in 3D. For this reason, this
boundary condition has slightly different definitions in the different space
dimensions.
• For 2D and 2D axisymmetric components, the velocity is given as a scalar Uw and
the condition prescribes
u ⋅ n = 0, u ⋅ t = Uw

where t = (ny , −nx) for 2D and t = (nz, −nr) for axial symmetry.
• For 3D components, the velocity is set equal to a given vector uw projected onto
the boundary plane:
u w – ( n ⋅ u w )n
u = ---------------------------------------- u w
u w – ( n ⋅ u w )n

The normalization makes u have the same magnitude as uw even if uw is not exactly
parallel to the wall.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
The wall feature uses three different techniques to constraint the velocity field:

• Pointwise constraints is the standard technique to enforce strong constraints in the

finite element method. The desired value of the velocity is prescribed at each node
point in the mesh. Since the constraint is enforced locally at each node, only local
values are affected by the constraint and the constraints are independent of each
other. The solvers can therefore eliminate both the constrained degrees of freedom
and the constraint force terms, effectively reducing the number of degrees of
freedom being solved for.
The main advantage of pointwise constraints is that they enforce the constraint
exactly pointwise. This means that they do not introduce any leakage of the velocity
across the wall, unless specified. The main disadvantage of pointwise constraints is

76 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE- AND MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 that they introduce locking effects when trying to impose a no-penetration
condition for the velocity, u · n = 0, on curved walls or walls with sharp corners.
• Weak constraints is an alternative method to prescribe the velocity. It consists on
enforcing the boundary condition for the velocity via Lagrange multipliers. Their
main advantage is that the Lagrange multiplier can provide an accurate
representation of the reaction flux at the wall. Their main disadvantage is that they
introduce extra unknowns, and are usually difficult to combine with other constraint
methods on adjacent boundaries. Moreover, they may require extra constraints for
the Lagrange multipliers. For more information, see Weak Constraints in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.
• Nitsche constraints use a numerical flux to prescribe the velocity at the wall. They
impose the constraint in an integral sense rather than pointwise, and do not suffer
from the locking effects introduced by pointwise constraints when trying to
prescribe a no penetration condition for the velocity. They are also better behaved
when prescribing nonlinear constraints. Their main disadvantage is that the
constraint is only imposed approximately, and may produce small leaks. For more
information, see Nitsche Constraints.

The following combination of Constraint techniques can be selected in the Constraint

Setting sections of Wall boundary conditions:

• Automatic (default) use different constraint methods depending on whether only the
normal component of the velocity is prescribed, such as in the no penetration
condition, u · n = 0, imposed, for example, in Slip walls or No Slip walls using Wall
Functions or Automatic Wall Treatment, or both tangential and normal
components are prescribed, as is the case of No Slip walls in laminar flow.
Nitsche constraints are used to impose the no penetration condition for Slip walls.
When a No Slip condition is prescribed, pointwise constraints are used except for
moving walls where Nitsche constraints are used.
• Pointwise constraints.
• Nitsche constraints.
• Weak constraints. They are not available on Interior Walls.
• Mixed constraints. This option is only available when both the tangential and normal
components of the velocity need to be prescribed. The velocity on the wall normal
direction is imposed via pointwise constraints. The constraint for the tangential
directions is relaxed, and Nitsche constraints are used instead. This provides
improved accuracy and performance when working with coarse boundary layer
meshes. For more information, see Ref. 18.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 77

 Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions
The Navier–Stokes equations can show large variations in mathematical behavior,
ranging from almost completely elliptic to almost completely hyperbolic. This has
implications when it comes to prescribing admissible boundary conditions. There is
also a discrepancy between mathematically valid boundary conditions and practically
useful boundary conditions. See Inlet and Outlet for the node settings.

INLET CONDITIONS
An inlet requires specification of the velocity components. The most robust way to do
this is to prescribe a velocity field using a Velocity condition.

A common alternative to prescribing the complete velocity field is to prescribe a

pressure and all but one velocity component. The pressure cannot be specified
pointwise because this is mathematically over-constraining. Instead the pressure can be
specified via a stress condition:

∂u n
– p + 2μ --------- = F n (3-15)
∂n

where ∂un/∂n is the normal derivative of the normal velocity component.

Equation 3-15 is prescribed by the Pressure condition in the Inlet and Outlet features
and the Normal stress condition in the Open Boundary and Boundary Stress features.
Equation 3-15 is mathematically more stringent compared to specifying the pressure
pointwise and at the same time cannot guarantee that p obtains the desired value. In
practice, p is close to Fn, except for low Reynolds number flows where viscous effects
are the only effects that balance the pressure. In addition to Equation 3-15, all but one
velocity component must be specified. For low Reynolds numbers, this can be specified
by a vanishing tangential stress condition:

∂u t
μ -------- = 0
∂n

which is what the Normal stress condition does. Vanishing tangential stress becomes a
less well-posed inlet condition as the Reynolds number increases. The Pressure
condition in the Inlet feature therefore requires a flow direction to be prescribed,
which provides a well-posed condition independent of Reynolds number.

OUTLET CONDITIONS
The most common approach is to prescribe a pressure via a normal stress condition on
the outlet. This is often accompanied by a vanishing tangential stress condition:

78 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE- AND MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 ∂u t
μ -------- = 0
∂n

where ∂ut/∂n is the normal derivative of the tangential velocity field. It is also possible
to prescribe ut to be zero. The latter option should be used with care since it can have
a significant effect on the upstream solution.

The elliptic character of the Navier–Stokes equations mathematically permits

specifying a complete velocity field at an outlet. This can, however, be difficult to apply
in practice. The reason being that it is hard to prescribe the outlet velocity so that it is
consistent with the interior solution at each point. The adjustment to the specified
velocity then occurs across an outlet boundary layer. The thickness of this boundary
layer depends on the Reynolds number; the higher the Reynolds number, the thinner
the boundary layer.

ALTERNATIVE FORMULATIONS
COMSOL provides several specialized boundary conditions that either provide
detailed control over the flow at the boundary or that simulate specific devices. In
practice they often prescribe a velocity or a pressure but calculate the prescribed values
using, for example, ODEs.

Normal Stress Boundary Condition

Fully Developed Flow (Inlet)

The Fully developed flow boundary condition can be understood from the following
figure:

pinl Ω

The flow to the domain Ω is assumed to enter through a straight channel of length L.
The channel is a virtual extrusion of the inlet cross section and a pressure constant
pressure Pinl is applied on the inlet of the virtual channel.

The Fully Developed Flow boundary condition prescribes that the tangential flow
component on the boundary is zero:

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 79

 u – ( u ⋅ n )n = 0

The momentum equation for a fully developed flow in the virtual extrusion of the inlet
cross section can then be projected onto the inlet boundary with the following weak
equation as the result:

( p + P inl )
   L  –μ ( ∇t u + ( ∇t u ) ) + ----------------------- I : ( ∇ t û ) – P inl ( n ⋅ û )
T
2   
∂Ω

The exact value of L is somewhat arbitrary as long as it is not too high or too low. L is
therefore set to ten times the inlet edge length in 2D and to ten times the square root
of the inlet area in 2D axisymmetry and in 3D.

The fact that the velocity profile is not prescribed, but rather the solution of a projected
weak contribution, means that the actual velocity profile that is obtained on the inlet
can deviate from the analytical fully developed flow profile (in cases such an analytical
solution exists) if required by the solution inside the computational domain, Ω. This is
most notably if the flow is strongly curved just downstream of the inlet. This can, for
example, be the case if an object is positioned just downstream of the inlet or if the
adjacent boundaries are not orthogonal to the inlet. The analytical solution can in
these cases be recovered by including a little bit of the inlet channel in the
computational domain.

The inlet pressure, Pinl, must be solved for and the its equation is a discrete algebraic
equation (DAE) for Pinl. When, for example, the average velocity is specified, the DAE
reads

(  u ⋅ n + U av )P̂ inl

where <⋅> denotes the average over the inlet. Since the equation for Pinl is a DAE (the
equation for Pinl does not contain Pinl), it must be solved coupled to Navier–Stokes
and it must be treated by a Vanka presmoother and postsmoother if iterative solvers are
used.

The boundary conditions for the virtual inlet channel are inherited from the
boundaries adjacent to the inlet channel. Virtual boundaries adjacent to walls (except
slip walls) are treated as no-slip walls. Virtual boundaries adjacent to any other type of
boundary are treated as slip-walls (or equivalently as symmetry boundaries). So in the
figure above, if the lower boundary of Ω is a no-slip wall and the top boundary is a
symmetry boundary, the lower boundary of the virtually extruded channel becomes a
no-slip wall and the upper boundary becomes a symmetry boundary.

80 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE- AND MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Algebraic turbulence models need to additional equations or constraints. For all other
turbulence models, their weak equations in the virtual inlet channel are projected onto
the inlet of the computational domain. The projections are regularized to prevent the
production to fall to zero, so the solutions of the projects can show slight deviation
from the correct solutions close to no-slip walls.

Fully Developed Flow (Outlet)

The Fully developed flow boundary condition can be understood from the following
figure:

Ω pexit

The flow to the domain Ω is assumed to enter through a straight channel of length L.
The channel is a virtual extrusion of the inlet cross section and a pressure constant
pressure Pexit is applied on the inlet of the virtual channel.

The Fully Developed Flow boundary condition prescribes that the tangential flow
component on the boundary is zero:

u – ( u ⋅ n )n = 0

The momentum equation for a fully developed flow in the virtual extrusion of the inlet
cross section can then be projected onto the inlet boundary with the following weak
equation as the result:

( p + P exit )
   L  –μ ( ∇t u + ( ∇t u ) ) + -------------------------- I : ( ∇ t û ) – P exit ( n ⋅ û )
T
2
∂Ω

The exact value of L is somewhat arbitrary as long as it is not too high or too low. L is
therefore set to ten times the inlet edge length in 2D and to ten times the square root
of the inlet area in 2D axisymmetry and in 3D.

The fact that the velocity profile is not prescribed, but rather the solution of a projected
weak contribution, means that the actual velocity profile that is obtained on the outlet
can deviate from the analytical fully developed flow profile (in cases such an analytical
solution exists) if required by the solution inside the computational domain, Ω. The
inlet pressure, Pexit, must be solved for and the its equation is a discrete algebraic

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 81

 equation (DAE) for Pexit. When, for example, the average velocity is specified, the
DAE reads

(  u ⋅ n + U av )P̂ exit

where <⋅> denotes the average over the inlet. Since the equation for Pext is a DAE, it
must be solved coupled to Navier–Stokes and it must be treated by a Vanka
presmoother and postsmoother if iterative solvers are used.

The boundary conditions for the virtual outlet channel are inherited from the
boundaries adjacent to the outlet channel. Virtual boundaries adjacent to walls (except
slip walls) are treated as no-slip walls. Virtual boundaries adjacent to any other type of
boundary are treated as slip-walls (or equivalently as symmetry boundaries).

No Viscous Stress
For this module, and in addition to the Pressure, No Viscous Stress boundary
condition, the viscous stress condition sets the viscous stress to zero:

 μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = 0
 3 

( μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = 0

using the compressible/weakly compressible and the incompressible formulation,

respectively.

The condition is not a sufficient outlet condition since it lacks information about the
outlet pressure. It must hence be combined with pressure point constraints on one or
several points or lines surrounding the outlet.

This boundary condition is numerically the least stable outlet condition, but can still
be beneficial if the outlet pressure is nonconstant due to, for example, a nonlinear
volume force.

Normal Stress Boundary Condition

The total stress on the boundary is set equal to a stress vector of magnitude f0, oriented
in the negative normal direction:

 – pI +  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I  n = – f 0 n
  3 

82 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE- AND MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = – f 0 n

using the compressible/weakly compressible and the incompressible formulation,

respectively.

This implies that the total stress in the tangential direction is zero. This boundary
condition implicitly sets a constraint on the pressure which for 2D flows is

∂u n
p = 2μ ---------- + f 0 (3-16)
∂n

If ∂un/∂n is small, Equation 3-16 states that p ≈ f0.

The Normal Stress condition is the mathematically correct version of the Pressure
Conditions condition (Ref. 4), but it is numerically less stable.

Pressure Boundary Condition

For single-phase flow, a mathematically correct natural boundary condition for outlets
is

 – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – p 0 n (3-17)
 3 

( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = – p 0 n (3-18)

using the compressible/weakly compressible and the incompressible formulation,

respectively.

This is a normal stress condition together with a no-tangential-stress condition. When

μ > 0, Equation 3-17 or Equation 3-18 can be supplemented with a tangential velocity
condition

u⋅t=0 (3-19)

If so, the no-tangential-stress condition is overridden. An issue with Equation 3-17 or

Equation 3-18 is that it does not strongly enforce unidirectional flow on the boundary.
If the prescribed pressure on an outlet is too high, parts of the outlet can actually have
inflow. This is not as much of an issue for the Navier–Stokes equations as it is an issue
for scalar transport equations solved along with the Navier–Stokes equations. Hence,
when applying the Pressure boundary condition at an outlet or inlet you can further
constrain the flow. With the Suppress backflow option

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 83

  – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – p̂ 0 n
 3 
, (3-20)
( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = – p̂ 0 n
p̂ 0 ≤ p 0

the normal stress is adjusted to keep

u⋅n≥0 (3-21)

Equation 3-20 effectively means that the prescribed pressure is p0 if u ⋅ n ≥ 0, but

smaller at locations where u ⋅ n < 0. This means that Equation 3-20 does not
completely prevent backflow, but the backflow is substantially reduced. Backflow is
suppressed also when external forces are acting on the fluid, provided the magnitude
of these forces are of the same order as the dynamic pressure at the outlet.

A pressure condition can also be applied at an inlet. In this case, either the normal stress
is prescribed

n  – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – p̂ 0
T 2
3
T
(3-22)
n ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = – p̂ 0
p̂ 0 ≥ p 0

together with the tangential condition in Equation 3-19, or, a general flow direction
is prescribed.

T  – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
ru --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – p̂ 0 ( r ⋅ n )
 3  u
T ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = – p̂ ( r ⋅ n )
ru 0 u
(3-23)
p̂ 0 ≥ p 0
du
u – ( u ⋅ r u )r u = 0, r u = ----------
-
du

The “>” option is used with suppress backflow to have u ⋅ n ≤ 0 or u ⋅ ru ≥ 0.

For incompressible single-phase flow, it is also allowed to specify the total pressure,
ptot, instead of the static pressure, pstat, on inlet and outlet boundaries. It is more

84 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE- AND MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

useful, for example, in pump applications. The pressure is then prescribed at the
boundaries using Bernoulli’s principle,

1 2
p = p stat = p tot – --- ρ u (3-24)
2

The equation is imposed with two options: Average and Pointwise.

In the first option, pstat is prescribed by:

T T (3-25)
n ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = n ( – p stat I + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n

where ptot and |u|2 are averaged over the boundaries using the aveop operator:

1 2
p stat = aveop ( p tot ) – --- ρ ⋅ aveop ( u )
2

For the second option, Equation 3-24 is prescribed pointwise.

See Inlet, Outlet, Open Boundary, and No Viscous Stress for the individual node
settings. Note that some modules have additional theory sections describing options
available with that module.

Porous Interface
This condition properly accounts for a sudden jump in porosity εp across boundary
between different domains, giving the corresponding jump in stress across the
interface. The emergence of a boundary layer on the upstream side of the interface is
also revealed, which provides modifications to the behavior of the tangential velocity
near the interface. The feature helps to avoid the need to add a very thin transition
region, in which εp,upstream changes to εp,downstream continuously, while solving the
Brinkman equation in such situations. Below, ‘−’ and ‘+’ (used as subscripts and
superscripts) refer to the upstream and downstream side of the interface, respectively.

Whatever the option for Continuity conditions is chosen, the velocity conditions are

+
+ +
[ρ(u ⋅ n)] = 0, ut ≡ [ u – ( u ⋅ n )n ] =0
− −
−

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 85

 That is, the mass flux and tangential velocity across the interface are constant, and n is
assumed to be a normal pointing from ‘−’ to ‘+’. Velocity and stress option just imposes
usual stress continuity adding a correction for a possible jump in density:

+
pn – Kn + ρ ( u ⋅ n )  -----
1  2u = 0
εp 
av
−

The option Velocity and porosity-corrected stress (default) adds a contribution due to
the inertial term, which is non-trivial (gives non-zero effect) when εp jumps across the
interface:

+
pn – Kn + ρ ( u ⋅ n )  -----
1  2 u + ρ ( u ⋅ n )  --------
1 -
 u av = 0
εp   2ε 2p 
av
−

=  ----- + -----  ⁄ 2 , u av = ( u − + u + ) ⁄ 2 and so on.

1 1 1
Notice that -----
ε p av εp − εp +
Then, the Velocity and porosity-corrected stress with loss option has a ‘pressure loss’
term:

+
pn – Kn + ρ ( u ⋅ n )  -----
1  2 u + ρ ( u ⋅ n )  --------
1 
- u av +p
(loss)
n = 0
 εp   2ε 2p 
av
−

This loss occurs in the downstream direction. Its mechanism is similar to the
mechanism of common engineering ‘total pressure loss’. Indeed, ‘expansion’ and
‘contraction’ across the interface experienced by the flow on the microscopic level (due
to increasing or decreasing porosity, εp, respectively), are roughly equivalent to
expansion and contraction of flow in a pipe with geometrical variations. Accordingly,
it is assumed that only the normal velocity component is responsible for the loss. In
the case of normal flow and negligible viscous term the pipe-analogy is quite exact.

Subsequently, Pressure loss model should be specified. Choosing User-defined loss

coefficients requires values of Expansion loss coefficient and Contraction loss coefficient
(Kexp = 1 and Kcontr = 0.5 are default values). The resulting losses on the ‘expansion’
and ‘contraction’ boundaries are:

86 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE- AND MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 (loss,expansion)   ρ ( u ⋅ n ) 2 
p = K exp   -----------------------
-  ,
  2ε 2p  −

(loss,contraction)  ρ ( u ⋅ n ) 2
p = K contr  -----------------------
-
 2ε 2p  +

Borda–Carnot option results in the following losses:

ρ av ( u ⋅ n ) (u ⋅ n) 2
= -------  ----------------- – -----------------  ,
(loss,expansion)
p
2 εp + ε p −
1  ρ ( u ⋅ n ) -  1
2 2
  ------- – 1
(loss,contraction)
p = ---  -----------------------
2 εp
2
 c
+ vc

and requires to choose Vena contracta model. The User defined option asks for value of
Vena contracta coefficient (cvc = 0.5 by default). Weisbach option computes the
coefficient based on the ratio of porosities across the interface:

 ε p, + n vc
c vc = c vc,ll + ( 1 – c vc,ll )  ----------
 ε p, −

and requires inputs for Lower limit and Exponent (cvc,ll = 0.63 and nvc = 3 are default
values).

Although the velocity conditions formally look the same for all Continuity conditions
options, the latter two (containing the inertial correction due to the porosity jump)
lead to an extra non-trivial effect. Namely, the tangential velocity exponentially evolves
over a boundary layer formed on the upstream side of the interface boundary. This
boundary layer has a characteristic length equal to

με p, −
l − = --------------------
-
ρ(u ⋅ n)

The ratio of the tangential velocities right after the interface (‘downstream’) and
outside the boundary layer (‘upstream infinity’) is

u t, + 2ε p, + ⁄ ε p, −
- = --------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------ -
u t,upstream infinity ε p, + ⁄ ε p, − + ε p, − ⁄ ε p, +

In terms of the interstitial velocity, u(i) = u/εp, this results in:

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 87

 (i)
u t, + 2
- = --------------------------------------------------------- ≤ 1
-----------------------------------------------
(i)
u t,upstream infinity ε p, + p, −
⁄ ε + ε p, − ⁄ ε p, +

Obviously, tangential component of the interstitial kinetic energy is lost across the
interface. For low viscosity and high normal-flow component, when lu is much lower
than lgeom (the characteristic geometry length) there are apparent variations in ut and
u(i)t in a thin boundary layer on the upstream side of the interface. However, for the
cases with high viscosity or nearly interface-parallel flow, lu is much larger than lgeom,
and any variations in ut and u(i)t are virtually invisible.

Notice that the feature does not take into account possible underresolved porous scale,
as is described in Theory for the Free and Porous Media Flow, Darcy Interface.

Mass Sources for Fluid Flow

There are two types of mass sources in a Single-Phase Flow interface: point sources and
line sources.

These features require at least one of the following licenses: Battery

Design Module, CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering Module,
Corrosion Module, Electrochemistry Module, Electrodeposition
Module, Fuel Cell & Electrolyzer Module, Microfluidics Module, Pipe
Flow Module, Polymer Flow Module, or Subsurface Flow Module.

POINT SOURCE
·
A point source is theoretically formed by taking a mass injection/ejection, Q (SI unit:
3
kg/(m ·s)), in a small volume δV and then letting the size of the volume tend to zero
while keeping the total mass flux constant. Given a point source strength, q· p (SI unit:
kg/s), this can be expressed as

·
lim
δV → 0  Q = q· p (3-26)
δV

An alternative way to form a point source/sink is to assume that mass is

injected/extracted through the surface of a small object. Letting the object surface
area tend to zero while keeping the mass flux constant, results in the same point source.
For this alternative approach, effects resulting from the physical object volume, such
as drag and fluid displacement, need to be neglected.

88 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE- AND MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The weak contribution

q· p test ( p )
·
is added to a point in the geometry. As can be seen from Equation 3-26, Q must tend
to plus or minus infinity as δV tends to zero. This means that in theory the pressure
also tends to plus or minus infinity.

Observe that “point” refers to the physical representation of the source. A point source
can therefore only be added to points in 3D components and to points on the
symmetry axis in 2D axisymmetry components. Other geometrical points in 2D
components represent physical lines.

The finite element representation of Equation 3-26 corresponds to a finite pressure in

a point with the effect of the point source spread out over a region around the point.
The size of the region depends on the mesh and on the strength of the source. A finer
mesh gives a smaller affected region, but also a more extreme pressure value. It is
important not to mesh too finely around a point source since the resulting pressure can
result in unphysical values for the density, for example. It can also have a negative effect
on the condition number for the equation system.

LINE SOURCE
·
A line source can theoretically be formed by assuming a source of strength Q (SI unit:
3
kg/(m ·s)), located within a tube with cross-sectional area δS and then letting δS tend
to zero, while keeping the total mass flux per unit length constant. Given a line source
strength, q· l (SI unit: kg/(m·s)), this can be expressed as

·
lim
δS → 0 Q = q· l (3-27)
δS

As in the point source case, an alternative approach is to assume that mass is

injected/extracted through the surface of a small object. This results in the same mass
source, but requires that effects on the fluid resulting from the physical object volume
are neglected.

The weak contribution

q· l test ( p )

is added to lines in 3D or to points in 2D (which represent cut-through views of lines).

Line sources can also be added to the axisymmetry line in 2D axisymmetry

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 89

 components. It cannot, however, be added to geometrical lines in 2D because they
represent physical planes.

As with a point source, it is important not to mesh too finely around the line source.

For feature node information, see Line Mass Source and Point Mass
Source in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

For the Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Diluted Species interface, which
is available with the CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering
Module, or Battery Design Module, these shared physics nodes are
renamed as follows:

• The Line Mass Source node is available as two nodes, one for the fluid
flow (Fluid Line Source) and one for the species (Species Line Source).
• The Point Mass Source node is available as two nodes, one for the fluid
flow (Fluid Point Source) and one for the species (Species Point Source).

Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow

The momentum equation (Equation 3-9 or Equation 3-11) is a (nonlinear)
convection-diffusion equation. Such equations can easily become unstable if
discretized using the Galerkin finite element method. Stabilized finite element
methods are usually necessary in order to obtain physical solutions. The stabilization
settings are found in the main Fluid Flow interface features. To display this section,
click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization in the Show More
Options dialog box.

There are three types of stabilization methods available for Navier–Stokes —

streamline diffusion, crosswind diffusion, and isotropic diffusion. Streamline
diffusion and crosswind diffusion are consistent stabilization methods, whereas
isotropic diffusion is an inconsistent stabilization method.

For optimal functionality, the exact weak formulations of and constants in the
streamline diffusion and crosswind diffusion methods depend on the order of the
shape functions (basis functions) for the elements. The values of constants in the
streamline diffusion and crosswind diffusion methods follow Ref. 5 and Ref. 6.

90 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE- AND MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

STREAMLINE DIFFUSION
For strongly coupled systems of equations, the streamline diffusion method must be
applied to the system as a whole rather than to each equation separately. These ideas
were first explored by Hughes and Mallet (Ref. 8) and were later extended to Galerkin
least-squares (GLS) applied to the Navier–Stokes equations (Ref. 9). This is the
streamline diffusion formulation that COMSOL Multiphysics supports.

Streamline diffusion is active by default because it is necessary when convection is

dominating the flow.

The governing equations for incompressible flow are subject to the Babuška–Brezzi
condition, which states that the shape functions (basis functions) for pressure must be
of lower order than the shape functions for velocity. If the incompressible Navier–
Stokes equations are stabilized by streamline diffusion, it is possible to use equal-order
interpolation. Hence, streamline diffusion is necessary when using first-order elements
for both velocity and pressure. This applies also if the model is solved using geometric
multigrid (either as a solver or as a preconditioner) and at least one multigrid hierarchy
level uses linear Lagrange elements.

CROSSWIND DIFFUSION
Crosswind diffusion can also be formulated for systems of equations, and when applied
to the Navier–Stokes equations it becomes a shock-capturing operator. COMSOL
Multiphysics supports the formulation in Ref. 9 with a shock-capturing viscosity of the
Hughes–Mallet type Ref. 8.

Incompressible flows do not contain shock waves, but crosswind diffusion is still useful
for introducing extra diffusion in sharp boundary layers and shear layers that otherwise
would require a very fine mesh to resolve.

Crosswind diffusion is active by default as it makes it easier to obtain a solution even if

the problem is fully resolved by the mesh. Crosswind diffusion also enables the iterative
solvers to use inexpensive presmoothers. If crosswind diffusion is deactivated, more
expensive preconditioners must be used instead.

STABILIZATION TIME SCALES

The time-scale tensor for time-dependent problems should in theory depend on a
time-scale that many references just set to the time-step taken by the time-solver, Δt
(see, for example, Ref. 9 and Ref. 10). This simple approach does not, however,
necessarily reflect on the actual time-scales in the physics. A typical example is reacting
flows where the time step is often guided by fast reactions, while the flow develops
relatively slowly. The COMSOL Multiphysics software can therefore replace Δt2 in the

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 91

 time-scale tensor with measures of type ( 1 ⁄ ( Δt̃ ) 2 ) –1 , which are calculated from
projections of weak expressions in a fashion similar to those in Ref. 11. These measures
of the time scale are used when Use dynamic subgrid time scale is activated.

The Limit small time steps effect on stabilization time scale option can be used to ramp
down the time-step contribution in the stabilization when the time step becomes much
smaller than the convective and diffusive time scales. This option prevents loss of
pressure stabilization at such small time steps.

ISOTROPIC DIFFUSION
Isotropic diffusion adds diffusion to the Navier–Stokes equations. Isotropic diffusion
significantly reduces the accuracy of the solution but does a very good job at reducing
oscillations. The stability of the continuity equation is not improved.

Numerical Stabilization and Iterative in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

Solvers for Laminar Flow

The Navier–Stokes equations constitute a nonlinear equation system. A nonlinear
solver must hence be applied to solve the problem. The nonlinear solver iterates to
reach the final solution. In each iteration, a linearized version of the nonlinear system
is solved using a linear solver. In the time-dependent case, a time marching method
must also be applied. The default suggestions for each of these solver elements are
discussed below.

NONLINEAR SOLVER
The nonlinear solver method depends on if the model solves a stationary or a
time-dependent problem.

Stationary Solver
In the stationary case, a fully coupled, damped Newton method is applied. The initial
damping factor is low since a full Newton step can be harmful unless the initial values
are close to the final solution. The nonlinear solver algorithm automatically regulates
the damping factor in order to reach a converged solution.

For advanced models, the automatically damped Newton method might not be robust
enough. A pseudo time-stepping algorithm can then be invoked. See Pseudo Time
Stepping for Laminar Flow Models.

92 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE- AND MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Time-Dependent Solver
In the time-dependent case, the initial guess for each time step is (loosely speaking) the
previous time step, which is a very good initial value for the nonlinear solver. The
automatic damping algorithm is then not necessary. The damping factor in the
Newton method is instead set to a constant value slightly smaller than one. Also, for
the same reason, it suffices to update the Jacobian once per time step.

It is seldom worth the extra computational cost to update the Jacobian more than once
per time step. For most models it is more efficient to restrict the maximum time step
or possibly lower the damping factor in the Newton method.

LINEAR SOLVER
The linearized Navier–Stokes equation system has saddle point character, unless the
density depends on the pressure. This means that the Jacobian matrix has zeros on the
diagonal. Even when the density depends on the pressure, the equation system
effectively shares many numerical properties with a saddle point system.

For small 2D and 3D models, the default solver suggestion is a direct solver. Direct
solvers can handle most nonsingular systems and are very robust and also very fast for
small models. Unfortunately, they become slow for large models and their memory
requirement scales as somewhere between N1.5 and N2, where N is the number of
degrees of freedom in the model. The default suggestion for large 2D and 3D models
is therefore the iterative GMRES solver. The memory requirement for an iterative
solver optimally scales as N.

GMRES is accelerated by a multigrid method, per default the smoothed aggregation

algebraic multigrid (SAAMG) method. The cost of SAAMG is typically very low
compared to the number of GMRES iterations necessary if no multigrid method is
used. As the name implies, SAAMG builds its coarser meshes algebraically, so the
application requires no additional meshes in order to employ SAAMG. In contrast, the
geometric multigrid (GMG) method requires actual meshes. If a sufficient number of
multigrid levels can be constructed, GMG is often faster than SAAMG. GMG is also
superior for cluster computations and for shared-memory computations with many
cores. When the default linear solver is GMRES, an optional, but deactivated, linear
solver node is available where GMRES is accelerated by GMG.

Multigrid methods need smoothers, but the saddle point character of the linear system
restricts the number of applicable smoothers. The choices are further restricted by the
anisotropic meshes frequently encountered in fluid-flow problems. The efficiency of
the smoothers is highly dependent on the numerical stabilization. Iterative solvers

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 93

 perform at their best when both Streamline Diffusion and Crosswind Diffusion are
active.

The default smoother for P1+P1 elements is SCGS. This is an efficient and robust
smoother specially designed to solve saddle point systems on meshes that contain
anisotropic elements. The SCGS smoother works well even without crosswind
diffusion. SCGS can sometimes work for higher-order elements, especially if Method in
the SCGS settings is set to Mesh element lines. But there is no guarantee for this, so the
default smoother for higher order elements is an SOR Line smoother. SOR Line
handles mesh anisotropy but does not formally address the saddle point character. It
does, however, function in practice provided that streamline diffusion and crosswind
diffusion are both active.

A different kind of saddle point character can arise if the equation system contains
ODE variables. Some advanced boundary conditions can add equations with such
variables. These variables must be treated with the Vanka algorithm. SCGS includes an
option to invoke Vanka. Models with higher-order elements must apply SCGS or use
the Vanka smoother. The latter is the default suggestion for higher-order elements, but
it does not work optimally for anisotropic meshes.

TIME-DEPENDENT SOLVERS
The default time-dependent solver for Navier–Stokes is the BDF method with
maximum order set to two. Higher BDF orders are not stable for transport problems
in general nor for Navier–Stokes in particular.

BDF methods have been used for a long time and are known for their stability.
However, they can have severe damping effects, especially the lower-order methods.
Hence, if robustness is not an issue, a model can benefit from using the generalized-α
method instead. Generalized-α is a solver that has properties similar to those of the
second-order BDF solver but it is much less diffusive.

Both BDF and generalized-α are per default set to automatically adjust the time step.
While this works well for many models, extra efficiency and accuracy can often be

94 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE- AND MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

gained by specifying a maximum time step. It is also often beneficial to specify an initial
time step to make the solver progress smoothly in the beginning of the time series.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Time-Dependent Solver
• Multigrid, Direct, Iterative, SCGS, SOR Line, and Vanka
• Stationary Solver

Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models

A stationary formulation has per definition no time derivatives and Equation 3-11
reduces to:

T
ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) ] + F (3-28)

Solving Equation 3-28 requires a starting guess that is close enough to the final
solution. If no such guess is at hand, the fully transient problem can be solved instead.
This is, however, a rather costly approach in terms of computational time. An
intermediate approach is to add a fictitious time derivative to Equation 3-28:

u – nojac ( u ) T
ρ ------------------------------- + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) ] + F
Δt̃

where Δt̃ is a pseudo time step. Since u−nojac(u) is always zero, this term does not
affect the final solution. It does, however, affect the discrete equation system and
effectively transforms a nonlinear iteration into a step of size Δt̃ of a time-dependent
solver.

Pseudo time stepping is not active per default. The pseudo time step Δt̃ can be chosen
individually for each element based on the local CFL number:

h
Δt̃ = CFL loc ------
u

where h is the mesh cell size. A small CFL number means a small time step. It is
practical to start with a small CFL number and gradually increase it as the solution
approaches steady state.

If the automatic expression for CFLloc is set to the built-in variable CFLCMP, then the
automatic setting suggests a PID regulator for the pseudo time step in the default

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 95

 solver. The PID regulator starts with a small CFL number and increases CFLloc as the
solution comes closer to convergence.

The default manual expression is

1.3 min ( niterCMP, 9 ) +

if ( niterCMP > 20, 9 ⋅ 1.3 min ( niterCMP – 20, 9 ), 0 ) + (3-29)
if ( niterCMP > 40, 90 ⋅ 1.3 min ( niterCMP – 40, 9 ), 0 )

The variable niterCMP is the nonlinear iteration number. It is equal to one for the first
nonlinear iteration. CFLloc starts at 1.3 and increases by 30% each iteration until it
reaches 1.39 ≈10.6. It remains there until iteration number 20 at which it starts to
increase until it reaches approximately 106. A final increase after iteration number 40
then takes it to 1060. Equation 3-29 can, for some advanced flows, increase CFLloc
too slowly or too quickly. CFLloc can then be tuned for the specific application.

For details about the CFL regulator, see Pseudo Time Stepping in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Nitsche Constraints
Some boundary conditions are implemented using Nitsche constraints. These
boundary conditions include

• Wall — Slip, sliding walls, and moving walls (that is, walls with nonzero
translational velocity).
• Periodic Flow Condition
• Flow Continuity

The formulation used in the Fluid Flow interfaces in single-phase flow interfaces
corresponds to the Symmetric Interior Penalty Galerkin method (SIPG). The SIPG
method can be regarded to satisfy the boundary conditions in an integral sense rather
than pointwise. More information on SIPG can be found in Ref. 15.

In particular, the SIPG formulation includes a penalty parameter that must be large
enough for the formulation to be coercive. The higher the value, the better the
boundary condition is fulfilled, but a too high value results in an ill-conditioned
equation system. The penalty parameter is implemented according to Ref. 16.

96 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE- AND MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Particle Tracing in Fluid Flow
The Particle Tracing Module is available to assist with these types of modeling
problems.

It is possible to model particle tracing with COMSOL Multiphysics provided that the
impact of the particles on the flow field is negligible. First compute the flow field, and
then, as an analysis step, calculate the motion of the particles. The motion of a particle
is defined by Newton’s second law

2
d x
= F  t, x, 
dx
m
dt2 dt

where x is the position of the particle, m the particle mass, and F is the sum of all forces
acting on the particle. Examples of forces acting on a particle in a fluid are the drag
force, the buoyancy force, and the gravity force. The drag force represents the force
that a fluid exerts on a particle due to a difference in velocity between the fluid and the
particle. It includes the viscous drag, the added mass, and the Basset history term.
Several empirical expressions have been suggested for the drag force. One of those is
the one proposed by Khan and Richardson (Ref. 13). That expression is valid for
spherical particles for a wide range of particle Reynolds numbers. The particle
Reynolds number is defined as

u – u p 2rρ
Re p = ----------------------------
μ

where u is the velocity of the fluid, up the particle velocity, r the particle radius, ρ the
fluid density, and μ the dynamic viscosity of the fluid. The empirical expression for the
drag force according to Khan and Richardson is

2 -0.31 3.45
F = πr ρ u – u p ( u – u p ) [ 1.84Re p + 0.293Re p0.06 ]

The model Flow Past a Cylinder (Application Library path

COMSOL_Multiphysics/Fluid_Dynamics/cylinder_flow) demonstrates how to
add and set up particle tracing in a plot group using the Particle Tracing
with Mass node. It uses the predefined Khan–Richardson model for the
drag force and neglects gravity and buoyancy forces.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 97

 References for the Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow Interfaces
1. G.G. Stokes, Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc., vol. 8, pp. 287–305, 1845.

2. P.M. Gresho and R.L. Sani, Incompressible Flow and the Finite Element Method,
Volume 2: Isothermal Laminar Flow, John Wiley & Sons, 2000.

3. G.K. Batchelor, An Introduction To Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge University Press,

1967.

4. R.L. Panton, Incompressible Flow, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, 1996.

5. I. Harari and T.J.R. Hughes, “What are C and h? Inequalities for the Analysis and
Design of Finite Element Methods,” Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng., vol. 97,
pp. 157–192, 1992.

6. Y. Bazilevs, V.M. Calo, T.E. Tezduyar, and T.J.R. Hughes, “YZβ Discontinuity
Capturing for Advection-dominated Processes with Application to Arterial Drug
Delivery,” Int. J. Num. Meth. Fluids, vol. 54, pp. 593–608, 2007.

7. R.B. Bird, W.E. Stewart, and E.N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, 2nd ed., John
Wiley & Sons, 2007.

8. T.J.R. Hughes and M. Mallet, “A New Finite Element Formulation for

Computational Fluid Dynamics: III. The Generalized Streamline Operator for
Multidimensional Advective-Diffusive System,” Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng.,
vol. 58, pp. 305–328, 1986.

9. G. Hauke and T.J.R. Hughes, “A Unified Approach to Compressible and

Incompressible Flows,” Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng., vol. 113, pp. 389–395,
1994.

10. G. Hauke, “Simple Stabilizing Matrices for the Computation of Compressible

Flows in Primitive Variables”, Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng., vol. 190,
pp. 6881–6893, 2001.

11. M.-C. Hsu, Y. Bazilevs, V.M. Cali, T.E. Tezduyar, and T.J.R. Hughes, “Improving
stability of stabilized and multiscale formulations in flow simulations at small time
steps,” Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng., vol. 199, pp. 828–840, 2010.

12. D.J. Tritton, Physical Fluid Dynamics, 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, 1988.

13. J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson, “Particle Technology and Separation
Processes,” Chemical Engineering, Volume 2, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2002.

98 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE- AND MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

14. J.L. Guermond, P. Minev, and J. Shen, “An overview of projection methods for
incompressible flows,” Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng., vol. 195, pp. 6011–
6045, 2006.

15. B. Rivière, Discontinuous Galerkin Methods for Solving Elliptic and Parabolic
Equations, SIAM, 2008.

16. Y. Epshteyn and B. Rivière, “Estimation of penalty parameters for symmetric

interior penalty Galerkin methods,” J. Comput. Appl. Math., vol. 206, pp. 843–872,
2007.

17. R.P. Chhabra and J.F. Richardson, Non-Newtonian Flow and Applied Rheology,
2nd ed., Elsevier, 2008.

18. Y. Bazilevs and T.J.R. Hughes, “Weak imposition of Dirichlet boundary conditions
in fluid mechanics,” Comput. Fluids, vol. 36, pp. 12–26, 2007.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 99

100 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE- AND MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES
 4

Porous Media and

Subsurface Flow Interfaces
This chapter has information about the physics interfaces found under the Fluid
Flow>Porous Media and Subsurface Flow branch ( ). It contains physics interfaces
for the following sets of equations that apply under different conditions:

• The Darcy’s Law Interface describes low-velocity flows of one or more fluids.
• The Richards’ Equation Interface governs the wetting and drying of rocks or
soils.
• The Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface describes two-phase fluid movement
through interstices in a porous medium. An extra equation is computed to
calculate the saturation transport.
• The Multiphase Flow in Porous Media Interface which combines low velocity
flow with phase transport of multiple immiscible phases in a porous medium is
described in Chapter Multiphysics Interfaces and Couplings.
• The Fracture Flow Interface is a variant of Darcy’s law that defines the flow along
the interior boundaries representing fractures within a porous or solid medium.
• The Brinkman Equations Interface is for porous media high-velocity flows.
• The Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman Interface and The Free and Porous
Media Flow, Darcy Interface combine free flow adjacent to porous domains.
• The Laminar Flow and Creeping Flow Interfaces use the Navier-Stokes
equations (in which the inertia term is neglected in case of Creeping Flow) to

101
 describe free flows within a river or well, for example. The Laminar Flow Interface
is available with all COMSOL licenses.

With Darcy’s law and Richards’ equation, COMSOL Multiphysics solves for pressure
and has physics interfaces for pressure head and hydraulic head. Set up these equations
for single or multiple fluids. The physics interfaces can be coupled to other physics
interfaces to describe poroelasticity, convection of heat- and density-driven flows,
solute transfer, and electromagnetic forces, to name a few.

In this chapter you will find the following sections:

• Darcy’s Law:
- Theory for the Darcy’s Law Interface
- The Darcy’s Law Interface

• Richards’ Equation:
- Theory for the Richards’ Equation Interface
- The Richards’ Equation Interface

• Two-Phase Darcy’s Law:

- Theory for the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface
- The Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface

• Fracture Flow:
- Theory for the Fracture Flow Interface
- The Fracture Flow Interface

• Brinkman Equations:
- Theory for the Brinkman Equations Interface
- The Brinkman Equations Interface

• Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman:

- Theory for the Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman Interface
- The Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman Interface

• Free and Porous Media Flow, Darcy:

- Theory for the Free and Porous Media Flow, Darcy Interface
- The Free and Porous Media Flow, Darcy Interface

102 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Theory for the Darcy’s Law Interface
The Darcy’s Law Interface theory is described in this section:

• About Darcy’s Law

• Darcy’s Law — Equation Formulation
• Storage Models
• Average Linear Velocity
• Dual Porosity and Dual Permeability Theory
• References for the Darcy’s Law Interface

About Darcy’s Law

In a porous medium, the global transport of momentum by shear stresses in the fluid
is often negligible, because the pore walls impede momentum transport to the fluid
outside the individual pores. A detailed description, down to the resolution of every
pore, is not practical in most applications. A homogenization of the porous and fluid
media into a single medium is a common alternative approach. Darcy’s law together
with the continuity equation and equation of state for the pore fluid (or gas) provide
a complete mathematical model suitable for a wide variety of applications involving
porous media flows, for which the pressure gradient is the major driving force.

Darcy’s law describes fluid movement through interstices in a porous medium.

Because the fluid loses considerable energy to frictional resistance within pores, flow
velocities in porous media are very low. The Darcy’s Law interface can be applied to
small-scale tasks in chemical engineering as well as to large-scale geophysical or
hydrological tasks such as water moving in an aquifer or stream bank, oil migrating to
a well, and even magma rising through the earth to a chamber in a volcano (see Ref. 1,
Ref. 2, Ref. 3, and Ref. 4). Also set up multiple Darcy’s Law interfaces to model
multiphase flows involving more than one mobile phase.

Darcy’s law describes flow in porous media driven by gradients in the hydraulic
potential field, which has units of pressure. For many applications it is convenient to
represent the total hydraulic potential or the pressure and the gravitational
components with equivalent heights of fluid or head. Division of potential by the fluid
weight can simplify modeling because units of length make it straightforward to
compare to many physical data. Consider, for example, fluid levels in wells, stream
heights, topography, and velocities. The physics interface also supports specifying

THEORY FOR THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 103

 boundary conditions and result evaluation using hydraulic head and pressure head. In
the physics interface, pressure is always the dependent variable.

Darcy’s Law — Equation Formulation

Darcy’s law states that the velocity field is determined by the pressure gradient, the
fluid viscosity, and the structure of the porous medium:

κ
u = – --- ∇p (4-1)
μ

In this equation, u is the Darcy’s velocity or specific discharge vector (SI unit: m/s);
κ is the permeability of the porous medium (SI unit: m2); μ is the fluid’s dynamic
viscosity (SI unit: Pa·s); p is the pore pressure (SI unit: Pa) and ρ is the density of the
fluid (SI unit: kg/m3).

• The above equation formulation is called linear Darcy’s law. The

applicability of this formulation is discussed in the chapter About
Darcian and Non-Darcian Flow in the Porous Media Flow Module
User’s Guide.
• Permeability can be defined in different ways, either directly or based
on predefined permeability models. These are described in detail in the
chapter Permeability Models.
• For a detailed overview of the permeability models available in each
product visit [Link]

The Darcy’s Law interface combines Darcy’s law with the continuity equation

∂ ρε
( p ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = Q m (4-2)
∂t

In the above equation, ρ is the fluid density (SI unit: kg/m3), εp is the porosity, and
Qm is a mass source term (SI unit: kg/(m3·s)). Porosity is defined as the fraction of
the control volume that is occupied by pores. Thus, the porosity can vary from zero
for pure solid regions to unity for domains of free flow.

For large-scale applications it might be necessary to take gravity effects into account.
Darcy’s law then applies when the gradient in hydraulic potential drives fluid
movement in the porous medium. Darcy’s law then has the form:

104 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

 κ
u = – --- ( ∇p – ρ g ) (4-3)
μ

• See the section Gravity Effects in the Subsurface Flow Module User’s
Guide.
• Note that gravity effects are only included in some modules. For a
detailed overview of the functionality available in each product visit
[Link]
• Gravity effects are not active by default. Select the check box Include
gravity to activate the acceleration of gravity. Setting the elevation D to
zero also turns off gravity effects.

Storage Models
The continuity equation (Equation 4-2) allows flexible specification of relationships
between parameters like density or permeability with respect to variables such as
pressure, temperature, concentration, and more.

Expanding the time-derivative term and defining the porosity and density as functions
of the pressure and using the chain rule results in

∂ ( ρε ) = ε ∂-----
ρ- ∂ε p ∂ρ- ∂-----
p- ∂ε p ∂p
p
-------- ----- -------- ------
p ∂t + ρ ∂t = ε p ∂p ∂t + ρ ∂p ∂t
∂t

By inserting the definition of fluid compressibility χf = (1/ρ)(∂ρ/∂p) to the right-hand

side and rearrange the following expression is obtained

∂( ρε p ) ∂ε ∂p ∂p
---------------- = ρ  ε p χ f + -------p- ------ = ρS p ------
∂t  ∂p  ∂t ∂t

Using this relation, the generalized governing equation (Equation 4-2) takes the
following form:

∂p
ρS p ------ + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = Q m (4-4)
∂t

In this equation, Sp is the storage coefficient (SI unit: 1/Pa), which can be interpreted
as the weighted compressibility of the porous material and the fluid. The storage can
be an expression involving results from a solid-deformation equation or an expression
involving temperatures and concentrations from other analyses. The Darcy’s Law

THEORY FOR THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 105

 interface implements Equation 4-4 in the Porous Medium node, which explicitly
includes different storage models to choose from:

• From density and porosity, where the storage directly depends on changes in porosity
or fluid density
• Linearized storage, which defines Sp using the compressibility of the fluid χf and of
the porous matrix χp according to
S p = ε p χ f + ( 1 – ε p )χ p

• Poroelastic storage where

Sp = εp χf .

Storage models are only available for the Subsurface Flow Module and
the Porous Media Flow Module. For a detailed overview of the
functionality available in each product visit
[Link]

Average Linear Velocity

Because fluids typically occupy only 10% to 50% of a porous medium, it follows that
velocities within the pore channels exceed the Darcy velocity, u, on the order of two
to ten times. For clarity, the physics interface includes the average linear velocity within
the pores, uα, (also termed the seepage velocity) defined as uα = u/εp, where εp is the
porosity.

Dual Porosity and Dual Permeability Theory

The first well known publication on this topic is “The Behavior of Naturally Fractured
Reservoirs” by [Link] and P.J. Root from 1963. Since then the researchers further
developed the idea of a dual porosity/permeability type of a porous medium. One of
the well established models is based on the findings of H. Gerke and M. van
Genuchten (Ref. 9). Basically the idea behind is to solve for each part of the porous
medium (macro- and micropores) the relevant equations and connect them via an
exchange term.

DUAL POROSITY MEDIUM

Darcy's Law is solved for the macropores and taking into account their volume fraction
θM the equation reads:

106 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

 ∂p M
θ M  ρS p,M ----------- + ∇( ρu M ) = θ M Q M – Q ip (4-5)
∂t

The term Qip describes the mass source from the Interporosity Flow which is the mass
transfer from the macropores to the micropores system. An additional ODE for the
(passive) micropores is solved which only act as additional storage volume:

∂p m
( 1 – θ M )  ρS p,m ---------- = ( 1 – θ M )Q M + Q ip .
 ∂t 

The indices M and m stand for macropores and micropores, respectively.

DUAL PERMEABILITY MEDIUM

Darcy’s law has to be solved for both the macroscale system and the microscale system:

∂
θ M  ( ε p,M ρ ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu M ) = – Q ip + θ M Q m
∂t
(4-6)
( 1 – θ M )  ∂ ( ε p,m ρ ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu m ) = Q ip + ( 1 – θ M )Q m
∂t
p = θ M p M + ( 1 – θ M )p m

θM is the volume fraction of the macropores, Qip denotes the interporosity flow,
signifying the mass transfer from the macropores (identified by index M) to the
micropores (identified by index m).

Solving Darcy’s law for both systems entails solving two equations, each associated
with dependent pressure variables pm and pM. These equations are coupled via Qip.
From this, average quantities for the dual permeability medium as a whole are
computed. The average pressure of the dual permeability medium is defined as:

p = θ M p M + ( 1 – θ M )p m

Likewise, average values for permeability, storage, velocity and other relevant
parameters are computed.

UNSATURATED DUAL PERMEABILITY MEDIUM

Use the Unsaturated Dual Permeability Medium feature to model the transport in an
unsaturated dual permeability medium where the Richards’ Equation (Equation 4-26)
describes the transport in each system.

THEORY FOR THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 107

 C m,M ∂p M
θ M  ρ  S e,M S p,M + -------------
- ----------- + ∇( ρu M ) = – Q ip + θ M Q m
ρg  ∂t
C m,m ∂p m (4-7)
( 1 – θ M )  ρ  S e,m S p,m + ------------
- ---------- + ∇( ρu m ) = Q ip + ( 1 – θ M )Q m
ρg  ∂t
p = θ M p M + ( 1 – θ M )p m

θM is the volume fraction of the macropores, Qip is the interporosity flow which is the
mass transfer from the macroscale to the microscale system. The indices M and m stand
for macropores and micropores, respectively.

INTERPOROSITY FLOW
Specify the Fluid Transfer Function αw which is used to calculate the interporosity flow,
which is the mass exchange between macro- and microscale system:

Q ip = α w ( p M – p m ) (4-8)

with pM being the pressure within the macroscale system and pm the pressure within
the microscale system

References for the Darcy’s Law Interface

1. J. Bear, Hydraulics of Groundwater, McGraw Hill, 1979.

2. S.E. Ingebritsen and W.E. Sanford, Groundwater in Geologic Processes, Cambridge

University Press, 1998.

3. N.H. Sleep and K. Fujita, Principles of Geophysics, Blackwell Science, 1997.

4. D.L. Turcotte and G. Schubert, Geodynamics, Cambridge University Press, 2002.

5. J. Bear, Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media, Elsevier Scientific Publishing, 1972.

6. Ö. Akgiray and A.M. Saatç?, “A New Look at Filter Backwash Hydraulics,” Water
Science and Technology: Water Supply, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 65–72, 2001.

7. L. Klinkenberg, “The permeability of porous media to liquids and gases,” Drilling

and Production Practice, Am. Petroleum Inst., pp. 200–213, 1941.

8. Yu-Shu Wu and others, “Gas Flow in Porous Media with Klinkenberg Effects,”
Transport in Porous Media, vol. 32, pp. 117–137, 1998.

108 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

9. H. Gerke and M. van Genuchten, “A dual-porosity model for simulating the
preferential movement of water and solutes in structured porous media.” Water
Resources Research. 29. pp. 305-319. 1993.

THEORY FOR THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 109

 The Darcy’s Law Interface
The Darcy’s Law (dl) interface ( ), found under the Porous Media and Subsurface Flow
branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to simulate fluid flow through
interstices in a porous medium. It can be used to model low-velocity flows or media
where the permeability and porosity are very small, and for which the pressure gradient
is the major driving force and the flow is mostly influenced by the frictional resistance
within the pores. Set up multiple Darcy's Law interfaces to model multiphase flows
involving more than one mobile phase. The Darcy’s Law interface can be used for
stationary and time-dependent analyses.

The main feature is the Porous Medium Properties node, which provides interfaces for
defining the fluid material and the porous matrix properties.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Porous Medium, No Flow (the default boundary condition), and Initial
Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example,
boundary conditions and mass sources. You can also right-click Darcy's Law to select
physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is dl.

PHYSICAL MODEL
Enter a Reference pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1[atm].

GRAVITY EFFECTS
By default there are no gravity effects added to Darcy’s Law interface. Select the check
box Include gravity to activate the acceleration of gravity. When this check box is
selected, a global Gravity feature node is shown in the interface model tree.

110 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Enter a value for the acceleration of gravity. The default value g_const is the
predefined standard acceleration of gravity on earth.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

[Link]

DISCRETIZATION
To display all settings available in this section, click the Show More Options button ( )
and select Advanced Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

You can choose the order of the shape functions used for the pressure variable solved
by the Darcy’s Law interface. The default shape functions are Quadratic Lagrange.

The Compute boundary fluxes check box is not activated by default. When this option
is selected, the solver computes variables storing accurate boundary fluxes from each
boundary into the adjacent domain.

If the check box is cleared, the COMSOL Multiphysics software instead computes the
flux variables from the dependent variables using extrapolation, which is less accurate
in postprocessing results but does not create extra dependent variables on the
boundaries for the fluxes.

Also, the Apply smoothing to boundary fluxes check box is available if the previous check
box is checked. The smoothing can provide a better behaved flux value close to
singularities.

For details about the boundary fluxes settings, see Computing Accurate Fluxes in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

The Value type when using splitting of complex variables setting should in most pure
mass transport problems be set to Real which is the default. It makes sure that the
dependent variable does not get affected by small imaginary contributions, which can
occur, for example, when combining a Time Dependent or Stationary study with a
frequency-domain study. For more information, see Splitting Complex-Valued
Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 111

 DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable (field variable) is the Pressure. The name can be changed but
the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a model.

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Darcy’s Law
Interface
• Theory for the Darcy’s Law Interface
• Physical Constants in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

• Species Transport in the Gas Diffusion Layers of a PEM: Application

Library path
Fuel_Cell_and_Electrolyzer_Module/Fuel_Cells/pem_gdl_species_transport
_2d
• Steam Reformer: Application Library path
Chemical_Reaction_Engineering_Module/Reactors_with_Porous_Catalysts/
steam_reformer
• Terzaghi Compaction: Application Library path
Subsurface_Flow_Module/Poromechanics/terzaghi_compaction

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Darcy’s Law
Interface
The Darcy’s Law Interface has the following domain, boundary, edge, point, and pair
nodes, these nodes are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users),
Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu
(all users).

112 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

DOMAIN

• Porous Medium • Mass Source

• Unsaturated Porous Medium • Cross Section
• Dual Porosity Medium • Initial Values
• Dual Permeability Medium • Unsaturated Porous Medium
• Unsaturated Dual Permeability • ThicknessContributing Velocity
Medium • Porous Electrode Coupling

BOUNDARY, EDGE, AND POINT

The following nodes (listed in alphabetical order) are available on exterior boundaries:

• Atmosphere/Gauge • Outlet
• Electrode Surface Coupling • Pervious Layer
• Flux Discontinuity • Point Mass Source
• Fracture • Precipitation
• Hydraulic Head • Pressure
• Inlet • Pressure Head
• Interior Wall • Reaction Coefficients1
• Line Mass Source • Symmetry
• Mass Flux • Thin Barrier
• No Flow
1
This node is described for the Transport of Diluted Species Interface

The relevant physics interface condition at interior boundaries is continuity:

n ⋅ ( ρ1 u1 –ρ2 u2 ) = 0

The continuity boundary condition ensures that the pressure and mass flux are
continuous. In addition, the Pressure boundary condition is available on interior
boundaries.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 113

 The continuity boundary condition provides continuity for the pressure and mass flux.
In addition, the following boundary conditions are available on interior boundaries:

• Pressure • Pervious Layer

• Pressure Head • Flux Discontinuity
• Hydraulic Head • Fracture
• Interior Wall • Thin Barrier

Note that some of the above-mentioned domain or boundary conditions

are only available with some products. For a detailed overview of the
functionality available in each product, visit
[Link]

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an
Axial Symmetry node that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Porous Medium
The Porous Medium node adds the equations for modeling flow through porous
domains. By default these are Equation 4-9 and Equation 4-10 (excluding any mass
sources).

∂ ( ε ρ ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = Q
(4-9)
∂t p m

114 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

 κ
u = – --- ∇p (4-10)
μ

For a steady-state problem the first term in Equation 4-9 disappears. When Mass
Source is active Equation 4-10 is of the following form:

κ
u = – --- ( ∇p – ρg ) (4-11)
μ

The Porous Medium feature has two default subfeatures — the Fluid subfeature where
the fluid density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) and dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) are defined
and the Porous Matrix subfeature where the permeability κ (SI unit: m2) and porosity
εp (dimensionless) are specified.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Select a coordinate system from the Coordinate system list for the interpretation of
directions in anisotropic material properties. The default is the Global coordinate
system, and the list contains any additional orthonormal coordinate system (except
boundary coordinate systems) added under the Definitions node.

The subnodes inherit these coordinate system settings. In particular, the Permeability
or Hydraulic conductivity (in the Porous Matrix subnode) should be set according to
the coordinate system selected in this section.

FLOW MODEL
Define if the flow follows a linear or nonlinear pressure-velocity relationship.

• Darcian flow (default) defines a linear relationship using Equation 4-9 and
Equation 4-10.
• Non-Darcian flow defines a nonlinear relationship using Equation 4-9 and

μ
∇p = – --- u – βρ u u
κ

where the nonlinear parameter β (SI unit: 1/m) is further specified in the Porous
Matrix subfeature.

STORAGE MODEL
Define the time dependent storage term by selecting one of the following options from
the drop-down menu:

• From density and porosity (default), uses the formulation of Equation 4-9

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 115

 • Linearized storage, where the following linear equation is used to define the storage:
S p = ε p χ f + ( 1 – ε p )χ p

• Poroelastic storage, where Sp = εpχf

• Quasistatic, where the storage term is set to zero
• User defined to directly specify the storage coefficient Sp

• Porous Material in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

• About Darcian and Non-Darcian Flow in the Porous Media Flow
Module User’s Guide
• Storage Models in the Subsurface Flow Module User’s Guide

Note that some options are only available in some modules. For a detailed
overview of the functionality available in each product, visit
[Link]

Fluid
This node defines the material properties of the fluid of the Porous Medium, the
Unsaturated Porous Medium, the Dual Porosity Medium, the Dual Permeability
Medium, or the Unsaturated Porous Medium parent node.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

FLUID PROPERTIES
The available options for the Fluid type are Incompressible, Compressible, Compressible,
linearized, or Ideal gas. The selection determines how the density and compressibility
of the fluid are set.

Incompressible
The default Reference density ρref uses values From material. For User defined enter
another value or expression.

116 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Compressible
The default Density ρ uses values From material. For User defined enter another value or
expression as a function of the absolute pressure. The compressibility of the fluid is
computed from it.

Compressible, Linearized
The default Reference density ρref and the Fluid compressibility χf use values From
material. For User defined enter another value or expression. The fluid density increases
linearly as a function of the fluid pressure.

Ideal Gas
For Ideal gas it uses the ideal gas law to describe the gas density. In this case, specify
the thermodynamics properties. Select a Gas constant type — Specific gas constant Rs
(the default) or Mean molar mass Mn (SI unit: J/(mol·K)). For Mean molar mass the
universal gas constant R = 8.314 J/(mol·K) is used as the built-in physical constant.
For both properties, the defaults use values From material. For User defined enter
another value or expression.

For all fluid types specify the Dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) uses values From
material. For User defined enter another value or expression.

Porous Matrix
This node defines the porosity and material properties of the solid matrix of the Porous
Medium or Unsaturated Porous Medium parent node.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
The default Porosity εp of the solid matrix is taken From material. In a Porous Material
node, the porosity is defined as follows:

εp = 1 –  θsi – θimfi
i i

where θsi and θimfi are the porosities of the Solid and Immobile Fluids subnodes under
the Porous Material node. See Porous Material in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual for more information.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 117

 Select User defined to enter a value or expression for εp.

If required by a Storage model in the parent node, specify the Effective compressibility
of the porous matrix. The default value is χp = 10−4 1/Pa.

Select a Permeability model to specify the capacity of the porous material to transmit
flow. Which options are available depends on the Flow model setting in the parent node.
Note that for the Unsaturated Porous Medium parent node only the Darcian Flow
models are available.

Darcian Flow
If Darcian flow is selected in the parent Porous medium node, select between the
following options for the Permeability model:

• Select Permeability (default) to define the permeability of the porous matrix. The
default Permeability κ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material, as defined by the
Porous material. For User defined select Isotropic to define a scalar value or Diagonal
or Symmetric to define a tensor value.
• Select Hydraulic conductivity or define a combination of fluid permeability and
dynamic viscosity. For Hydraulic conductivity K (SI unit: m/s) select Isotropic to
define a scalar value or Diagonal or Symmetric to define a tensor value. The default is
2.94·10−4 m/s.
• Select Kozeny-Carman to define the permeability from the porosity and mean particle
diameter. Enter the mean Particle diameter dp (SI unit: m), the default value is
0.5 mm.

Non-Darcian Flow
If Non-Darcian flow is selected in the parent node, select between the following options
for the Permeability model:

• For Forchheimer, the default Permeability κ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From
material. Furthermore, the dimensionless Forchheimer parameter cF can be defined.
The default value is 0.55.
• If Ergun is selected, enter the mean Particle diameter dp (default value: 0.5 mm).

118 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

• For Burke–Plummer, specify the mean Particle diameter dp (default value: 0.5 mm).
• For Klinkenberg, the default Permeability κ∞ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From
material. Enter the Klinkenberg parameter bK. Its default value is 103 Pa.

• About Darcian and Non-Darcian Flow in the Porous Media Flow

Module User’s Guide
• Permeability Models in the Porous Media Flow Module User’s Guide

Note that some options are only available in some modules. For a detailed
overview of the functionality available in each product, visit
[Link]

RETENTION MODEL
For an Unsaturated Porous Medium select between the following options for the
retention model:

• van Genuchten, to specify the retention model using the van Genuchten relationship.
Enter the constitutive relation constants α (the default value is 1, and the SI unit is
1/m), n (default value is 2), and l (default value is 0.5). The constitutive parameter
m is equal to 1 − 1/n.
• Brooks and Corey to use the retention model according to the Brooks and Corey
relationships.
• User defined to use a different retention model. Enter user defined expressions for
the Effective saturation Se, the Liquid volume fraction θl. The default is εp (the
porosity variable). Specify the Specific moisture capacity Cm (SI unit: 1/m). The
default value is 0 (1/m). Enter an expression for the Relative permeability κr. The
default value is 1.

If there is a residual volume of liquid that cannot move through the pore network, also
enter a value between 0 and 1 for the Residual liquid volume fraction θr. The default
value is 0.

Retention and Permeability Relationships in the Subsurface Flow Module

User’s Guide

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 119

 Unsaturated Porous Medium
The Unsaturated Porous Medium node adds the Richards’ equation (Equation 4-12) for
flow in variably saturated porous media.

Cm ∂p κr κ
- + S e S p ------ + ∇ ⋅ ρ  – -------- ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D ) = Q m
ρ  ------- (4-12)
 ρg  ∂t  μ 

The Unsaturated Porous Medium feature has two default subfeatures: the Fluid
subfeature, where the fluid density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) and viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s)
are defined, and the Porous Matrix subfeature, where the permeability κ (SI unit: m2)
and porosity εp (dimensionless) are specified as well as the retention model.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Select a coordinate system from the Coordinate system list for the interpretation of
directions in anisotropic material properties. The default is the Global coordinate
system, and the list contains any additional orthonormal coordinate system (except
boundary coordinate systems) added under the Definitions node.

The subnodes inherit these coordinate system settings. In particular, the Permeability
or Hydraulic conductivity (in the Porous Matrix subnode) should be set according to
the coordinate system selected in this section.

STORAGE MODEL
With this option, define the first term in Equation 4-12. Therefore, choose from a
drop-down menu one of the following formulations:

• From retention model

• Linearized storage (default)
• From liquid content
• User defined

If From retention model is chosen, the first term of Equation 4-12 accounts only for the
specific moisture capacity Cm which is defined by the Retention Model in the Porous
Matrix subnode:

C m ∂p
-------- .
g ∂t

For the option Linearized storage the storage coefficient Sp in Equation 4-12 is defined
as

120 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

 S p = ε p χ f + ( 1 – ε p )χ p .

From liquid content enforces the first term of Equation 4-12 to be defined in terms of
liquid volume fraction as

∂( ρθ l )
----------------
∂t

and the User defined option allows to define the storage coefficient Sp in
Equation 4-12 directly.

Note that some options are only available in some modules. For a detailed
overview of the functionality available in each product, visit
[Link]

Dual Porosity Medium

Use the Dual Porosity Medium if the flow through macropores is governed by Darcy's
law and the micropores do not significantly contribute to the overall flow in the porous
medium.

The feature has three default subfeatures —the Fluid subfeature where the fluid density
ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) and dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) are defined, the Macropores
subfeature where the hydraulic properties of the macroporous matrix are defined, and
the Micropores where the hydraulic properties of the microporous matrix are defined.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Select a coordinate system from the Coordinate system list for the interpretation of
directions in anisotropic material properties. The default is the Global coordinate
system, and the list contains any additional orthonormal coordinate system (except
boundary coordinate systems) added under the Definitions node.

The subnodes inherit these coordinate system settings. In particular, the Permeability
or Hydraulic conductivity (in the Macropores and Micropores subnodes) should be set
according to the coordinate system selected in this section.

STORAGE MODEL
Choose from a drop-down menu one of the following formulations:

• From density and porosity (default), uses the formulation equivalent to Equation 4-9

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 121

 • Linearized storage, where the following linear equation is used to define the storage
in the macropores as S p = ε p χ f + ( 1 – ε p )χ p and in the micropores as
S p,m = ε p,m χ f + ( 1 – ε p,m )χ p .
• Poroelastic storage, where Sp = εpχf in the macropores and Sp,m = εp,mχf in the
micropores.
• Quasistatic, where the storage term is set to zero
• User defined to directly specify the storage coefficient Sp and Sp,m for the macro-
and micropores respectively.

• Storage Models in the Subsurface Flow Module User’s Guide

INTERPOROSITY FLOW
Specify the Fluid Transfer Function αw which is used to calculate the interporosity flow,
the mass exchange between macro- and microscale system:

Q ip = α w ( p M – p m ) (4-13)

with pM being the pressure within the macropores and pm the pressure within the
micropores.

Find more information in the Subsurface Flow Module User’s Guide

• Dual Porosity & Dual Permeability Modeling

• Dual Porosity and Dual Permeability Theory

Note that some options are only available in some modules. For a detailed
overview of the functionality available in each product, visit
[Link]

Dual Permeability Medium

Use the Dual Permeability Medium feature to model transport in a saturated dual
permeability medium where Darcy’s Law describes the transport in each system.

The feature has three default subfeatures —the Fluid subfeature where the fluid density
ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) and dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) are defined, the Macropores

122 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

subfeature where the hydraulic properties of the macroporous matrix are defined, and
the Micropores where the hydraulic properties of the microporous matrix are defined.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Select a coordinate system from the Coordinate system list for the interpretation of
directions in anisotropic material properties. The default is the Global coordinate
system, and the list contains any additional orthonormal coordinate system (except
boundary coordinate systems) added under the Definitions node.

The subnodes inherit these coordinate system settings. In particular, the Permeability
or Hydraulic conductivity (in the Macropores and Micropores subnodes) should be set
according to the coordinate system selected in this section.

STORAGE MODEL
With this option under the Porous Medium section, Equation 4-9 is formulated with
respect to a storage term (analogous to Equation 4-4). Therefore, choose from a
drop-down menu one of the following formulations:

• From density and porosity (default), uses the formulation of Equation 4-4
• Linearized storage, where the following linear equation is used to define the storage:
S p,i = ε p,i χ f + ( 1 – ε p,i )χ p,i

with i=M for the macropores and i=m for the micropores.

• Poroelastic storage, where Sp,i = εp,iχf

• Quasistatic, where the storage term is set to zero
• User defined to directly specify the storage coefficient Sp

• Storage Models in the Subsurface Flow Module User’s Guide

INTERPOROSITY FLOW
Specify the Fluid Transfer Function αw which is used to calculate the interporosity flow,
which is the mass exchange between macro- and microscale system:

Q ip = α w ( p M – p m ) (4-14)

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 123

 with pM being the pressure in the macropores and pm the pressure in the micropores.

Find more information in the Subsurface Flow Module User’s Guide

• Dual Porosity & Dual Permeability Modeling

• Dual Porosity and Dual Permeability Theory

Note that some options are only available in some modules. For a detailed
overview of the functionality available in each product, visit
[Link]

Unsaturated Dual Permeability Medium

Use the Unsaturated Dual Permeability Medium feature to model the transport in an
unsaturated dual permeability medium where the Richards’ Equation (Equation 4-12)
describes the transport in each system.

C m,M ∂p M
θ M  ρ  S e,M S p,M + -------------
- ----------- + ∇( ρu M ) = – Q ip + θ M Q m
  ρg  ∂t 
C m,m ∂p m (4-15)
( 1 – θ M )  ρ  S e,m S p,m + ------------
- ---------- + ∇( ρu m ) = Q ip + ( 1 – θ M )Q m
  ρg  ∂t 
p = θ M p M + ( 1 – θ M )p m

θM is the volume fraction of the macropores, Qip is the interporosity flow which is the
mass transfer from the macroscale to the microscale system. The indices M and m stand
for macropores and micropores, respectively.

The feature has three default subfeatures —the Fluid subfeature where the fluid density
ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) and dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) are defined, the Macropores
subfeature where the hydraulic properties of the macroporous matrix are defined, and
the Micropores where the hydraulic properties of the microporous matrix are defined.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Select a coordinate system from the Coordinate system list for the interpretation of
directions in anisotropic material properties. The default is the Global coordinate
system, and the list contains any additional orthonormal coordinate system (except
boundary coordinate systems) added under the Definitions node.

124 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The subnodes inherit these coordinate system settings. In particular, the Permeability
or Hydraulic conductivity (in the Macropores and Micropores subnodes) should be set
according to the coordinate system selected in this section.

STORAGE MODEL
With this option, define the first term in Equation 4-15. Therefore, choose from a
drop-down menu one of the following formulations:

• From retention model

• Linearized storage (default)
• From liquid content
• User defined

If From retention model is chosen, the first term of Equation 4-15 accounts only for the
specific moisture capacity Cm,i which is defined by the Retention Model in the
Macropores (i=M) or Micropores (i=m) subnode:

C m i ∂p
----------- .
g ∂t

For the option Linearized storage the storage coefficient Sp,i in Equation 4-15 is
defined as

S p,i = ε p,i χ f + ( 1 – ε p,i )χ p,i .

From liquid content enforces the first term of Equation 4-15 to be defined in terms of
liquid volume fraction as

∂( ρθ l,i )
------------------
∂t

• and the User defined option allows to define the storage coefficient Sp,i in
Equation 4-15 directly.

• Storage Models in the Subsurface Flow Module User’s Guide

INTERPOROSITY FLOW
Specify the Fluid Transfer Function αw which is used to calculate the interporosity flow,
which is the mass exchange between macro- and microscale system:

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 125

 Q ip = α w ( p M – p m ) (4-16)

with pM being the pressure within the macroscale system and pm the pressure within
the microscale system.

• Dual Porosity & Dual Permeability Modeling in the Subsurface Flow

Module User’s Guide

Macropores
This node defines the porosity and material properties of the macroporous matrix of
the Dual Porosity Medium, the Dual Permeability Medium, or the Unsaturated Dual
Permeability Medium parent node.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

VOLUME FRACTION
Here enter the Volume Fraction of Macropores, θM.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
The default Porosity εp,M of the solid matrix of the macropore system is taken From
material. Select User defined to enter a value or expression for εp,M.

If required by a Storage model in the parent node, specify the Effective compressibility
of the porous matrix of the macropore system. The default value is χp,M = 10−4 1/Pa.

Select a Permeability model to specify the capacity of the porous material to transmit
flow. For the macropore settings only the Darcian Flow models are available. Select
between the following options for the Permeability model:

• Select Permeability (default) to define the permeability of the porous matrix. The
default Permeability κM (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material, as defined by the
Porous material. For User defined select Isotropic to define a scalar value or Diagonal
or Symmetric to define a tensor value.
• Select Hydraulic conductivity or define a combination of fluid permeability and
dynamic viscosity. For Hydraulic conductivity KM (SI unit: m/s) select Isotropic to

126 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

 define a scalar value or Diagonal or Symmetric to define a tensor value. The default is
2.94·10−4 m/s.
• Select Kozeny-Carman to define the permeability from the porosity and mean particle
diameter. Enter the mean Particle diameter dp,M (SI unit: m), the default value is
0.5 mm.

RETENTION MODEL
For an Unsaturated Dual Permeability Medium select between the following options
for the retention model:

• van Genuchten, to specify the retention model using the van Genuchten relationship.
Enter the constitutive relation constants α (the default value is 1, and the SI unit is
1/m), n (default value is 2), and l (default value is 0.5). The constitutive parameter
m is equal to 1 − 1/n.
• Brooks and Corey to use the retention model according to the Brooks and Corey
relationships.
• User defined to use a different retention model. Enter user defined expressions for
the Effective saturation Se,M, the Liquid volume fraction θl,M. The default is εp,M (the
porosity variable). Specify the Specific moisture capacity Cm,M (SI unit: 1/m). The
default value is 0 (1/m). Enter an expression for the Relative permeability κr,M. The
default value is 1.

If there is a residual volume of liquid that cannot move through the pore network, also
enter a value between 0 and 1 for the Residual liquid volume fraction θr. The default
value is 0.

Retention and Permeability Relationships in the Subsurface Flow Module

User’s Guide

Micropores
This node defines the porosity and material properties of the microporous matrix of
the Dual Porosity Medium, Dual Permeability Medium, or the Unsaturated Dual
Permeability Medium parent node.

MODEL INPUT
This section is only available for the Unsaturated Dual Permeability Medium parent
node and contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 127

 properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
The default Porosity εp,m of the solid matrix of the micropore system is taken From
material. Select User defined to enter a value or expression for εp,m.

If required by a Storage model in the parent node, specify the Effective compressibility
of the microscale porous matrix. The default value is χp,m = 10−4 1/Pa.

Select a Permeability model to specify the capacity to transmit flow for the porous
material of the microscale system. Here, only the Darcian Flow models are available.
Select between the following options for the Permeability model:

• Select Permeability (default) to define the permeability of the porous matrix. The
default Permeability κm (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material, as defined by the
Porous material. For User defined select Isotropic to define a scalar value or Diagonal
or Symmetric to define a tensor value.
• Select Hydraulic conductivity or define a combination of fluid permeability and
dynamic viscosity. For Hydraulic conductivity Km (SI unit: m/s) select Isotropic to
define a scalar value or Diagonal or Symmetric to define a tensor value. The default is
2.94·10−4 m/s.
• Select Kozeny-Carman to define the permeability from the porosity and mean particle
diameter. Enter the mean Particle diameter dp,m (SI unit: m), the default value is
0.5 mm.

RETENTION MODEL
For an Unsaturated Dual Permeability Medium select between the following options
for the retention model:

• From macropores to take over the retention model settings from the Macropores
node.
• van Genuchten, to specify the retention model using the van Genuchten relationship.
Enter the constitutive relation constants α (the default value is 1, and the SI unit is
1/m), n (default value is 2), and l (default value is 0.5). The constitutive parameter
m is equal to 1 − 1/n.
• Brooks and Corey to use the retention model according to the Brooks and Corey
relationships.
• User defined to use a different retention model. Enter user defined expressions for
the Effective saturation Se,m, the Liquid volume fraction θl,m. The default is εp,m (the

128 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

 porosity variable). Specify the Specific moisture capacity Cm,m (SI unit: 1/m). The
default value is 0 (1/m). Enter an expression for the Relative permeability κr,m. The
default value is 1.

If there is a residual volume of liquid that cannot move through the pore network, also
enter a value between 0 and 1 for the Residual liquid volume fraction θr. The default
value is 0.

Retention and Permeability Relationships in the Subsurface Flow Module

User’s Guide

INITIAL VALUES
Define the initial pressure of the microscale system. The default is to use the initial
values defined in the Initial Values feature node which means that the same initial
values apply to the macroscale and the microscale system.

Select User Defined to specify an initial pressure for the microscale system pm0,init.

Note that some options are only available in some modules. For a detailed
overview of the functionality available in each product, visit
[Link]

Mass Source
The Mass Source node adds a mass source Qm, which appears on the right-hand side of
the Darcy’s Law equation (Equation 4-9).

∂ ( ρε ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = Q (4-17)
m
∂t

For the Fracture Flow interface, the mass source is applicable to the right-hand side of
Equation 4-40 in the Subsurface Flow Module User’s Guide (where it is multiplied
with the fracture thickness).

MASS SOURCE
Enter a value or expression for the Mass source Qm (SI unit: kg/(m3·s)). The default
is 0 kg/(m3·s).

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 129

 Contributing Velocity
The Contributing Velocity node adds a velocity contribution uctrb to the velocity field
ud that is computed from the flow model selected in the parent Porous Medium,
Unsaturated Porous Medium, or Dual Porosity Medium feature. The total velocity
field used in the continuity equation is therefore

u = u d + u ctrb (4-18)

Such velocity contributions can arise in multiphysics models that involve, for example,
transport of solutes. If several Contributing Velocity nodes are added under the same
parent feature, the contributions are treated additively. The sum of all contributing
velocity fields is available in the variables [Link] (material frame) and
[Link] (spatial frame), with name being the Name of the physics interface (for
example, dl).

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Select a coordinate system from the Coordinate system list to specify the coordinate
system in which the contributing velocity field is given. The default is the Global
coordinate system. Note that the coordinate system used to specify the components of
the contributing velocity field can be selected independently of the coordinate system
of the parent feature.

CONTRIBUTING VELOCITY
The default contributing velocity field uctrb is User defined, which lets you enter the
components of the contributing velocity field explicitly. If a matching velocity field is
announced by another feature, it will be available in the selection list.

ADVANCED
Select the Frame in which the contributing velocity field is specified. The default is the
Reference configuration, which means that the velocity field follows the material under,
for example, a rotation of the domain. If instead your contributing velocity field
follows a fixed direction in space, select the Deformed configuration. This section is only
displayed if Advanced Physics Options is activated and the spatial and material frame of
the component differ, such as in the presence of a Moving Mesh or Solid Mechanics
interface.

130 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the pressure that can serve as an initial
condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.

If you have the Subsurface Flow Module licensed, you can specify the pressure either
directly or as an expression for the pressure head, Hp, or the hydraulic head, H; the
hydraulic head and the pressure head relate to the pressure p as

p;
H p = ------ H = Hp + D
ρg

where ρ is the fluid density (SI unit: kg/m3); g denotes the acceleration of gravity
(SI unit: m/s2); and D is the elevation (SI unit: m).

INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa). The
default value is 0 Pa.

In case the Subsurface Flow Module is available, click the Pressure head button to enter
a value or expression for Hp (SI unit: m). The default is 0 m. Click the Hydraulic head
button to enter a value or expression for H (SI unit: m). The default is 0 m.

Gravity
The Gravity node is automatically added when Include gravity is selected at interface
level in the Darcy’s Law settings and it is active in all domains in which the Darcy’s Law
interface is applied.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes. It can be used when
prescribing the direction of the gravitational forces.

GRAVITY
Specify either the acceleration vector or — in case you have a Subsurface Flow Module
license — the elevation.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 131

 When Acceleration is selected from the list, enter the components of the Gravity vector
g. The default value is g_const which is the physical constant having the value
9.8066 m/s2.

• For 3D and 2D axisymmetric models, the default value is -g_const in the

z direction.
• For 2D models, the default value is -g_const in the y direction.

When Elevation is selected from the list, specify the Elevation D (SI unit: m). The
Acceleration of gravity is taken From physics interface by default but could be overridden
when User defined is selected.

When the check box Include gravity is not selected in the Darcy’s Law interface
Settings, the elevation D is set equal to zero.

Select the check box Specify reference position to define a reference position for the
gravity calculation.

Cross Section
Use this node with 1D components to model domains with another cross-sectional
area than the global one that is used in the interface Physical Model section. In 1D
geometries, the pressure is assumed to be constant in the radial direction, and Darcy’s
Law accounts for that.

CROSS SECTION
Enter values for the Cross-sectional area Ac to set the cross section of the domain in the
plane perpendicular to the 1D geometry.

Thickness
Use this node with 2D and 1D axisymmetric components to model domains with
another thickness than the overall thickness that is specified in the interface Physical
Model section. In 2D geometries, the pressure is assumed to be constant in the
out-of-plane direction (the z direction with default spatial coordinate names). In 1D
axisymmetric geometries the thickness represents the z direction.

THICKNESS
Specify a value for the Thickness dz of the domain in the out-of-plane direction. This
value replaces the overall thickness in the domains that are selected in the Domain
Selection section, and is used to multiply some terms into the heat equation.

132 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Porous Electrode Coupling
Use the Porous Electrode Coupling node to define a mass source based on the volumetric
current densities of one or multiple Porous Electrode Reaction nodes in an
Electrochemistry interface.

The source (or sink) is proportional to the Molar mass (kg/mol) of the reacting species,
the current densities and the stoichiometric coefficients according to Faraday’s law as
defined by summation over the Reaction Coefficient subnodes.

SPECIES
Based on the number of species required for the model, use the Add ( ) and
Delete ) buttons under the table to add or remove Species. Then enter a value for
the Molar mass (kg/mol) in the applicable rows for each species.

The setting in the table will determine the number of available fields for entering the
stoichiometric coefficients of the Reaction Coefficient subnodes.

Electrode Surface Coupling

Use the Electrode Surface Coupling node to define a combined wall and inflow/outflow
boundary condition based on current densities of one or multiple Electrode Reaction
nodes in an Electrochemistry interface.

The flow is proportional to the Molar mass (kg/mol) of the reacting species, the current
densities and the stoichiometric coefficients according to Faraday’s law as defined by
summation over the Reaction Coefficient subnodes.

SPECIES
Based on the number of species required for the model, use the Add ( ) and
Delete ) buttons under the table to add or remove Species. Then enter a value for
the Molar mass (kg/mol) in the applicable rows for each species.

The setting in the table will determine the number of available field for entering the
stoichiometric coefficients of the Reaction Coefficient subnodes.

Pressure
Use the Pressure node to specify the pressure on a boundary. In many cases the
distribution of pressure is known, giving a Dirichlet condition p = p0 where p0 is a

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 133

 known pressure given as a number, a distribution, or an expression involving time, t,
for example.

PRESSURE
Enter a value or expression for the Pressure p0 (SI unit: Pa). Enter a relative pressure
value in p0 (SI unit: Pa).

For the Subsurface Flow Module, the Pressure node provides the pressure P0 as a
condition on edges in 3D models. Then select the edges under Edge Selection.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

As an attribute to the Fracture boundary condition or as boundary condition to The

Fracture Flow Interface (which are available in the Subsurface Flow Module and the
Porous Media Flow Module), the pressure can also be specified on edges (in 3D) or
points (in 2D) surrounding the fracture domain. In other cases, pressure constraints
on edges or points are not implemented.

If the boundary condition is adjacent to an Unsaturated Dual

Permeability Medium feature it constrains the pressures in the
Macropores and Micropores to p0.

Mass Flux
Use the Mass Flux node to specify the mass flux into or out of the model domain
through some of its boundaries. It is often possible to determine the mass flux from
the pumping rate or from measurements. With this boundary condition, positive
values correspond to flow into the model domain:

κ
n ⋅ ρ --- ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D ) = N 0
μ

where N0 is a value or expression for the specified inward (or outward) Darcy flux. D
is the elevation head which is set to zero for other than Subsurface Flow Module
applications.

134 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

MASS FLUX
Enter a value or expression for the Inward mass flux N0. A positive value of N0
represents an inward mass flux whereas a negative value represents an outward mass
flux. The units are based on the geometric entity: Boundaries: (SI unit: kg/(m2·s)).

Line Mass Source

The Line Mass Source node adds mass flow originating from a tube of infinitely small
radius.

SELECTION
The Line Mass Source feature is available for all dimensions, but the applicable selection
differs between the dimensions.

MODEL DIMENSION APPLICABLE GEOMETRICAL ENTITY

2D Points
2D Axisymmetry Points not on the symmetry axis
3D Edges

LINE MASS SOURCE

Enter a value or expression for the source strength, N0 (SI unit: kg/(m·s)). A positive
value results in mass injection from the line into the computational domain, and a
negative value means that the mass is removed from the computational domain.

Line sources located on a boundary affect the adjacent computational domains. This
effect makes the physical strength of a line source located in a symmetry plane twice
the given strength.

Fracture Flow
The equivalent feature available for fracture flow is the Mass Source attribute of the
Fracture boundary condition and the Mass Source point feature of the Fracture Flow
Interface, both available in 3D only.

Point Mass Source

The Point Mass Source node models mass flow originating from an infinitely small
sphere centered around a point. It is available for points in 3D geometries.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 135

 POINT MASS SOURCE
Enter a value or expression for the source strength, N0 (SI unit: kg/(s)). A positive
value results in mass injection from the point into the computational domain, and a
negative value means that the mass is removed from the computational domain.

Point sources located on a boundary or on an edge affect the adjacent computational

domains. This has the effect, for example, that the physical strength of a point source
located in a symmetry plane is twice the given strength.

Inlet
The Inlet node adds a boundary condition for the inflow (or outflow) perpendicular
(normal) to the boundary. It has three options that can be used to specify inlet
condition on a boundary, as follows:

VELOCITY
Enter a value or expression for the Normal inflow velocity U0 (SI unit: m/s). A positive
value of U0 represents an inflow velocity. A negative value represents an outflow
velocity. The inlet velocity boundary condition is implemented as;

κ
n ⋅ ρ --- ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D ) = ρU 0
μ

where U0 is a value or expression for the specified inward (or outward) Darcy velocity.
A positive value of the velocity U0 corresponds to flow into the model domain whereas
a negative value represents an outflow. D is the elevation head which is set to zero for
other than Subsurface Flow Module applications.

PRESSURE
Use the Pressure option to specify the inlet pressure on a boundary. In many cases the
distribution of pressure is known, giving a Dirichlet condition p = p0 where p0 is a
known pressure given as a number, a distribution, or an expression involving time, t,
for example. Enter a value or expression for the Pressure p0 (SI unit: Pa).

MASS FLOW
If you select Mass flow as the inlet condition, specify the total Mass flow rate M0 (SI
unit: kg/s), or the Pointwise mass flux N0 (SI unit: kg/(m2·s)).

With Mass flow rate boundary condition, positive values correspond to flow into the
model domain:

136 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

 –  ρ ( u ⋅ n ) dS = M0
∂Ω

where M0 is a value or expression for the specified inward (or outward) Darcy flux.

Pointwise mass flux boundary condition, positive values correspond to flow into the
model domain:

κ
n ⋅ ρ --- ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D ) = N 0
μ

where N0 is a value or expression for the specified inward (or outward) Darcy flux.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Symmetry
The Symmetry node describes a symmetry boundary. The following condition
implements the symmetry condition on an axis or a flow divide:

κ
n ⋅ --- ∇p = 0
μ

κ
n ⋅ --- ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D ) = 0
μ

For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial symmetry

boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an Axial Symmetry node that
is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

No Flow
The No Flow node is the default boundary condition stating that there is no flow across
impermeable boundaries. The mathematical formulation is:

κ
n ⋅ ρ --- ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D ) = 0
μ

where n is the vector normal to the boundary. D is the elevation head which is set to
zero for any other than Subsurface Flow Module applications.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 137

 Flux Discontinuity
Use the Flux Discontinuity node to specify a mass flux discontinuity through an interior
boundary. The condition is represented by the following equation:

– n ⋅ ( ρu 1 – ρ u 2 ) = N 0

In this equation, n is the vector normal (perpendicular) to the interior boundary, ρ is

the fluid density, u1 and u2 are the Darcy velocities in the adjacent domains (as defined
in Equation 4-19) and N0 is a specified value or expression for the flux discontinuity.

κ
u = – --- ∇p (4-19)
μ

For this boundary condition, a positive value of N0 corresponds to a flow discontinuity

in the opposite direction to the normal vector of the interior boundary.

MASS FLUX
Enter a value or expression for the Inward mass flux N0 (SI unit: kg/(m2·s)). A positive
value of N0 represents a mass flux discontinuity in the opposite direction to the normal
vector of the interior boundary.

Outlet
The Outlet node adds a boundary condition for the outflow (or inflow) perpendicular
(normal) to the boundary. It has different options that can be used to specify inlet
condition on a boundary, as follows:

VELOCITY
Enter a value or expression for the Normal outflow velocity U0 (SI unit: m/s). A positive
value of U0 represents an outflow velocity whereas a negative value represents an
inflow velocity.

κ
– n ⋅ ρ --- ∇p = ρU 0
μ

where U0 is a specified value or expression for the outward (or inward) Darcy velocity.

PRESSURE
Similar to the inlet Pressure option, the outlet pressure on a boundary can be specified.
Enter a value or expression for the Pressure p0 (SI unit: Pa).

138 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

DISCHARGE
Enter a value or expression for the discharge QD to specify the volumetric flow rate
through the boundary. The mass flux ρu is related to the discharge as follows:

 ρu ⋅ ds = ρQ D . (4-20)
∂Ω

The mean normal outflow velocity at the boundary can then be calculated as Uout =
QD/A, where A is the cross sectional area of the boundary.

Precipitation
Enter a value or expression for the Precipitation rate which then contributes to the mass
flux at the boundaries selected. If the boundary is inclined, a Slope correction can be
applied.

Interior Wall
The Interior Wall boundary condition can only be applied on interior boundaries. It is
similar to the No Flux boundary available on exterior boundaries except that it applies
on both sides of an interior boundary. It allows discontinuities of velocity and pressure
across the boundary. The Interior Wall boundary condition can be used to avoid
meshing thin structures by applying no-flux condition on interior curves and surfaces
instead.

Thin Barrier
The Thin Barrier boundary condition models interior permeable walls, membranes,
geotextiles, or perforated plates as thin permeable barriers. The Thin Barrier boundary
condition can only be applied on interior boundaries.

WALL
Enter a value or expression for the Thickness db (SI unit: m, the default is 0.1 m) and
for the Permeability κb (SI unit: m2). The default Permeability κb uses the value From
material. For User defined select Isotropic to define a scalar value or Diagonal, Symmetric,
or Full to define a tensor value and enter another value or expression in the field or
matrix.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 139

 Pressure Head
Use the Pressure Head node to specify the pressure head (instead of the pressure) on a
boundary. It adds this boundary condition for the pressure head Hp = Hp0, where Hp0
is a known pressure head given as a number, a distribution, or an expression involving
time, t, for example. The dimension of the pressure head is length (SI unit: m).

PRESSURE HEAD
Enter a value or expression for the Pressure head Hp0 (SI unit: m). The default is 0 m.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Hydraulic Head
Use the Hydraulic Head node to specify the hydraulic head (instead of the pressure) on
a boundary. This adds the Dirichlet condition for the hydraulic head H = H0 where H0
is a known hydraulic head given as a number, a distribution, or an expression involving
time, t, for example.

HYDRAULIC HEAD
Enter a value or expression for the Hydraulic head H0 (SI unit: m). The default is 0 m.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Atmosphere/Gauge
The Atmosphere/Gauge node specifies an atmospheric pressure or gauges the pressure
to the atmospheric value. This means that the total hydraulic potential reduces to the
gravitational pressure at the free surface. At a free surface, such as a spring or a seepage
face, the pressure is atmospheric. If the pressures in the model is gauged to the
atmospheric value (p = 0), the total hydraulic potential reduces to the gravitational
potential at the free surface — for example, the height of the free surface multiplied by
the fluid weight, or ρf gD. This boundary condition sets the pressure at the boundary
to zero and p = 0.

140 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Pervious Layer
The Pervious Layer node provides a boundary condition that describes a mass flux
through a semi-pervious layer connected to an external fluid source at different
pressure, pressure head, or hydraulic head. The model domain might connect to a
larger body of water through the semi-pervious layer. This condition is represented
with the following boundary condition:

κ ( pb – p )
n ⋅ ρ --- ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D ) = ρR b -------------------
- + ( Db – D ) (4-21)
μ ρg

In this equation, pb (SI unit: Pa) and Db (SI unit: m) are the pressure and the elevation
of the distant fluid source, respectively, and Rb (SI unit: 1/s) is the conductance of
materials between the source and the model domain (conductance to flow in the
semi-pervious layer adjacent to the boundary). Typically Rb = K′/B′, where K′ is the
hydraulic conductivity (SI unit: m/s) of the layer and B′ (SI unit: m) is its thickness.
Using logical relationships, it is possible to activate these expressions at different times
or under various flow conditions.

When the pressure head Hp is specified instead of the pressure, the boundary condition
is the following:

n ⋅ ρK∇ ( H p + D ) = ρR b [ ( H pb – H p ) + ( D b – D ) ] (4-22)

Hpb is the pressure head (SI unit: m) at the edge of the layer.

When the hydraulic head H is specified instead of the pressure head, the boundary
condition becomes:

n ⋅ ρK∇H = ρR b [ H b – H ] (4-23)

Hb is the hydraulic head (SI unit: m) at the edge of the layer.

K in Equation 4-22 and Equation 4-23 is the hydraulic conductivity.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 141

 At a free surface, such as a water table or seepage face, the pressure is atmospheric (here
taken to be zero), so the total hydraulic potential equals gravitational potential, which
is defined on D.

Gravity effects are not active by default. Select the check box Include
gravity to activate the acceleration of gravity. Setting the elevation D to
zero also turns off gravity effects.

PERVIOUS LAYER
Specify the material properties whether to specify an external pressure, pressure head,
or hydraulic head.

Select an External variable to specify — Pressure and elevation to specify the external
pressure, Pressure head and elevation to specify the external pressure head, or Hydraulic
head. For all selections, enter a value for the Conductance Rb (SI unit: 1/s).

• For Pressure and elevation enter an External pressure pb (SI unit: Pa) and External
elevation Db (SI unit: m).
• For Pressure head and elevation enter an External pressure head Hpb (SI unit: m), Hpb
(SI unit: m) and External elevation Db (SI unit: m).
• For Hydraulic head enter the Hydraulic head Hb (SI unit: m).

Well
The Well feature is intended to model injection or production wells and is available
with the Subsurface Flow Module.

WELL
Enter a value or expression for the Well diameter dw (SI unit: m, the default is 0.1 m).
Select the Well type from the list: Production or Injection.

Specify either the Pressure (SI unit: Pa), Pressure head (SI unit: m), Hydraulic head (SI
unit: m), or the Mass flow. If you select Mass flow, specify the total Mass flow rate (SI
unit: kg/s), the Mass flow rate per unit length (SI unit: kg/(m·s)) or the Mass flux (SI
unit: kg/(m2·s)).

142 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Fracture
Use the Fracture node to model flow along a boundaries representing fractures within
a porous medium. By default, it adds the tangential form of the continuity equation
and of Darcy’s Law.

∂
d f ----- ( ε p ρ ) + ∇ T ⋅ ( d f ρu ) = d f Q m (4-24)
∂t

κ
u = – --- ∇Tp (4-25)
μ

The Fracture feature has two default subfeatures — the Fluid (Fracture) subfeature
where the fluid density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) and dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) are
defined and the Fracture Material subfeature where the permeability κ (SI unit: m2)
and porosity εp (dimensionless) are specified.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Select a coordinate system from the Coordinate system list for the interpretation of
directions in anisotropic material properties. The default is the Global coordinate
system, and the list contains any additional orthonormal coordinate system (except
boundary coordinate systems) added under the Definitions node.

The subnodes inherit these coordinate system settings. In particular, the Permeability
or Hydraulic conductivity (in the Fracture Material subnode) should be set according to
the coordinate system selected in this section.

APERTURE
Enter a value for the Fracture thickness df.

FLOW MODEL
Define if the flow follows a linear or nonlinear pressure-velocity relationship.

• Darcian flow (default) defines a linear relationship using Equation 4-24 and
Equation 4-25.
• Non-Darcian flow defines a nonlinear relationship using Equation 4-24 and the
pressure-velocity relationship

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 143

 μ
∇Tp = – --- u – βρ u u
κ

where the nonlinear parameter β (SI unit: 1/m) is further specified in the Fracture
Material subfeature.

STORAGE MODEL
Equation 4-24 can also be formulated with respect to a storage term.

∂p κ
ρS ------ + ∇ ⋅ ρ – --- ( ∇p ) = Q m
∂t μ

The storage coefficient S can be interpreted as the weighted compressibility of the

porous material and the fluid. Define the time dependent storage term by selecting one
of the following options from the drop-down menu:

• From density and porosity (default), uses the formulation of Equation 4-24
• Linearized storage, where the following linear equation is used to define the storage:
S = ε p χ f + ( 1 – ε p )χ p

• User defined to directly specify the storage coefficient S

• About Darcian and Non-Darcian Flow in the Porous Media Flow

Module User’s Guide
• Storage Models in the Subsurface Flow Module User’s Guide

FRACTURE MODEL
Choose between two options to model fractures that have different characteristics.

• Highly conductive fracture represents a fracture filled with a highly permeable

material.
• Thin conducting barrier represents a fracture that is filled with a low permeable
material and therefore acts as a barrier for the flow which adds a jump in the pressure
across the boundary:

144 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

 ( p d,u – p u,d ) κ b
– n u,d ⋅ ( ρu ) u,d = ρ ------------------------------- ------
db μ

The barrier thickness db and permeability κb are defined in the Fracture Material
subnode.
In addition, either on the upside, downside, or on both sides a highly conductive
fracture material is present and Equation 4-24 and Equation 4-25 are solved for the
highly conductive side. Further specifications are done in the Fracture Material
subnode.

Note that the option to specify the Fracture Model is only available for the
Fracture feature within the Darcy’s Law interface.

For the Fracture boundary node several subnodes are available from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. As they are
almost identical to the boundary conditions of the Fracture Flow interface, see
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Fracture Flow Interface in
the Subsurface Flow User’s Guide for further description. Note that Precipitation is
only available for the Fracture Flow interface.

This feature requires a specific license. For a detailed overview of the

functionality available in each product, visit
[Link]

Flow in a Fractured Reservoir: Application Library path

Subsurface_Flow_Module/Fluid_Flow/fractured_reservoir_flow

Fluid (Fracture)
This node defines the material properties of the fluid of the Fracture parent node. The
fluid can be specified as general gas or liquid or as an ideal gas.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 145

 FLUID PROPERTIES
The available options for the Fluid type are Gas/Liquid (default) or Ideal gas. The
selection determines how the density and compressibility of the fluid are set. The latter
is only required if a linearized storage model has been selected in the parent Fracture
node. For all fluid types specify the dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s).

Gas/Liquid
This option specifies the Density and the Compressibility for a general gas or liquid.

Ideal Gas
For Ideal gas it uses the ideal gas law to describe the fluid. In this case, specify the
thermodynamics properties. Select a Gas constant type — Specific gas constant Rs (the
default) or Mean molar mass Mn (SI unit: J/(mol·K)). For Mean molar mass the
universal gas constant R = 8.314 J/(mol·K) is used as the built-in physical constant.
For both properties, the defaults use values From material. For User defined enter
another value or expression.

If required by a Storage Model, the Compressibility of the ideal gas is calculated as χf =

1/pA with the absolute pressure pA (Pa).

If Hydraulic conductivity is selected as the Permeability model (see the

Fracture Material section), dynamic viscosity is not available. The
hydraulic conductivity is defined using a combination of fluid and fracture
material properties and replaces the need of defining the dynamic
viscosity.

Fracture Material
This node defines the porosity and material properties of the solid matrix of the
Fracture parent node.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

BARRIER PROPERTIES
This section appears if the Thin conducting barrier option for the Fracture model is
chosen in the parent Fracture feature.

146 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Enter the values for the barrier thickness db and permeability κb.

Note that the Thin Conductive barrier option is only available for the Fracture feature
within the Darcy’s Law interface.

FRACTURE MATERIAL PROPERTIES

If the Thin conducting barrier option for the Fracture model is chosen in the parent
Fracture feature you can specify the Conductive layer position here. Choose between
Both sides, Upside, and Downside. A sketch above shows the position of conductive
layers and barrier within the fracture.

The Porosity εp of the fracture material is taken From material by default. Select User
defined to enter a value or expression for εp.

If required by a Storage model in the parent node, specify the Effective compressibility
of the porous matrix. The default value is χp = 10−4 1/Pa.

Select a Permeability model to specify the capacity of the fracture material to transmit
flow. Which options are available depends on the Flow model setting in the parent node.

• Select Permeability (default) to define the permeability of the fracture material.

• Select Hydraulic conductivity or define a combination of fluid permeability and
dynamic viscosity. For Hydraulic conductivity K (SI unit: m/s) select Isotropic to
define a scalar value or Diagonal or Symmetric to define a tensor value. The default is
2.94·10−4 m/s.
• Select Cubic law to define the permeability from the fracture thickness specified in
the parent node and the roughness factor ff.

If the Non-Darcian Flow Model is selected in the parent Fracture feature enter a value
for the Inertial resistance coefficient β.

• About Darcian and Non-Darcian Flow in the Porous Media Flow

Module User’s Guide
• Permeability Models in the Porous Media Flow Module User’s Guide

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 147

 Theory for the Richards’ Equation
Interface
The Richards’ Equation Interface theory is described in this section:

• About Richards’ Equation

• Retention and Permeability Relationships
• References for the Richards’ Equation Interface

About Richards’ Equation

Richards’ equation models flow in variably saturated porous media. With variably
saturated flow, hydraulic properties change as fluids move through the medium, filling
some pores and draining others.

This discussion of the Richards’ Equation interface begins with the propagation of a
single liquid (oil or water). The pore space not filled with liquid contains an immobile
fluid (air) at atmospheric pressure.

148 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

 Se κr

θl

Cm

0 Hp

Figure 4-1: Fluid retention and permeability functions that vary with pressure head, as
given by Van Genuchten formulas available in the Richards’ Equation interface.

Many efforts to simplify and improve the modeling of flow in variably saturated media
have produced a number of variants of Richards’ equation since its appearance. The
form that COMSOL Multiphysics solves is very general and allows for time-dependent
changes in both saturated and unsaturated conditions (see Ref. 1 and Ref. 2):

Cm ∂p κr κs
ρ  -------
- + S e S p ------ + ∇ ⋅ ρ  – ---------- ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D ) = Q m (4-26)
 ρg  ∂t  μ 

where the pressure, p, is the dependent variable. In this equation, Cm represents the
specific moisture capacity, Se denotes the effective saturation, Sp is the storage
coefficient, κs gives the hydraulic permeability at saturation, μ is the fluid dynamic
viscosity, κr denotes the relative permeability, ρ is the fluid density, g is acceleration of
gravity, D represents the elevation, and Qm is the fluid source (positive) or sink
(negative).

The fluid velocity across the faces of an infinitesimally small surface is

κr κs
u = – ---------- ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D )
μ

THEORY FOR THE RICHARDS’ EQUATION INTERFACE | 149

 where u is the velocity vector. The porous medium consists of pore space, fluids, and
solids, but only the liquids move. The equation above describes the flux as distributed
across a representative surface. To characterize the fluid velocity in the pores,
COMSOL Multiphysics also divides u by the liquid volume fraction, θl. This
interstitial, pore or average linear velocity is ua = u/θl.

Retention and Permeability Relationships

Richards’ equation appears deceptively similar to the saturated flow equation set out
in the Darcy’s Law interface, but it is notoriously nonlinear (Ref. 3). Nonlinearities
arise because the material and hydraulic properties θl, Se, Cm, and κr vary for
unsaturated conditions (for example, negative pressure) and reach a constant value at
saturation (for example, pressure of zero or above). The volume of liquid per porous
medium volume, θl, ranges from a small residual value θr to the total porosity εp. Its
value is given in a constitutive relation in the model commonly defined as:

θl = θr + Se ( θs – θr ) (4-27)

The variable θs is the saturated liquid volume fraction and therefore θs = εp. The
effective saturation, Se has a maximum value of 1 at saturation and usually follows a
nonlinear relationship if the porous medium is unsaturated. The specific moisture
capacity, Cm, describes the change in θl as the solution progresses, the slope on a plot
of θl versus pressure (or pressure head):

∂θ
C m = ----------l
∂H p

The relative permeability, κr, increases with moisture content and varies from a
nominal value to 1 at saturation, which reveals that the fluid moves more readily when
the porous medium is fully wet.

The Richards’ Equation interface in COMSOL Multiphysics includes three retention

models to define θl, Se, Cm, and κr:

• The analytic formulas of van Genuchten.

• The analytic formulas of Brooks and Corey.
• User-defined expression.

The analytic formulas of van Genuchten (Ref. 4) and Brooks and Corey (Ref. 5) are so
frequently used that they are synonymous with this variably saturated flow modeling.
Posed in terms of pressure head Hp = p/(ρg), the analytic expressions require data for

150 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

the saturated θs and residual θr liquid volume fractions as well as constants α, n, m,
and l, which specify a particular medium type.

VAN GENUCHTEN
The van Genuchten equations define saturation when the fluid pressure is atmospheric
(that is, Hp = 0). For unsaturated conditions (Hp < 0) the effective saturation is
defined as:

 1
 ------------------------------------- Hp < 0
S e =  ( 1 + αH n ) m
 p
Hp ≥ 0
 1

For the liquid volume fraction Equation 4-27 is used. The relative permeability is
defined as

1 m 2
 -----
l m
κr = Se 1 –  1 – Se 
 

which results in κr = 1 at saturation (Se = 1). The specific moisture capacity is defined
as:

1 1 m
-----  -----
αm m m
C m = -------------- ( θ s – θ r )S e  1 – S e 
1–m  

THEORY FOR THE RICHARDS’ EQUATION INTERFACE | 151

 here, the constitutive parameter m is equal to 1 − 1/n. The functions are highly
nonlinear which is also depicted in Figure 4-2

Figure 4-2: Van Genuchten retention functions for α = 1 m-1, n = 2, and l = 0.5.

BROOKS AND COREY

With the Brooks and Corey approach, an air-entry pressure distinguishes saturated
(Hp > −1/α) and unsaturated (Hp < −1/α) flow so that

 1 H p < – --1-
 ------------------ α
S e =  αH n
p
 1
– --- ≤ H p
 1 α

Again Equation 4-27 describes the liquid volume fraction. The relative permeability is
defined as

--2- + l + 2
n
κr = Se

which results in κr = 1 at saturation (Se = 1). The specific moisture capacity is defined
as:

152 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

  –n 1
H p < – ---
 ------- ( θ – θ r )S e α
Cm =  Hp s
 1≤H
– ---
 0 α p

Here, the constitutive parameter m is equal to 1 − 1/n. The functions are highly
nonlinear which is also depicted in Figure 4-3

Figure 4-3: The Brooks and Corey retention functions for α = 1 m-1, n = 2, and l = 0.5.

USER DEFINED
COMSOL Multiphysics also provides user-defined options for those who want to
incorporate experimental data or arbitrary expressions to define these relationships.
Enter expressions for θl, Se, Cm, and κr directly.

References for the Richards’ Equation Interface

1. J. Bear, Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media, Elsevier Scientific Publishing, 1972.

2. J. Bear, Hydraulics of Groundwater, McGraw Hill, 1979.

THEORY FOR THE RICHARDS’ EQUATION INTERFACE | 153

 3. R.A. Freeze, “Three-dimensional, Transient, Saturated-unsaturated Flow in a
Groundwater Basin,” Water [Link]., vol. 7, no. 2, 1971.

4. [Link]. van Genuchten, “A Closed-form Equation for Predicting the Hydraulic

Conductivity of Unsaturated Soils,” Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., vol. 44, 1980.

5. R.H. Brooks and A.T. Corey, “Properties of Porous Media Affecting Fluid Flow,”
J. Irrig. Drainage Div., ASCE Proc., vol. 72 (IR2), 1966.

154 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The Richards’ Equation Interface
The Richards’ Equation (dl) interface ( ), found under the Porous Media and
Subsurface Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to analyze flow
in variably saturated porous media. The analytic formulas of van Genuchten, Brooks,
and Corey are available for modeling variably saturated flow, where hydraulic
properties change as fluids move through the porous medium, filling some pores and
draining others. The physics interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent
analysis.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder — Richards’ Equation: Unsaturated Porous Medium (which adds the equation for
the pressure and provides an interface for defining the fluid material and its properties,
including the retention model), No Flow (the default boundary condition), and Initial
Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example,
boundary conditions and mass sources. You can also right-click Richards’ Equation to
select physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is dl.

PHYSICAL MODEL
Enter a Reference pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1[atm].

GRAVITY EFFECTS
Gravity effects are active by default. Clear the check box Include gravity to deactivate
the acceleration of gravity.

Under Acceleration of gravity, enter the value for the acceleration of gravity
(SI unit m/s2). The default value is taken from the predefined physical constant
g_const, which is the standard acceleration of gravity on earth.

THE RICHARDS’ EQUATION INTERFACE | 155

 DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable (field variable) is for the Pressure. The name can be changed
but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a model.

DISCRETIZATION
You can choose the order of the shape functions used for the pressure variable solved
by the Richards’ Equation interface. The default shape functions are Quadratic
Lagrange.

To display all settings available in this section, click the Show button ( ) and select
Advanced Physics Options.

• Theory for the Richards’ Equation Interface

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Richards’
Equation Interface
• Physical Constants in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

• Variably Saturated Flow: Application Library path

Subsurface_Flow_Module/Fluid_Flow/variably_saturated_flow
• Pesticide Transport and Reaction in Soil: Application Library path
Subsurface_Flow_Module/Solute_Transport/pesticide_transport

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Richards’
Equation Interface
The Richards’ Equation Interface has the same domain, boundary, edge, point, and
pair nodes described for the The Darcy’s Law Interface.

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Darcy’s Law
Interface

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

156 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

 For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial
symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an
Axial Symmetry node that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Flownet Plot
The Flownet plot is available for 2D and 2D axisymmetric models. This plot is created
automatically when solving a model that includes a Richards’ equation interface, and
it is created by adding a Streamline plot for the velocity field and a contour plot for the
pressure.

THE RICHARDS’ EQUATION INTERFACE | 157

 Theory for the Two-Phase Darcy’s
Law Interface
About the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface
The Two-Phase Darcy’s Law interface combines Darcy’s law (Equation 4-1) with the
continuity equation (Equation 4-2) for the average density ρ. In the presence of two
miscible fluid phases, the average density ρ and average viscosity μ depend on the
composition of the mixture (Ref. 1). In the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law interface these
dependencies are given by

1 = s1 + s2 (4-28)

ρ = s1 ρ1 + s2 ρ2 (4-29)

κ r1 κ r2
--1- = s 1 -------- + s 2 -------- (4-30)
μ μ1 μ2

Here, s1 and s2 represent the saturation of each phase, ρ1 and ρ2 the densities, and κr1
and κr2 the relative permeabilities. When either of the fluids is compressible, its density
can be related to the pressure (for instance using the ideal gas law).

Beside the continuity equation for the mixture, the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law interface
also solves the transport equation for the fluid content of one of the phases, c1 = s1ρ1:

∂ ( ε c ) + ∇ ⋅ ( c u ) = ∇ ⋅ D ∇c
(4-31)
∂t p 1 1 c 1

Here, Dc (SI unit: m2/s) is the capillary diffusion coefficient, which can be directly
specified or derived from a capillary pressure expression. Normally, the fluid content
c1 will be the concentration of the wetting phase.

When capillary pressure is selected as capillary model, the capillary diffusion

coefficient is computed from the saturation of one of the phases and the capillary
pressure:

κ r1 ∂p c
D c = -------- κ ( s 1 – 1 ) (4-32)
μ1 ∂ s1

158 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The capillary pressure is defined as the pressure difference between the phases, and it
can be defined as a function of saturation, pc(s1).

Capillary Pressure Models

The capillary pressure can be a user defined expression, or it can be derived from van
Genuchten (Ref. 2) or Brooks and Corey (Ref. 3) models.

For van Genuchten model, the expression for the capillary pressure as a function of
saturation follows the curve

 1 1 – m
p c = p ec  -----------
- – 1 (4-33)
 s1 ⁄ m 
1

where pec is the entry capillary pressure and m is a constitutive exponent.

For the Brooks and Corey model, the capillary pressure curve depends on saturation as

1-
p c = p ec ----------
1⁄λ
(4-34)
s1

where λ is the pore distribution index.

When capillary pressure is selected as capillary model, the relative permeabilities are
also determined by the van Genuchten or Brooks and Corey models. For the van
Genuchten model, the relative permeabilities are given by

l vG 1 ⁄ m vG m vG 2
κ r1 = s 1 ( 1 – ( 1 – s 1 ) )

l 1 ⁄ m vG 2m vG
κ r2 = ( 1 – s 1 ) vG ( 1 – s 1 )

where mvG and lvG are constitutive constants.

For the Brooks and Corey model, the relative permeabilities are given by

(3 + 2 ⁄ λ)
κ r1 = s 1

2 (1 + 2 ⁄ λ)
κ r2 = ( 1 – s 1 ) ( 1 – s 1 )

where λ is again the pore distribution index.

THEORY FOR THE TWO-PHASE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 159

 References for the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface
1. Z. Chen, G. Huan, and Y. Ma, Computational Methods for Multiphase Flows in
Porous Media. Philadelphia: Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 2006.

2. [Link]. van Genuchten, “A Closed-form Equation for Predicting the Hydraulic

Conductivity of Unsaturated Soils,” Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., vol. 44, 1980.

3. R.H. Brooks and A.T. Corey, “Properties of Porous Media Affecting Fluid Flow,”
J. Irrig. Drainage Div., ASCE Proc., vol. 72 (IR2), 1966.

160 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface
The Two-Phase Darcy’s Law (tpdl) interface ( ), found under the Porous Media and
Subsurface Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to simulate fluid
flow through interstices in a porous medium. It solves Darcy’s law for the total
pressure and the transport of the fluid content for one fluid phase. The physics
interface can be used to model low velocity flows or media where the permeability and
porosity are very small, for which the pressure gradient is the major driving force and
the flow is mostly influenced by the frictional resistance within the pores. The physics
interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analyses.

The main feature is the Fluids and Matrix Properties node, which provides an interface
for defining the two immiscible fluids properties along with the porous medium
properties. The physics interface is available in 2D, 2D axisymmetric, and 3D.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Fluids and Matrix Properties, No Flow (the default boundary condition),
and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for
example, boundary conditions and mass sources. You can also right-click Two-Phase
Darcy’s Law to select physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is tpdl.

PHYSICAL MODEL
Enter a Reference pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1[atm].

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Pressure and Fluid content 1. The name
can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within
a component.

THE TWO-PHASE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 161

 CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
from the Show More Options dialog box.

There are two consistent stabilization methods available — Streamline diffusion and
Crosswind diffusion. Streamline diffusion is active by default. The Residual setting applies
to both the consistent stabilization methods. Approximate residual is the default setting
and it means that derivatives of the capillary diffusion tensor components are
neglected. This setting is usually accurate enough and computationally faster. If
required, select Full residual instead.

DISCRETIZATION
You can choose the order of the shape functions used for the pressure and fluid content
variables solved by the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law interface. The default shape functions
are P2+P1 Lagrange.

To display all settings available in this section, click the Show More Options button ( )
and select Advanced Physics Options from the Show More Options dialog box.

• Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law
Interface
• Theory for the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface

Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law
Interface
The Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface has these domain, boundary, and pair nodes,
listed in alphabetical order, available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users),
Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu
(all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

162 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

 • Fluid and Matrix Properties • Mass Flux
• Inlet • No Flux
• Initial Values • Outlet
• Symmetry • Pressure and Saturation
• Interior Wall

For axisymmetric models, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an
Axial Symmetry node that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

Fluid and Matrix Properties

The Fluids and Matrix Properties node adds Equation 4-35 and Equation 4-36 and
defines properties including density, dynamic viscosity, relative permeability, and
porosity.

∂ ρε
( p ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0 (4-35)
∂t

∂ c
( ε ) + ∇ ⋅ ( c 1 u ) = ∇ ⋅ D c ∇c 1 (4-36)
∂t 1 p

CAPILLARY MODEL
The list defaults to Capillary diffusion or choose Capillary pressure.

For Capillary diffusion, choose Isotropic to define a scalar or Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full
to enter a tensor, and then enter values or expressions in the Dc (SI unit: m2/s) field
or fields.

For Capillary pressure, select a Pressure model — van Genuchten (the default), Brooks
and Corey, or User defined.

• For van Genuchten, enter an Entry capillary pressure pec (SI unit: Pa), the Constitutive
relations constant mvG (dimensionless), and Constitutive relations constant IvG
(dimensionless).
• For Brooks and Corey, enter an Entry capillary pressure pec (SI unit: Pa) and the Pore
size distribution index λp (dimensionless).
• For User defined, enter a Capillary pressure pc (SI unit: Pa).

THE TWO-PHASE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 163

 FLUID 1 PROPERTIES
Select the material to use for Fluid 1. Select Domain material (the default value) to use
the material defined for the domain. Select another material to use that material’s
properties.

Define the properties for Fluid 1:

The default Density ρ1 (SI unit: kg/m3) uses values From material based on the Fluid 1
selection. For User defined enter another value or expression. The default is 0 kg/m3.

Select a Dynamic viscosity μ1 (SI unit: Pa·s). The default uses values From material as
defined by the Fluid 1 selection. For User defined enter another value or expression. The
default is 0 Pa·s.

Select the Relative permeability κr1 (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) for
fluid 1. The default is 1.

FLUID 2 PROPERTIES
The settings to define the properties for Fluid 2 are similar as for Fluid 1.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
Select the material to use as porous matrix. Select Domain material (the default) from
the Porous material list to use the material defined for the porous domain. Select
another material to use that material’s properties.

The default Porosity εp (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) uses the value From
material, defined by the Porous material selection. For User defined enter another value
or expression The default is 0.

The default Permeability κ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material, as defined by the
Porous material selection. For User defined select Isotropic to define a scalar or Diagonal,
Symmetric, or Full to enter a tensor and enter other values or expressions in the field or
matrix.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the pressure and the saturation of fluid 1
(that is, the fraction of that fluid inside the pore space) that can serve as initial
conditions for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.

164 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa). The
default value is 0 Pa. Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Saturation
fluid 1 s1 (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1). The default value is 0. The
saturation of Fluid 2 is then calculated as s2 = 1 − s1.

No Flux
The No Flux node is the default boundary condition stating that there is no flow across
impervious boundaries. The mathematical formulation is:

n ⋅ ρu = 0

where n is the vector normal to the boundary.

Also, the No Flux boundary enforces a zero gradient condition for the fluid content
across the selected boundary

n ⋅ ∇c 1 = 0

Pressure and Saturation

Use the Pressure and Saturation node to specify the pressure and fluid volume fractions
on a boundary. In many cases the distribution of pressure and saturation are known as
numbers, distributions, or expressions involving time, t, for example.

PRESSURE AND SATURATION

Enter a value or expression for the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), and for the Saturation
fluid 1 s1 (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1). The default values are 0. The
saturation of Fluid 2 is then calculated as s2 = 1 − s1.

Mass Flux
Use the Mass Flux node to specify the mass flux into or out of the model domain
through some of its boundaries. It is often possible to determine the mass flux from
the pumping rate or from measurements. With this boundary condition, positive
values correspond to flow into the model domain

– n ⋅ ρu = N 0

THE TWO-PHASE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 165

 where N0 is a value or expression for the inward (or outward) Darcy’s flux that is
specified.

MASS FLUX AND SATURATION

Enter a value or expression for the Inward mass flux N0 (SI unit: kg/(m2·s)). A positive
value of N0 represents an inward mass flux, whereas a negative value represents an
outward mass flux.

Enter a value or expression for the Saturation fluid 1 s1 (a dimensionless number

between 0 and 1) in the mass flux. The default value is 0.

Inlet
The Inlet node adds a boundary condition for the inflow (or outflow) perpendicular
(normal) to the boundary:

– n ⋅ ρu = ( s 1 ρ 1 + s 2 ρ 1 )U 0

where U0 is a specified value or expression for the inward (or outward) Darcy’s velocity.
A positive value of the velocity U0 corresponds to flow into the model domain whereas
a negative value represents an outflow.

INLET
Enter a value or expression for the Normal inflow velocity U0 (SI unit: m/s). A positive
value of U0 represents an inflow velocity, whereas a negative value represents an
outward velocity.

Enter a value or expression for the Saturation fluid 1 s1 (a dimensionless number

between 0 and 1). The default value is 0.

Outlet
The Outlet node adds a boundary condition for the outflow perpendicular (normal) to
the boundary:

– n ⋅ D c ∇c 1 = 0

where Dc is the capillary diffusion (SI unit: m2/s) and c1 = s1ρ1 is the fluid 1 content
(SI unit: kg/m3). This means that the normal gradient of fluid saturation does not
change through this boundary.

166 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

PRESSURE
Enter a value or expression for the Pressure p. The default value is 0. If the reference
pressure pref, defined at the physics interface level is 0, enter the absolute pressure.
Otherwise, enter the relative pressure.

Symmetry
The Symmetry node describes a symmetry boundary where there is no tangential flow.
The following condition implements the symmetry condition on an axis or a flow
divide:

– n ⋅ ρu = 0

– n ⋅ D c ∇c 1 = 0

For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial symmetry

boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an Axial Symmetry node that
is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

Interior Wall
The Interior Wall boundary condition can only be applied on interior boundaries.

It is similar to the No Flux boundary available on exterior boundaries except that it

applies on both sides of an internal boundary. It allows discontinuities of velocity and
pressure across the boundary. The Interior Wall boundary condition can be used to
avoid meshing thin structures by applying no-flux condition on interior curves and
surfaces instead.

Thin Barrier
The Thin Barrier boundary condition can only be applied on interior boundaries.

It is similar to the Interior Wall boundary available on interior boundaries except that
it allows pressure and concentration gradients across the boundary. The Thin Barrier
boundary condition can be used to avoid meshing thin permeable structures by
applying flux condition on interior curves and surfaces instead.

THE TWO-PHASE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 167

 Theory for the Fracture Flow
Interface
The Fracture Flow Interface theory is described in this section:

• About Fracture Flow

• Equations and Inputs

About Fracture Flow

The Fracture Flow interface uses tangential derivatives to define the flow along the
interior boundaries representing fractures within a porous (or solid) block. Use this
physics interface on boundaries in 3D, 2D, and axisymmetric geometries.

Fracture Flow is also available as a boundary condition in the Darcy’s Law

and Richards’ Equation interfaces.

The physics interface uses the tangential version of Darcy’s law:

κf
q f = – ----- d f ( ∇Tp + ρ g ∇TD ) (4-37)
μ

Here, qf is the volume flow rate per unit length in the fracture, κf is the fracture’s
permeability, μ is the fluid dynamic viscosity, df is the aperture or fracture thickness,
∇T denotes the gradient operator restricted to the fracture’s tangential plane, p is the
pressure, ρ is the fluid density, g is the acceleration of gravity, and D represents the
vertical coordinate.

Gravity effects are not active by default. Select the check box Include
gravity to activate the acceleration of gravity. Setting the elevation D to
zero also turns off gravity effects.

The variable qf gives the volume flow rate per unit length of the fracture. The mean
fluid velocity within the fracture is uf = qf/df.

168 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

It is also possible to use the hydraulic conductivity of the fracture, Kf (SI unit: m/s),
to define the capacity to transmit flow instead of using the fracture’s permeability κf
and fluid viscosity μ. These quantities are related by

κf K
----- = -------f
μ ρg

The hydraulic conductivity represents properties of both fluid and porous matrix. If
the model is defined using the hydraulic conductivity, Equation 4-37 changes to

Kf
q f = – ------ d f ( ∇Tp + ρ g ∇TD ) (4-38)
ρg

The Cubic law equation describes the permeability of the fracture from the aperture
or fracture’s thickness df and the roughness factor ff

d f2
κ f = ----------
12f f

If the model is defined using the Cubic law equation, the expression for flow rate per
unit length in the fracture in Equation 4-37 changes to

d f3
q f = – -------------- ( ∇Tp + ρ g ∇TD ) (4-39)
12μf f

Together with the material properties, Equation 4-37 above, in combination with the
continuity equation integrated over the fracture cross section, produces a single
equation for the pressure.

∂ ε
df ( ρ ) + ∇ T ⋅ ( ρq f ) = d f Q m (4-40)
∂t f

where εf is the fracture porosity, and Qm is the mass source term (SI unit: kg/(m3·s)).
The aperture or fracture thickness df can vary along the fracture and therefore appears
on both sides of the equation.

The physics interface solves for the same dependent variable as for the equation in the
porous medium, the pressure p.

Equations and Inputs

Two material models are supported: Fluid and Fracture Properties and the Storage
Model.

THEORY FOR THE FRACTURE FLOW INTERFACE | 169

 FLUID AND FRACTURE PROPERTIES
This is the default setting of the Fracture Flow interface, and implements the fracture
flow as described in Equation 4-40. The values for the fluid properties (density and
dynamic viscosity) can be taken from the material node or be defined by an arbitrary
expression. The same can be done for the fracture’s properties, such as porosity and
permeability. Enter the fracture’s thickness in the corresponding field.

STORAGE MODEL
The governing equation takes the slightly different form, compared to Equation 4-40:

∂p
ρS f d f ------ – ∇ T ⋅ ( ρq f ) = d f Q m
∂t

where Sf is the fracture storage coefficient (SI unit: 1/Pa).

In contrast to the Darcy’s Law and Richards’ Equation interfaces, the storage
coefficient is always a user-defined expression in the Fracture Flow interface.

170 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The Fracture Flow Interface
The Fracture Flow (ff) interface ( ), found under the Porous Media and Subsurface
Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to simulate flow along faults
and fractures represented as boundaries. The physics interface uses a variant of Darcy’s
law and can be used for stationary and time-dependent analysis.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder — Fracture, No Flow (the default boundary condition), and Initial Values. Then,
from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, mass sources
and conditions on edges or points. You can also right-click Fracture Flow to select
physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is ff.

PHYSICAL MODEL
Enter a Reference pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1[atm].

GRAVITY EFFECTS
Gravity effects are not active by default. Select the check box Include gravity to activate
the acceleration of gravity.

Under Acceleration of gravity enter the value for the acceleration of gravity g
(SI unit: m/s2). The default value is the predefined constant g_const.

DISCRETIZATION
You can choose the order of the shape functions used for the pressure variable solved
by the Fracture Flow interface. The default shape functions are Quadratic Lagrange.

THE FRACTURE FLOW INTERFACE | 171

 DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable (field variable) is for the Pressure. The name can be changed
but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a model.

To display all settings available in this section, click the Show button ( ) and select
Advanced Physics Options.

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Fracture Flow
Interface
• Theory for the Fracture Flow Interface
• Physical Constants in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Fracture
Flow Interface
The Fracture Flow Interface has the domain, boundary, edge, point, and pair nodes
available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac
or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

DOMAIN
• Fracture
• Initial Values
• Unsaturated Porous Medium
• Mass Source
• Thickness

Storage Model and Mass Source are described for the Darcy’s Law interface
and are applied to boundaries instead of domains.

172 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The boundary conditions for this physics interface are similar to the boundary
conditions for The Darcy’s Law Interface but are applied to edges in 3D and points in
2D. Edges and points form the “boundaries” of the geometries where the Fracture
Flow interface is defined, which are faces in 3D and boundaries in 2D.

In the descriptions for these nodes, replace the Boundary Selection section
with the Edge Selection (3D) or Point Selection (2D) section when using
the Fracture Flow interface.

The following nodes are available on exterior boundaries (edges and points) and
described for The Darcy’s Law Interface:

• Pressure
• Symmetry
• Pressure Head
• No Flow (the default)
• Hydraulic Head
• Atmosphere/Gauge
• Inlet
• Pervious Layer
• Outlet
• Precipitation
• Mass Flux

Note that some of the boundary conditions mentioned above are only available for
certain modules. For detailed information, see
[Link]

The relevant physics interface condition at interior edges is continuity. In addition, the
following edge conditions are available on interior edges:

• Pressure
• Pervious Layer

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

THE FRACTURE FLOW INTERFACE | 173

 Fracture
The Fracture feature for the Fracture Flow interface uses the same settings as the
Fracture boundary condition for Darcy’s Law except that the fracture model is not
available. With the Fracture Flow interface, only highly conductive fractures can be
modeled.

As the Fracture boundary condition, the Fracture feature has two subfeatures: Fluid
(Fracture) and Fracture Material.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the pressure, pressure head, or hydraulic
head pressure that can serve as an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an
initial guess for a nonlinear solver.

INITIAL VALUES
• Select the Pressure (the default) button to enter a value or expression for the initial
value of the pressure p (SI unit: Pa). The default is 0 Pa.
• Select Pressure head to enter a value or expression for Hp (SI unit: m).
• Select Hydraulic head to enter a value or expression for H (SI unit: m).

174 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Theory for the Brinkman Equations
Interface
The Brinkman Equations Interface theory is described in this section:

• About the Brinkman Equations

• Brinkman Equations Theory
• References for the Brinkman Equations Interface

About the Brinkman Equations

The Brinkman equations describe fast-moving fluids in porous media with the kinetic
potential from fluid velocity, pressure, and gravity to drive the flow. These equations
extend Darcy’s law to describe the dissipation of the kinetic energy by viscous shear as
with the Navier–Stokes equations. Consequently, this physics interface well suits
transitions between slow flow in porous media governed by Darcy’s law and fast flow
in channels described by the Navier–Stokes equations. Interesting uses of a Brinkman
and Navier–Stokes coupling include modeling of the hyporheic zone near a river, the
flow of oil through a reservoir to a well perforation, and non-Newtonian flows.

In porous domains, the flow variables and fluid properties are defined at any point
inside the medium by means of averaging of the actual variables and properties over a
certain volume surrounding the point. This control volume must be small compared
to the typical macroscopic dimensions of the problem, but it must be large enough to
contain many pores and solid matrix elements.

Porosity is defined as the fraction of the control volume that is occupied by pores.
Thus, the porosity can vary from zero for pure solid regions to unity for domains of
free flow.

The physical properties of the fluid, such as density and viscosity, are defined as
intrinsic volume averages that correspond to a unit volume of the pores. Defined this
way, they present the relevant physical parameters that can be measured experimentally,
and they are assumed to be continuous with the corresponding parameters in the
adjacent free flow.

The flow velocity is defined as a superficial volume average, and it corresponds to a

unit volume of the medium including both the pores and the matrix. It is sometimes

THEORY FOR THE BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 175

 called the Darcy velocity, defined as the volume flow rate per unit cross section of the
medium. Such a definition makes the velocity field continuous across the boundaries
between porous regions and regions of free flow.

Brinkman Equations Theory

The dependent variables in the Brinkman equations are the Darcy velocity and the
pressure. The flow in porous media is governed by a combination of the continuity
equation and the momentum equation, which together form the Brinkman equations:

∂ ε
( ρ ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = Q m (4-41)
∂t p

ρ-  ∂u
+ ( u ⋅ ∇ ) ----- =
u
----
εp  ∂ t εp
(4-42)
1 T 2   Q m
– ∇ p + ∇ ⋅ -----  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I  –  κ – 1 μ + -------- +F
u
εp  3   ε p2 

In these equations:

• μ (SI unit: kg/(m·s)) is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid

• u (SI unit: m/s) is the velocity vector
• ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) is the density of the fluid
• p (SI unit: Pa) is the pressure
• εp is the porosity
• κ (SI unit: m2) is the permeability of the porous medium, and
• Qm (SI unit: kg/(m3·s)) is a mass source or sink

Influence of gravity and other volume forces can be accounted for via the force term
F (SI unit: kg/(m2·s2)).

When the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box is selected, the term
(u · ∇)(u/εp) on the left-hand side of Equation 4-42 is disabled.

The mass source, Qm, accounts for mass deposit and mass creation within the domains.
The mass exchange is assumed to occur at zero velocity.

The Forchheimer and Ergun drag options add a viscous force proportional to the
square of the fluid velocity, F = −ρβ|u|u, on the right-hand side of Equation 4-42; see
References for the Darcy’s Law Interface for details.

176 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

In case of a flow with variable density, Equation 4-41 and Equation 4-42 must be
solved together with the equation of state that relates the density to the temperature
and pressure (for instance the ideal gas law).

For incompressible flow, the density stays constant in any fluid particle, which can be
expressed as

∂ ( ε ρ ) + u ⋅ ∇ρ = 0
∂t p

and the continuity equation (Equation 4-41) reduces to

ρ∇ ⋅ u = Q m

References for the Brinkman Equations Interface

1. D. Nield and A. Bejan, Convection in Porous Media, 3rd ed., Springer, 2006.

2. M. Le Bars and M.G. Worster, “Interfacial Conditions Between a Pure Fluid and a
Porous Medium: Implications for Binary Alloy Solidification,” J. Fluid Mech.,
vol. 550, pp. 149–173, 2006.

THEORY FOR THE BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 177

 The Brinkman Equations Interface
The Brinkman Equations (br) interface ( ), found under the Porous Media and
Subsurface Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to compute fluid
velocity and pressure fields of single-phase flow in porous media in the laminar flow
regime. The physics interface extends Darcy’s law to describe the dissipation of the
kinetic energy by viscous shear, similar to the Navier–Stokes equations. Fluids with
varying density can be included at Mach numbers below 0.3. Also the viscosity of a
fluid can vary, for example, to describe non-Newtonian fluids. To simplify the
equations, select the Stokes–Brinkman flow feature to reduce the dependence on
inertial effects when the Reynolds number is significantly less than 1. The physics
interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analyses.

The main node is the Porous Medium feature, which adds the Brinkman equations and
provides interfaces for defining the fluid material and the porous matrix.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Porous Medium, Wall (the default boundary type, using No slip as the
default boundary condition), and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add
other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions and volume forces.
You can also right-click Brinkman Equations to select physics features from the context
menu.

The boundary conditions are essentially the same as for the Laminar Flow interface.
Differences exist for the following boundary types: Outlet, Symmetry, Open
Boundary, and Boundary Stress where the viscous part of the stress is divided by the
porosity to appear as

1 T 2 
-----  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I 
εp  3 

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links to common
sections such as Discretization, Consistent Stabilization, Inconsistent Stabilization, and
Advanced Settings, all accessed by clicking the Show button ( ) and choosing the
applicable option. You can also search for information: press F1 to open the Help
window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

178 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is br.

PHYSICAL MODEL
This node specifies the properties of the Brinkman Equations interface, which describe
the overall type of fluid flow model.

Compressibility
By default the physics interface uses the Incompressible flow formulation of the
Brinkman equations to model constant density flow. Alternatively, from the
Compressibility list select Weakly compressible flow, which should be used when the
pressure dependency of the density can be neglected, or Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) to
solve for the full compressible flow of which, however, the Mach number must be
below 0.3.

Swirl Flow
For 2D axisymmetric models, select the Swirl flow check box to include the swirl
velocity component, that is the velocity component uϕ in the azimuthal direction.
While uϕ can be nonzero, there can be no gradients in the ϕ direction.

Note that this feature is only available for specific modules. See
[Link] for a detailed overview.

Neglect Inertial Term (Stokes–Brinkman Flow)

The Neglect inertial term (Stokes–Brinkman) check box is selected by default to model
flow at low Reynolds numbers for which the inertial term can be neglected. This results
in the linear Stokes–Brinkman equations.

Include Gravity
Gravity is not included by default. Select the Include gravity check box to activate the
acceleration of gravity. This automatically adds a global Gravity feature node to the
interface model tree, and the buoyancy force is included in the Equations.

Also, when the Include gravity check box is selected, the Use reduced pressure option
changes the pressure formulation from using the total pressure (default) to using the
reduced pressure. This option is suitable for configurations where the density changes

THE BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 179

 are very small; otherwise, the default formulation can be used. For more information,
see Gravity.

Porous Treatment of No Slip Condition

Choose how the No Slip condition on Wall boundaries and Interior Wall boundaries
adjacent to Porous Medium should be treated. The options are Standard no slip
formulation and Porous slip (default) . The latter option provides a unified treatment
when the porous matrix is fully resolved as well as when it is under resolved ensuring
a smooth transition between regions with different resolutions; see No Slip under Wall
in the The Laminar Flow and Creeping Flow Interfaces section.

Reference Pressure Level

Enter a Reference pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1[atm].

Reference Temperature Level

Enter a Reference temperature level Tref (SI unit: K). The default value is 293.15[K].

Reference Position
If Include gravity is selected, a Reference position rref (SI unit: m) can be specified which
is then used for the calculation of the hydrostatic pressure.

TURBULENCE
Turbulent flow can be simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to RANS
(Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes). If turbulent flow is activated, you can set the
Turbulence model either to one of the algebraic turbulence models, Algebraic yPlus (the
default) or L-VEL, or to one of the following two-equation turbulence models: k-ε, Low
Reynolds Number k-ε. The Wall treatment is set to Automatic (default) or Low Re while
Wall functions is the only option for k-ε. For more information about turbulence
modeling, see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces in the CFD Module User’s
Guide.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface — the
Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) and its components, and the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa).

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not
need to be changed.

180 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form option adds pseudo time
derivatives to the equation when the Stationary equation form is used in order to speed
up convergence. When selected, a CFL number expression should also be defined. For
the default Automatic option, the local CFL number (from the Courant–Friedrichs–
Lewy condition) is determined by a PID regulator.

• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Brinkman Equations
Interface
• Theory for the Brinkman Equations Interface

• Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models and Pseudo Time
Stepping in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual
• Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow
• Nitsche Constraints

Free Convection in a Porous Medium: Application Library path

Subsurface_Flow_Module/Heat_Transfer/convection_porous_medium

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Brinkman

Equations Interface
The Brinkman Equations Interface has the following domain, boundary, point, and
pair nodes, listed in alphabetical order, available from the Physics ribbon toolbar
(Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access
the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

These nodes are described in this section:

• Porous Medium • Volume Force

• Initial Values • Fluid Properties
• Mass Source

THE BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 181

 The following nodes (listed in alphabetical order) are described for the Laminar Flow
interface :

• Flow Continuity • Periodic Flow Condition

• Inlet • Point Mass Source
• Line Mass Source • Pressure Point Constraint
• Boundary Stress • Symmetry
• Outlet • Wall
• Open Boundary

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Porous Medium
The Porous Medium node adds the Brinkman equations: Equation 4-34 and
Equation 4-35 (excluding any mass sources). It has two default subfeatures — the
Fluid subfeature where the fluid density ρ(SI unit: kg/m3) and dynamic viscosity μ (SI
unit: Pa·s) are defined and the Porous Matrix subfeature where the permeability κ (SI
unit: m2) and porosity εp (dimensionless) are specified.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Select a coordinate system from the Coordinate system list for the interpretation of
directions in anisotropic material properties. The default is the Global coordinate
system, and the list contains any additional orthonormal coordinate system (except
boundary coordinate systems) added under the Definitions node.

The subnodes inherit these coordinate system settings. In particular, the Permeability
(in the Porous Matrix subnode) should be set according to the coordinate system
selected in this section.

182 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

FLOW MODEL
Define if the flow follows a linear or nonlinear pressure-velocity relationship.

• Darcian flow (default) defines a linear relationship characteristic for low Reynolds
number laminar flows.
• Non-Darcian flow defines a nonlinear relationship due to inertial or turbulence
effects.

POROUS MEDIUM TURBULENCE MODEL

If in the parent feature node a turbulence model other than Algebraic yPlus or L-VEL is
selected, define a model which complements the basic turbulence model and accounts
for the influence of the porous matrix on turbulent flow in porous media.

• For Default and Nakayama-Kuwahara specify the Coefficient of subgrid turbulence

generation by porous matrix Cstpm which by default is set to 0.212.
• For Pedras-de Lemos, specify the Choice of the Pedras-de Lemos model coefficient.
When User defined is chosen, specify the Coefficient of subgrid turbulence generation
by porous matrix Cstpm with default value 0.212. Choosing Original results in
C stpm = 0.28 ⋅ ε p , while choosing Recalibrated results in Cstpm = 0.18.

DISTANCE EQUATION
This section is available for the turbulence models Algebraic yPlus or L-VEL. Select how
the Reference length scale lref (SI unit: m) is defined — Automatic (default) or Manual:

• For Automatic the wall distance is automatically evaluated to one tenth of the
shortest side of the geometry bounding box. This is usually quite accurate but it can
sometimes give a too high value if the geometry consists of several slim entities. In
such cases, define the reference length scale manually.
• For Manual it defines a different value or expression for the length scale. The default
is 1 m.

lref controls the result of the distance equation. Objects that are much smaller than lref
are effectively be diminished while the distance to objects much larger than lref are
accurately represented.

Fluid
This node defines the material properties of the fluid of the Porous Medium parent
node.

THE BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 183

 MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

FLUID PROPERTIES
Specify the Density ρ and the Dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) of the fluid. The
defaults use values From material, for User defined enter a value or expression.

The dynamic viscosity describes the relationship between the shear stresses and the
shear rate in a fluid. Intuitively, water and air have a low viscosity, and substances often
described as thick, such as oil, have a higher viscosity.

Porous Matrix
This node defines the porosity and material properties of the solid matrix of the Porous
Medium parent node.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
The Porosity εp (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) uses by default the value
From material. For User defined the default value is 1.

Select a Permeability model to specify the capacity of the porous material to transmit
flow. Depending on the Flow model selection in the parent Porous Medium feature node
you can choose between the following options:

• Permeability (the default) to directly enter the permeability of the porous matrix or
Kozeny-Carman to define the permeability from the porosity and mean Particle
diameter for Darcian flow or
• Forchheimer or Ergun for Non-Darcian flow.

Note that some of these options are only available for certain modules. For a detailed
overview of the functionality available in each product, visit
[Link]

184 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The default Permeability κ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material, as defined by the
Porous material list. For User defined select Isotropic to define a scalar value or Diagonal
or Symmetric to define a tensor value.

For Kozeny-Carman, enter the mean Particle diameter dp (SI unit: m), the default value
is 0.5 mm.

In case a Non-Darcian flow model is chosen in the parent node, Forchheimer is the
default selection for the Permeability model. For Forchheimer, the default Permeability
κ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material. Furthermore, the dimensionless
Forchheimer parameter cF can be defined. The default value is 0.55.

If Ergun is selected, enter the mean Particle diameter dp (default value: 0.5 mm). The
permeability κ is then calculated using Equation 2-4 in the Porous Media Flow
Module User’s Guide.

• About Darcian and Non-Darcian Flow in the Porous Media Flow

Module User’s Guide
• Permeability Models in the Porous Media Flow Module User’s Guide

Mass Source
The Mass Source node adds a mass source (or mass sink) Qm to the right-hand side of
the continuity equation: Equation 4-41. This term accounts for mass deposit and/or
mass creation in porous domains. The physics interface assumes that the mass
exchange occurs at zero velocity.

∂ ε
( ρ ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = Q m (4-43)
∂t p

DOMAIN SELECTION
Only Porous Matrix domains are available.

MASS SOURCE
Enter a value or expression for the Source term Qbr (SI unit: kg/(m3·s)). The default
is 0 kg/(m3·s).

THE BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 185

 Volume Force
Use the Volume Force node to specify the force F on the right-hand side of
Equation 4-42. It then acts on each fluid element in the specified domains.

ρ-  ∂u u
---- + ( u ⋅ ∇ ) ----- =
εp  ∂ t ε p
(4-44)
1 T 2   Q m
– ∇ p + ∇ ⋅ -----  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I  –  κ –1 μ + -------
- u + F
εp  3   ε p2 

VOLUME FORCE
Enter the components of Volume force F (SI unit: N/m3).

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the velocity field and the pressure that can
serve as an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a
nonlinear solver.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter initial values or expressions for the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) and the Pressure
p (SI unit: Pa). The default values are 0 m/s and 0 Pa, respectively.

Fluid Properties
The Fluid Properties node adds the momentum and continuity equations to solve for
free flow in nonporous domains. The node also provides an interface for defining the
material properties of the fluid.

MODEL INPUTS
Fluid properties, such as density and viscosity, can be defined through user inputs,
variables, or by selecting a material. For the latter option, additional inputs — for
example, temperature or pressure — may be required to define these properties.

Temperature
By default, the single-phase flow interfaces are set to model isothermal flow. Hence,
the Temperature is User defined and defaults to 293.15 K. If a Heat Transfer interface
is included in the component, the temperature may alternatively be selected from this
physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own tags (Name). For example, if a

186 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the component, the Temperature (ht)
option is available.

Absolute Pressure
This input appears when a material requires the absolute pressure as a model input.
The absolute pressure is used to evaluate material properties, but it also relates to the
value of the calculated pressure field. There are generally two ways to calculate the
pressure when describing fluid flow: either to solve for the absolute pressure or for a
pressure (often denoted gauge pressure) that relates to the absolute pressure through
a reference pressure.

The choice of pressure variable depends on the system of equations being solved. For
example, in a unidirectional incompressible flow problem, the pressure drop over the
modeled domain is probably many orders of magnitude smaller than the atmospheric
pressure, which, when included, may reduce the stability and convergence properties
of the solver. In other cases, such as when the pressure is part of an expression for the
gas volume or the diffusion coefficients, it may be more convenient to solve for the
absolute pressure.

The default Absolute pressure pA is p+pref where p is the dependent pressure variable
from the Navier–Stokes equations, and pref is from the user input defined at the
physics interface level. When pref is nonzero, the physics interface solves for a gauge
pressure. If the pressure field instead is an absolute pressure field, pref should be set to
0.

The Absolute pressure field can be edited by clicking Make All Model Inputs Editable
( ) and entering the desired value in the input field.

FLUID PROPERTIES
If density variations with respect to pressure are to be included in the computations,
the flow must be set to compressible.

The Dynamic viscosity μ describes the relationship between the shear rate and the shear
stresses in a fluid. Intuitively, water and air have low viscosities, and substances often
described as thick (such as oil) have higher viscosities.

Gravity
The Gravity global feature is automatically added when Include gravity is selected at the
interface level in the Physical Model settings. It defines the gravity forces from the
Acceleration of gravity value. When a turbulence model that solves for the turbulent

THE BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 187

 kinetic energy, k, is used, the option Include buoyancy-induced turbulence is available.
When selected, the Buoyancy contribution is by default set to Automatic from
multiphysics. Contributions are only obtained from multiphysics couplings that
support buoyancy-induced turbulence, such as Nonisothermal Flow. If the Buoyancy
contribution is switched to User defined, a text field for the Turbulent Schmidt number
appears. See also Theory for Buoyancy-Induced Turbulence in the CFD Module
User’s Guide.

This feature requires a specific license. For a detailed overview of the functionality
available in each product visit [Link]

ACCELERATION OF GRAVITY
The Acceleration of gravity (SI unit m/s, default value −gconstez in 2D axial symmetry
and 3D and −gconstey in 2D) is used to define the gravity forces. It should be a global
quantity.

188 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Theory for the Free and Porous
Media Flow, Brinkman Interface
The Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman Interface uses the Navier–Stokes
equations to describe the flow in open regions, and the Brinkman equations to
describe the flow in porous regions.

The same fields, u and p, are solved for in both the free flow domains and in the porous
domains. This means that the pressure in the free fluid and the pressure in the pores is
continuous over the interface between a free flow domain and a porous domain. It also
means that continuity is enforced between the fluid velocity in the free flow and the
Darcy velocity in the porous domain. This treatment is one of several possible models
for the physics at the interface. Examples of other models can be found in Ref. 1.

The continuity in u and p implies a stress discontinuity at the interface between a

free-flow domain and a porous domain. The difference corresponds to the stress
absorbed by the rigid porous matrix, which is a consequence implicit in the
formulations of the Navier–Stokes and Brinkman equations.

Reference for the Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman Interface
1. M.L. Bars and M.G. Worster, “Interfacial Conditions Between a Pure Fluid and a
Porous Medium: Implications for Binary Alloy Solidification,” J. Fluid Mech.,
vol. 550, pp. 149–173, 2006.

THEORY FOR THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW, BRINKMAN INTERFACE | 189
 The Free and Porous Media Flow,
Brinkman Interface
The Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman (fp) interface ( ) is found under the Porous
Media and Subsurface Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface. It is used to
compute fluid velocity and pressure fields of single-phase flow where free flow is
connected to porous media. The Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman interface is
used over at least two different domains: a free channel and a porous medium. The
physics interface is well suited for transitions between slow flow in porous media,
governed by the Brinkman equations, and fast flow in channels described by the
Navier–Stokes equations. Fluids with varying density can be included at Mach
numbers below 0.3. Also the viscosity of a fluid can vary, for example, to describe
non-Newtonian fluids. The physics interface can be used for stationary and
time-dependent analyses.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Fluid Properties, Wall, and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics
toolbar, add a Porous Medium node to be used on the domain selection corresponding
to the porous media, or add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary
conditions and volume forces. You can also right-click Free and Porous Media Flow,
Brinkman to select physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is fp.

PHYSICAL MODEL

Compressibility
By default the physics interface uses the Incompressible flow formulation of the Navier–
Stokes and Brinkman equations to model constant density flow. If required, select

190 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Weakly compressible flow from the Compressibility list, to account for small variations in
the density, which are only dependent on the temperature (nonisothermal flow) or
Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) for fully compressible flow. However, for the flow modeled
with this physics interface, the Mach number must be below 0.3.

Swirl Flow
For 2D axisymmetric components, select the Swirl flow check box to include the swirl
velocity component, that is the velocity component uϕ in the azimuthal direction.
While uϕ can be nonzero, there can be no gradients in the ϕ direction. Note that this
feature is only available for specific modules. Visit
[Link] for a detailed overview.

Neglect Inertial Term

Select the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box if the inertial forces are small
compared to the viscous forces.

Enable porous media domains

The Enable porous media domains check box is selected by default to solve the
Brinkman equations in porous domains. If it is unchecked, the Porous Medium node is
no longer available in this interface.

Include Gravity
Gravity is not included by default. Select the Include gravity check box to activate the
acceleration of gravity. This automatically adds a global Gravity feature node to the
interface model tree, and the buoyancy force is included in the Equations.

Also, when the Include gravity check box is selected, the Use reduced pressure option
changes the pressure formulation from using the total pressure (default) to using the
reduced pressure. This option is suitable for configurations where the density changes
are very small; otherwise, the default formulation can be used. For more information,
see Gravity.

Porous Treatment of No Slip Condition

Choose how the No Slip condition on internal boundaries should be treated. The
options are Standard no slip formulation and Porous slip (default). The latter option
provides a unified treatment when the porous matrix is fully resolved as well as when
it is under resolved ensuring a smooth transition between regions with different
resolutions; see No Slip under Wall in the The Laminar Flow and Creeping Flow
Interfaces section.

Reference Pressure Level

Enter a Reference pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1[atm].

THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW, BRINKMAN INTERFACE | 191

 Reference Temperature
Enter a Reference temperature Tref (SI unit: K). The default value is 293.15[K].

Reference Position
If Include gravity is selected, a Reference position rref (SI unit: m) can be specified which
is then used for the calculation of the hydrostatic pressure.

TURBULENCE
Turbulent flow can be simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to RANS
(Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes) or Large Eddy Simulation (which is only available
in 3D). If turbulent flow is activated, you can choose from different Turbulence models
and options for Wall treatment. For a description of the different turbulence models,
wall treatment options, and turbulence model parameters see Theory for the
Turbulent Flow Interfaces in the CFD Module User’s Guide.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface — the
Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) and its components, and the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa).

• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Free and Porous
Media Flow, Brinkman Interface
• Theory for the Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman Interface

Forchheimer Flow: Application Library path

Subsurface_Flow_Module/Fluid_Flow/forchheimer_flow

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Free and Porous
Media Flow, Brinkman Interface
The Free and Porous Media Flow, Brinkman Interface has the following domain,
boundary, point, and pair nodes, listed in alphabetical order, available from the Physics

192 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or
right-click to access the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

• Fluid Properties • Porous Medium

• Gravity • Mass Source
• Initial Values • Volume Force
• Wall

Note that some features are only available with certain COMSOL products (see
[Link]

The following nodes (listed in alphabetical order) are described for the Laminar Flow
interface:

• No Viscous Stress • Open Boundary

• Flow Continuity • Periodic Flow Condition
• Inlet • Point Mass Source
• Line Mass Source • Pressure Point Constraint
• Outlet • Symmetry

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Fluid Properties
Use the Fluid Properties node to define the fluid material, density, and dynamic
viscosity.

THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW, BRINKMAN INTERFACE | 193

 FLUID PROPERTIES
The default Fluid material uses the Domain material (the material defined for the
domain). Select another material as needed.

The default Density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) uses values From material based on the Fluid
material selection. For User defined enter another value or expression. The default is
0 kg/m3.

The Dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) uses values From material based on the Fluid
material selection. For User defined enter another value or expression. The default is
0 Pa·s.

Porous Medium
The Porous Medium node adds the Brinkman equations (excluding any mass sources)
to the interface. It has two default subfeatures — the Fluid subfeature where the fluid
density ρ(SI unit: kg/m3) and dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) are defined and the
Porous Matrix subfeature where the permeability κ (SI unit: m2) and porosity εp
(dimensionless) are specified.

FLOW MODEL
Define if the flow follows a linear or nonlinear pressure-velocity relationship.

• Darcian flow (default) defines a linear relationship characteristic for low Reynolds
number laminar flows.
• Non-Darcian flow defines a nonlinear relationship due to inertial or turbulence
effects.

POROUS MEDIUM TURBULENCE MODEL

Defines a model which complements the basic turbulence model and accounts for the
influence of the porous matrix on turbulent flow in Porous Media.

• Default and Nakayama-Kuwahara specify Coefficient of subgrid turbulence generation

by porous matrix Cstpm which by default is set to 0.212.
• Pedras-de Lemos asks to specify Choice of the Pedras-de Lemos model coefficient. When
User defined is chosen, specify Coefficient of subgrid turbulence generation by porous
matrix Cstpm with default value 0.212. Choosing Original results in
C stpm = 0.28 ⋅ ε p , while choosing Recalibrated results in C stpm = 0.18 .

194 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Fluid
This node defines the material properties of the fluid of the Porous Medium parent
node.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

FLUID PROPERTIES
Specify the Density ρ and the Dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) of the fluid. The
defaults use values From material, for User defined enter a value or expression.

The dynamic viscosity describes the relationship between the shear stresses and the
shear rate in a fluid. Intuitively, water and air have a low viscosity, and substances often
described as thick, such as oil, have a higher viscosity.

Porous Matrix
This node defines the porosity and material properties of the solid matrix of the Porous
Medium parent node.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
The Porosity εp (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) uses by default the value
From material. For User defined the default value is 1 which is equivalent to free flow.

Select a Permeability model to specify the capacity of the porous material to transmit
flow. Depending on the Flow model selection in the parent Porous Medium feature node
you can choose between the following options:

• Permeability (the default) to directly enter the permeability of the porous matrix or
Kozeny-Carman to define the permeability from the porosity and mean Particle
diameter for Darcian flow or
• Forchheimer or Ergun for Non-Darcian flow.

THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW, BRINKMAN INTERFACE | 195

 Note that some of these options are only available for certain modules. For a detailed
overview of the functionality available in each product, visit
[Link]

The default Permeability κ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material, as defined by the
Porous material list. For User defined select Isotropic to define a scalar value or Diagonal
or Symmetric to define a tensor value.

For Kozeny-Carman, enter the mean Particle diameter dp (SI unit: m), the default value
is 0.5 mm.

In case a Non-Darcian flow model is chosen in the parent node, Forchheimer is the
default selection for the Permeability model. For Forchheimer, the default Permeability
κ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material. Furthermore, the dimensionless
Forchheimer parameter cF can be defined. The default value is 0.55.

If Ergun is selected, enter the mean Particle diameter dp (default value: 0.5 mm). The
permeability κ is then calculated using Equation 2-4 in the Porous Media Flow
Module User’s Guide.

• About Darcian and Non-Darcian Flow in the Porous Media Flow

Module User’s Guide
• Permeability Models in the Porous Media Flow Module User’s Guide

Mass Source
Enter a value or expression for an optional mass source (or sink) Source term Qm (SI
unit: kg/(m3·s)). This term accounts for mass deposit or mass creation within porous
domains. The physics interface assumes that the mass exchange occurs at zero velocity.

Volume Force
The Volume Force node specifies the force F on the right-hand side of the Navier–
Stokes or Brinkman equations, depending on whether a Fluid Properties or Porous
Medium node is active on the domain. It then acts on each fluid element in the
specified domains.

VOLUME FORCE
Enter the components of the Volume force F (SI unit: N/m3).

196 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the velocity field and the pressure that can
serve as an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a
nonlinear solver.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter initial values or expressions for the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) and for the
Pressure p (SI unit: Pa). The default values are 0 m/s and 0 Pa, respectively.

Gravity
The Gravity global feature is automatically added when Include gravity is selected at the
interface level in the Physical Model settings. It defines the gravity forces from the
Acceleration of gravity value. When a turbulence model that solves for the turbulent
kinetic energy, k, is used, the option Include buoyancy-induced turbulence is available.
When selected, the Buoyancy contribution is by default set to Automatic from
multiphysics. Contributions are only obtained from multiphysics couplings that
support buoyancy-induced turbulence, such as Nonisothermal Flow. If the Buoyancy
contribution is switched to User defined, a text field for the Turbulent Schmidt number
appears. See also Theory for Buoyancy-Induced Turbulence in the CFD Module
User’s Guide.

This feature requires a specific license. For a detailed overview of the functionality
available in each product visit [Link]

ACCELERATION OF GRAVITY
The Acceleration of gravity (SI unit m/s, default value −gconstez in 2D axial symmetry
and 3D and −gconstey in 2D) is used to define the gravity forces. It should be a global
quantity.

Wall
The Wall node includes a set of boundary conditions describing fluid-flow conditions
at stationary, moving, and leaking walls.

THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW, BRINKMAN INTERFACE | 197

 BOUNDARY CONDITION
Select a Boundary condition for the wall.

• No Slip1 • Leaking Wall

• Slip

No Slip
No slip is the default boundary condition for a stationary solid wall for laminar flow
(and SST, Low Re k-ε, Algebraic yPlus, L-VEL, and Spalart–Allmaras turbulence
models). The condition prescribes u = 0; that is, the fluid at the wall is not moving.

Slip
The Slip option prescribes a no-penetration condition, u·n = 0. It is implicitly assumed
that there are no viscous effects at the slip wall and hence, no boundary layer develops.
From a modeling point of view, this can be a reasonable approximation if the main
effect of the wall is to prevent fluid from leaving the domain.

Leaking Wall
This boundary condition may be used to simulate a wall where fluid is leaking into or
leaving the domain with the velocity u = ul through a perforated wall. The
components of the Fluid velocity ul on the leaking wall should be specified.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

• Theory for the Wall Boundary Condition

• The Moving Mesh Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual

198 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Theory for the Free and Porous
M e di a Flo w, Darc y In t erface
The Free and Porous Media Flow, Darcy interface uses the Navier–Stokes equations to
describe the flow in the free-flow region, implemented by the coupled Laminar Flow
interface, and Darcy’s law, implemented by the coupled Darcy’s Law interface, to
describe the flow in the porous region.

In the free-flow region, the velocity u and pressure p are solved for, whereas in the
porous region only the pressure p is solved for, and the velocity is calculated from the
pressure by Darcy’s law.

The coupling between the free and porous medium flow, implemented by the Free and
Porous Media Flow Coupling, ensures conservation of mass across the free-porous
interface, which is enforced by the condition

n ⋅ ( ρ ns u ns ) = n ⋅ ( ρ d u d ) (4-45)

Here ρns and uns are the density and velocity on the free-flow side of the interface, ρd
and ud the density and velocity on the porous side, and n is a vector normal to the
interface. In addition the coupling enforces the balance of the normal forces by:

p ns – n ⋅ Kn = p d (4-46)

where pns and pd are the pressure on the free-flow side and porous side of the
interface, respectively, and K is the viscous stress tensor (defined only on the free-flow
side).

For the coupling condition for the tangential velocity component, there are several
options. One of the most widely used conditions is the Beavers-Joseph interface
condition (Ref. 1):

tr ( κ ) ⁄ n
( I – n ⊗ n ) ( u ns – u d ) = ------------------------ ( I – n ⊗ n )Kn (4-47)
μ ns α BJ

where aBJ is the Beavers and Joseph parameter, κ is the permeability tensor of the
porous medium (defined on the porous side of the interface), μns is the fluid’s dynamic
viscosity on the free-flow side of the interface, and n is the number of space
dimensions.

THEORY FOR THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW, DARCY INTERFACE | 199
 When the velocity in the porous domain is much smaller than the velocity in the free
flow, one can use a modification of the Beavers–Joseph condition which is given by the
Beavers–Joseph–Saffman interface condition (Ref. 2):

tr ( κ ) ⁄ n
( I – n ⊗ n )u ns = ------------------------ ( I – n ⊗ n )Kn (4-48)
μ ns α BJ

For cases when the permeability tensor is not isotropic, the Use projected permeability
option allows to take into account only the permeability in the direction of the
tangential velocity component. This is accomplished by replacing the tr ( κ ) ⁄ n term
on the rights hand side of Equation 4-47 and Equation 4-48 by:

t ⋅ κt (4-49)

with t a unit vector tangent to the interface for 2D and 2D-axisymmetric cases, and for
3D cases by:

v ⋅ κv (4-50)

with v given by:

( I – n ⊗ n )Kn -
v = ------------------------------------------ (4-51)
( I – n ⊗ n )Kn

If one considers the limit of the Beavers–Joseph condition for large values of the
Beavers and Joseph parameter aBJ, one obtains the Continuous tangential velocity
condition:

( I – n ⊗ n ) ( u ns – u d ) = 0 (4-52)

The same limit for the Beavers–Joseph–Saffman condition results in the No slip
condition:

( I – n ⊗ n )u ns = 0 (4-53)

The Viscous slip condition allows for a more general coupling condition. This interface
condition is given by:

Ls
( I – n ⊗ n ) ( u ns – u b ) = --------- ( I – n ⊗ n )Kn (4-54)
μ ns

200 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Here Ls is a slip length, and ub a user-defined interfacial velocity.

Please find related information in the CFD Module User’s Guide:

• The Darcy’s Law Interface

• The Thin-Film and Porous Media Flow Interface
• The Laminar Flow Interface
• Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

References
1. G.S. Beavers and D.D. Joseph, “Boundary Conditions at a Naturally Permeable
Wall,” J. Fluid Mech., vol. 30, 1967.

2. P.G. Saffman, “On the Boundary Condition at the Surface of a Porous Medium,”
Stud. Appl. Maths, vol. 50, 1971.

THEORY FOR THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW, DARCY INTERFACE | 201
 The Free and Porous Media Flow,
Darcy Interface
The Free and Porous Media Flow, Darcy interface ( ) combines the Darcy’s Law and
Laminar Flow interfaces to compute fluid velocity and pressure fields where free flow is
connected to porous media. The physics interface is suited for situations when both
the free flow and the flow in the porous media are laminar.

When a predefined Free and Porous Media Flow, Darcy interface is added from the Porous
Media and Subsurface Flow branch ( ) of the Model Wizard or Add Physics window, the
Darcy’s Law and Laminar Flow interfaces are added to the Model Builder. In addition,
the Multiphysics node is added, which automatically includes the Free and Porous Media
Flow Coupling multiphysics coupling.

On the Constituent Physics Interfaces

The Darcy’s Law interface is used to simulate fluid flow through interstices in a porous
medium. It can be used to model low-velocity flows in media where the permeability
and porosity are very small, and for which the pressure gradient is the major driving
force and the flow is mostly influenced by the frictional resistance within the pores.

The Laminar Flow interface is used to compute the velocity and pressure for a fluid flow
in the laminar flow regime. A flow will remain laminar as long as the Reynolds number
is below a certain critical value. At higher Reynolds numbers, disturbances have a
tendency to grow and cause transition to turbulence.

SETTINGS FOR PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, for example Free
and Porous Media Flow, Darcy, specific settings are included with the physics interfaces
and the coupling features.

However, if physics interfaces are added one at a time, followed by the coupling
features, these modified settings are not automatically included.

Free and Porous Media Flow Coupling (Multiphysics Coupling)

The Free and Porous Media Flow Coupling multiphysics coupling node ( )
bidirectionally links the Laminar Flow and Darcy’s Law interfaces.

202 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is nsd1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual (the default)
from the Selection list to choose specific domains to define the multiphase flow
coupling, or select All domains as needed.

When the Free and Porous Media Flow Coupling is added as an effect of adding a Free
and Porous Media Flow, Darcy multiphysics interface, the selection is the intersection
of the boundaries of the participating physics interfaces.

Only boundaries that are active in the participating physics interfaces (which are
chosen from the Coupled Interfaces selection list) can be selected.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. The Free flow
and Porous media flow lists include all applicable physics interfaces.

The default values depend on how the coupling node is created.

• If it is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual toolbar
(Mac and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics interface
of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it is added automatically when a multiphysics interface is selected in the Model
Wizard or Add Physics window, then the two participating physics interfaces are
selected.

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the Free and Porous Media Flow
Coupling node from a physics interface. If the physics interface is removed from the
Model Builder, for example Darcy’s Law is deleted, then the Porous media flow list
defaults to None as there is nothing to couple to.

THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW, DARCY INTERFACE | 203

 COUPLING SETTINGS
This section defines the settings for the Free flow boundary condition.

• When No slip is selected, the tangential component of the fluid velocity at the
free-porous interface on the free-flow side (computed in the Free flow interface) is
set to zero.
• When Continuous tangential velocity is selected, the tangential velocity component
of the flow on both sides of the free-porous interface is continuous. In addition,
continuity of normal stresses and conservation of mass across the interface are
ensured.
• When Beavers-Joseph is selected, the difference of the tangential velocity
components of the flow on both sides of the free-porous interface is proportional to
the shear stress at the free-porous interface on the free-flow side. For this option,
enter a value or expression for the Beavers and Joseph parameter aBJ (dimensionless)
that determines the proportionality. In addition, select the check box Use projected
permeability to use only the component of the permeability tensor in the direction
of the difference of the tangential velocities on both sides of the interface, instead
of the trace of the permeability tensor, in determining the proportionality.
• When Beavers-Joseph-Saffman is selected, the tangential velocity component of the
flow at the free-porous interface on the free-flow side is proportional to the shear
stress at the interface on the free-flow side. For this option also, enter a value or
expression for the Beavers and Joseph parameter aBJ (dimensionless) that determines
the proportionality. In addition, select the check box Use projected permeability to
use only the component of the permeability tensor in the direction of the difference
of the tangential velocities on both sides of the interface, instead of the trace of the
permeability tensor, in determining the proportionality.
• When Viscous slip is selected, the difference of the tangential velocity components
of the flow on the free-flow side and a user-supplied interfacial velocity is
proportional to the shear stress at the free-porous interface on the free-flow side.
Enter values for the Slip length Ls (SI unit: m, the default is 1e-7 m), and an
Interfacial velocity ub (SI unit: m/s, the default is 0 m/s).

204 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

In all the above cases, additionally continuity of normal stresses and conservation of
mass across the interface are ensured.

Please find related information in the CFD Module User’s Guide:

• The Darcy’s Law Interface

• Theory for the Darcy’s Law Interface
• The Laminar Flow Interface
• Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces
• Theory for the Free and Porous Media Flow, Darcy Interface

THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW, DARCY INTERFACE | 205

206 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES
 5

Shallow Water Equations Interface

The physics interface described in this chapter is found under the Fluid
Flow>Shallow Water Equations branch ( ).

In this chapter:

• The Shallow Water Equations, Time Explicit Interface

• Theory for the Shallow Water Equations Interface.

| 207
 The Shallow Water Equations, Time
Explicit Interface
In this section:

• The Shallow Water Equations, Time Explicit Interface

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Shallow Water Equations
Interface

Theory for the Shallow Water Equations Interface

The Shallow Water Equations, Time Explicit Interface

The Shallow Water Equations, Time Explicit (swe) interface ( ), found under the
Shallow Water Equations branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to solve
the Shallow Water equations in a 1D or 2D geometry. These equations model the flow
of a free surface in a fluid under the assumption that the horizontal scale is much
greater than the vertical length scale. They are frequently used for modeling both
oceanographic and atmospheric fluid flow. Models of such systems can be used to
predict areas affected by pollution, coastal erosion, and polar ice-cap melting, provided
the fluid layer is shallow enough.

Comprehensive modeling of such phenomena using physical descriptions such as the

Navier–Stokes equations can often be problematic, due to the scale of the modeling
domains as well as the resolution of free surfaces. The shallow water equations, of
which there are a number of representations, provide an easier description of such
phenomena.

A typical configuration for the flow of fluid in a shallow layer is shown in

Figure [Link] physics interface approximates free surface problems where the
thickness h of the fluid layer, or water depth, is small compared to the lateral
dimensions of the geometry. The lower boundary of the fluid is treated as a
nonpenetrable wall and has a height hb(x, y) over a reference xy-plane placed at z = 0.
The topography of the bottom is assumed constant in time. Using the shallow water
equations, the water depth h and water flux q are computed in a reduced dimension

208 | CHAPTER 5: SHALLOW WATER EQUATIONS INTERFACE

of the problem. Free surface problems that would require a 3D geometry when
modeled with the Navier–Stokes equations can be modeled in 2D instead. 2D
problems can also be reduced to 1D.
z
y

hb
H

Figure 5-1: An example illustrating a typical configuration for shallow water equations.
A water layer of thickness h flows over a nonflat bottom with topography represented by hb.
The total height of the free surface over the reference xy plane at z = 0 is represented by H.
The gravity points downward (−z direction) and gives rise to a hydrostatic pressure
ranging from 0 atm at the free surface to a value of gρh at the bottom.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Domain Properties, Wall, and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics
toolbar, you can add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions.
You can also right-click Shallow Water Equations, Time Explicit to select physics features
from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is swe.

THE SHALLOW WATER EQUATIONS, TIME EXPLICIT INTERFACE | 209

 PHYSICAL MODEL
Select a value for Acceleration of gravity (SI unit m/s). The default value is gconst. It
should be a global quantity.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not
need to be changed.

Select the CFL number. This CFL number will be used when defining the Cell time scale
expression [Link] used in the Time-Explicit Solver if the Time stepping is set to From
expressions. Note that the method will be unstable for CFL numbers larger than 1.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• References for the Solution Operation Nodes and Solvers

DISCRETIZATION
The Shallow Water Equations, Time Explicit interface uses Nodal discontinuous
Lagrange functions with Constant Element order.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Water depth h (SI unit: m) and the
Water flux q (SI unit: m2 /s). The names can be changed but the names of fields and
dependent variables must be unique within a component.

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Shallow Water
Equations Interface
• Theory for the Shallow Water Equations Interface

• Dam Breaking on a Column, Shallow Water Equations: Application

Library path Subsurface_Flow_Module/Fluid_Flow/dam_break_column_sw
• Tsunami Runup onto a Complex 3D Beach, Monai Valley:
Application Library path
Subsurface_Flow_Module/Fluid_Flow/monai_runup

210 | CHAPTER 5: SHALLOW WATER EQUATIONS INTERFACE

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Shallow
Water Equations Interface
For the Shallow Water Equations interface, the following domain, boundary, edge,
point, and pair nodes (listed in alphabetical order) are described in this section:

• Domain Properties • Outlet

• Domain Source • Symmetry
• Initial Values • Wall
• Inlet • Water Source
• Interior Wall

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Domain Properties
Use the Domain Properties node to set the bottom topography and material properties.

BOTTOM TOPOGRAPHY
The Bottom height (SI unit: m) is defined as a user defined expression. It can depend
on the geometry coordinates, but it is expected to be constant in time. The default is
set to 0 m.

MATERIAL
The default Density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) is taken User defined. Enter a different value or
expression. The default is 1000 kg/m3. The density can also be set From material. In
that case, select the Material to use. By default, the material used is the Domain material.
This corresponds to the material currently applied to the domain in question.

The value of the density is not used when solving but to compute the hydrostatic
pressure and pressure force.

THE SHALLOW WATER EQUATIONS, TIME EXPLICIT INTERFACE | 211

 Domain Source
The Domain Source node specifies a momentum source on the right hand-side of the
momentum equation

∂q + ∇ ⋅  u ⊗ q + g h
--- I = – gh B ∇h B + F
∂t  2 

This source term can model different effects, such as bottom friction, the Coriolis
force, or wind stresses.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the water depth and water flux that serve
as an initial condition for a transient simulation. If more than one set of initial values
is required, add additional Initial Values nodes from the Physics toolbar.

INITIAL VALUES
Select the set of variables to be defined in Initial values — Primitive variables (the
default), or Conservative variables.

For the Water depth, select Specify water depth (the default) or Specify total height.

• For Specify water depth provide a value or an expression for the water depth. The
default is 0 m.
• For Specify total height provide a value or an expression for the Total height of the
water column H. The default is 0 m. When using this option, the initial water depth
is calculated as

h = max ( 0, H – h b )

The variable used to define the water flux q will depend on the selection of the Initial
values selection list:

• For Primitive variables provide a value or an expression for the components of the
velocity u. The default is 0 m /s. The initial water depth is then calculated as

q = hu

• For Conservative variables provide a value or an expression for the components of

the water flux q. The default is 0 m2 /s.

212 | CHAPTER 5: SHALLOW WATER EQUATIONS INTERFACE

Inlet
Use the Inlet node to define boundaries where the fluid enters the domain. This
condition uses the HLLC Riemann Solver (Ref. 1) to determine the incoming and
outgoing characteristics and provide the appropriate flux.

FLOW PROPERTIES
Select the set of variables to be defined in Input State— Primitive variables (the default),
or Conservative variables.

For the Water depth, select User defined (the default), From domain values, or Specify
total height.

• For User defined provide a value or an expression for the water depth h0. The default
is 0 m.
• When From domain values is selected, the value of the water depth used to define the
external state is taken from the solution at the boundary. Note that at supercritical
inlets both water depth and water flux should be specified.
• For Specify total height provide a value or an expression for the Total height of the
water column H0. The default is 0 m. When using this option, the external water
depth is calculated as

h 0 = max ( 0, H 0 – h b )

The variable used to define the water flux q0 will depend on the Input state:

• For Primitive variables the velocity is provided. If User defined is select, provide a
value or an expression for the components of the velocity u0. The default is 0 m /s.
The incoming water flux is then calculated as

q0 = h0 u0

If From domain values is selected, the value of the velocity used to define the external
state is taken from the solution at the boundary. Note that at supercritical inlets both
water depth and water flux should be specified.
• For Conservative variables the water flux is required. If User defined is select, provide
a value or an expression for the components of the water flux q0. The default value
is 0 m2 /s. If From domain values is selected, the value of the water flux used to
define the external state is taken from the solution at the boundary. Note that at
supercritical inlets both water depth and water flux should be specified.

THE SHALLOW WATER EQUATIONS, TIME EXPLICIT INTERFACE | 213

 Outlet
The Outlet node defines boundaries where the fluid leaves the domain. This condition
uses the HLLC Riemann Solver (Ref. 1) to determine the incoming and outgoing
characteristics and provide the appropriate flux.

FLOW PROPERTIES
Select the set of variables to be defined in Input State — Primitive variables (the
default), or Conservative variables.

For the Water depth, select User defined (the default), From domain values, or Specify
total height.

• For User defined provide a value or an expression for the water depth h0. The default
is 0 m.
• When From domain values is selected, the value of the water depth used to define the
external state is taken from the solution at the boundary. Note that in supercritical
outlets both water depth and water flux should be taken from domain values.
• For Specify total height provide a value or an expression for the Total height of the
water column H0. The default is 0 m. When using this option, the external water
depth is calculated as

h 0 = max ( 0, H 0 – h b )

The variable used to define the external water flux q0 will depend on the Input state:

• For Primitive variables the velocity is provided. If User defined is select, provide a
value or an expression for the components of the velocity u0. The default is 0 m /s.
The outgoing water flux is then calculated as

q0 = h0 u0

If From domain values is selected, the value of the velocity used to define the external
state is taken from the solution at the boundary. Note that in supercritical outlets
both water depth and water flux should be taken from domain values.
• For Conservative variables the water flux is required. If User defined is select, provide
a value or an expression for the components of the water flux q0. The default value
is 0 m2 /s. If From domain values is selected, the value of the water flux used to
define the external state is taken from the solution at the boundary. In supercritical
outlets both water depth and water flux should be taken from domain values.

214 | CHAPTER 5: SHALLOW WATER EQUATIONS INTERFACE

Wall
The Wall node includes a set of boundary conditions preventing fluid flow in the
direction perpendicular to the boundary. A no-penetration condition, u ⋅ n = 0, is
enforced. Since viscous effects are neglected, no boundary layer develops.

The no-penetration condition is imposed weakly setting the following flux:

Γh ⋅ n = 0

2
h
– Γ q ⋅ n = g ------ n
2

• Theory for the Shallow Water Equations Interface

Symmetry
The Symmetry boundary condition prescribes a no-penetration condition, u ⋅ n = 0.
This node sets the same flux condition as the Wall feature.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
For 2D axial symmetry, a boundary condition does not need to be defined for the
symmetry axis at r = 0. The software automatically provides an Axial Symmetry node
prescribing u ⋅ n = 0 on the axial symmetry boundaries.

Interior Wall
The Interior Wall node prevents fluid flow in the direction perpendicular to the
boundary. It can only be applied on interior boundaries.

It is similar to the Wall boundary condition available on exterior boundaries except that
it applies on both sides of an interior boundary. It allows discontinuities of the
dependent variables across the boundary. The Interior Wall condition can be used to
avoid meshing thin structures by applying a no-penetration condition on interior
curves and surfaces instead.

Water Source
The Water Source node specifies a height source in the continuity equation

THE SHALLOW WATER EQUATIONS, TIME EXPLICIT INTERFACE | 215

 ∂h + ∇ ⋅ q = Q
∂t

216 | CHAPTER 5: SHALLOW WATER EQUATIONS INTERFACE

Theory for the Shallow Water
Equations Interface
This section describes the theory for the Shallow Water Equations, Time Explicit
interface:

• The Shallow Water Equations

• The Numerical Method
• Wave Speed and Flow Regimes
• Forces on Boundaries
• References for the Shallow Water Equations Interfaces

The Shallow Water Equations

Figure 5-2 shows a typical configuration for the flow of fluid in a shallow layer. The
upper boundary is referred to as the free surface and the lower boundary of the water
layer is referred to as the bottom. The bottom height, hb, is measured with respect to
a reference xy-plane placed at z = 0 and it is assumed to be constant in time. The total
height of the free surface is denoted H. The height of the water layer is typically
measured in relation to the bottom height and denoted h. In dry regions, h = 0 and
H = hb.

The equations of continuity and momentum of incompressible inviscid flow subjected

T
to gravity in the vertical direction ( g = [ 0, 0, – g ] ) are

ρ∇ ⋅ u = 0 (5-1)

∂u + u ∂u + v ∂u + w ∂u = – 1
--- ∂p (5-2)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ρ ∂x

∂v + u ∂v + v ∂v + w ∂v = – 1
--- ∂p (5-3)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ρ∂y

THEORY FOR THE SHALLOW WATER EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 217

 ∂w + u ∂w + v ∂w + w ∂w = – 1
--- ∂p – g (5-4)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ρ∂z

z
y

hb
H

Figure 5-2: An example illustrating a typical configuration for shallow water equations.
A water layer of thickness h flows over a nonflat bottom with topography represented by hb.
The total height of the free surface over the reference xy plane at z = 0 is represented by H.
The gravity points downward (−z direction) and gives rise to a hydrostatic pressure
ranging from 0 atm at the free surface to a value of p = ρgh at the bottom.

Assuming that the water depth h is much smaller than the lateral dimensions of the
Dw
geometry, the vertical accelerations can be neglected, --------- = 0 , and Equation 5-4
Dt
reduces to the hydrostatic pressure relation

∂p = – ρg  p = ρg ( h + h – z )
b (5-5)
∂z
∂p = ∂p = 0
Both h(x, y) and hb(x, y) are independent of z, implying that .
∂x ∂y
Equation 5-2 and Equation 5-3 then reduces to

∂u + u ∂u + v ∂u ∂
= –g ( h + hb ) (5-6)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂x

∂v ∂v ∂v ∂
+u +v = –g ( h + hb ) (5-7)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂y

which is the momentum equation of the 2D shallow water equations in

nonconservative form. Note that u and v represent the horizontal velocity components
averaged over h.

218 | CHAPTER 5: SHALLOW WATER EQUATIONS INTERFACE

The continuity equation is recovered from Equation 5-1 when assuming no
penetration on both the free surface and bottom boundaries:

∂h + ∂ uh + ∂ vh = 0
(5-8)
∂t ∂x ∂y

See Chapter 2 in Ref. 1 for more details. Equation 5-6, Equation 5-7, and
Equation 5-8 can be combined to express the shallow water equations in conservative
form

∂h ∂q x ∂q y
+ + = 0
∂t ∂x ∂y

∂q x ∂  2 ∂h b
uq x + g ------ + ∂ ( uq y ) = – gh
h
+ (5-9)
∂t ∂x  2  ∂y ∂x

∂q y ∂ 2 ∂h b
+ ( vq x ) + ∂  vq x + g ------ = – gh
h
(5-10)
∂t ∂x ∂y 2 ∂y

qx and qy are the components of the water flux in the x and y directions, respectively.
T
The vector q = [ q x, q y, 0 ] can be obtained from the horizontally averaged velocity
T
u = [ u, v, 0 ] as

q = uh (5-11)

Two different sets of variables are used in the context of the shallow water equations:
the conservative variables h and q, and the primitive variables h and u.

The Numerical Method

The physics interface solves the shallow water equations using the Discontinuous
Galerkin (DG) method in space together with explicit time stepping. The
computations are restricted to transient problems. The basis functions are the nodal
discontinuous Lagrange shape functions with constant order.

The numerical method used solves wave problems of the form

∂w
da + ∇ ⋅ Γ(w) = f
∂t

THEORY FOR THE SHALLOW WATER EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 219

 When solving the shallow water equations, da is an identity matrix, w is the vector of
conservative variables, Γ represents the conservative fluxes, and f includes the source
terms:

w = h
q

T
Γh q
Γ(w) = = 2
Γq h
q ⊗ u + g ------ I
2

0
f =
– gh∇h b

Here, Γh and Γq represent the fluxes of the continuity and momentum equations,
respectively.

Discontinuous Galerkin methods use shape functions that are continuous in the
interior of each mesh element, but discontinuous across element boundaries. A
numerical flux must be defined between element boundaries and the dependent
variables are not required to be continuous on faces between adjacent mesh elements.
The default numerical flux is the Lax-Friedrichs flux, which uses an average of the
physical fluxes together with a penalty term.

After discretization in space, the system of equations is integrated in time. The

standard procedure is to use an explicit Runge-Kutta method. The physics interface uses
the third-order SSP (strong stability preserving) Runge–Kutta method per default.

The time step in explicit computations is limited by the CFL condition; see Time
Explicit Integrator in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual. The maximum
stable time step is proportional to the smallest mesh element size h and inversely
proportional to the maximum wave speed in the domain. On unstructured meshes
with local refinement regions only a few elements are small, yet these dictate the overall
time step for the whole problem. In such cases, the use of Local Time Stepping is

220 | CHAPTER 5: SHALLOW WATER EQUATIONS INTERFACE

advisable. COMSOL Multiphysics provides the Adams-Bashforth 3 (local) time stepping
method.

Theory for the Wave Form PDE in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

The bottom topography hb is entered as a user-defined expression. In order to ensure

that its gradient can be evaluated and is constant on every element, it is first projected
onto the variable swe.hb_linear using linear Lagrangian shape functions. For
plotting purposes, the provided expression for hb is also projected onto the variable
swe.hb_constant using the same piecewise discontinuous shape functions as for h.
These projections are done in a Stationary study step that must be computed before
the Time Dependent study step is used to compute the shallow water equations. When
starting a new model from the Model Wizard, the stationary study step is added per
default when selecting a Time Dependent study.

Wave Speed and Flow Regimes

The fluxes of the momentum and continuity equations, Γ(w), provide information
about the speed of the waves. The eigenvalues of the Jacobian matrix of the fluxes
T
evaluated at a direction provided by an arbitrary unit vector n = [ n x, n y, 0 ] are

λ 1 = u ⋅ n – c, λ 2 = u ⋅ n, λ 3 = u ⋅ n + c

where c is the wave celerity,

c = gh

The eigenvalues of the Jacobian of the fluxes provide information about the velocity at
which information is propagated. When |u ⋅ n| > c, the eigenvalues have different sign
and information is propagated both upward and downward. If |u ⋅ n| < c, all
eigenvalues have the same sign and all waves travel in the same direction.

The Froude number Fr is a dimensionless number typically used to define the flow
regime by specifying the ratio of the inertial forces to gravity forces. In case of the
Shallow Water Equations, it is defined as

u-
Fr = ------
c

THEORY FOR THE SHALLOW WATER EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 221

 The flow regime can be divided into subcritical flow, Fr < 1, and supercritical flow,
Fr > 1. This classification is specially important when defining boundary conditions.
In supercritical flows, all characteristics must be specified at inlets and extrapolated
from the domain at outlets. In subcritical flows, the characteristics are partially
specified from exterior values and partially extrapolated from interior values for both
inlets and outlets.

Forces on Boundaries
The physics interface provides variables to compute the pressure force acting on
boundaries. In the shallow water equations the pressure is assumed to be hydrostatic

p = ρg ( h + h b – z )

The pressure force per unit length on a boundary can be obtained integrating along h

0
2
h
Fp =  ρgzn dz = ρg ------ n
2
h

The components of the vector Fp are available as variables in the Shallow Water
Equations, Time Explicit physics interface and can be accessed in 2D using [Link]
and [Link]. In 1D only the [Link] component is defined. Note that these variables
represent a force per unit length; the total force on a boundary is obtained integrating
over the whole boundary.

References for the Shallow Water Equations Interfaces

1. E.F. Toro, Shock capturing methods for free-surface shallow flows, John Wiley &
Sons, 2001.

222 | CHAPTER 5: SHALLOW WATER EQUATIONS INTERFACE

 6

Chemical Species Transport Interfaces

This chapter describes the physics interfaces found under the Chemical Species
Transport branch ( ). It summarizes the physics interfaces including the different
fields, material properties, and boundary conditions associated with them, and
suggests how and when to apply the conditions.

In this chapter:

• The Transport of Diluted Species Interface

• The Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media Interface
• The Transport of Diluted Species in Fractures Interface
• Theory for the Transport of Diluted Species Interface

In addition, The Reacting Flow in Porous Media Interface is available under the
Chemical Species Transport branch. It is described in the chapter Multiphysics
Interfaces and Couplings.

223
 T he T r a ns po r t of D i l u t ed S p ec i es
Interface
The Transport of Diluted Species (tds) interface ( ), found under the Chemical Species
Transport branch ( ), is used to calculate the concentration field of a dilute solute in
a solvent. Transport and reactions of the species dissolved in a gas, liquid, or solid can
be handled with this interface. The driving forces for transport can be diffusion by
Fick’s law, convection when coupled to a flow field, and migration, when coupled to
an electric field.

The interface supports simulation of transport by convection and diffusion in 1D, 2D,
and 3D as well as for axisymmetric components in 1D and 2D. The dependent variable
is the molar concentration, c. Modeling multiple species transport is possible, whereby
the physics interface solves for the molar concentration, ci, of each species i.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is tds.

DOMAIN SELECTION
If any part of the model geometry should not partake in the mass transfer model,
remove that part from the selection list.

OUT-OF-PLANE THICKNESS
For 2D components, the Thickness field (default value: 1 m) defines a parameter for the
thickness of the geometry perpendicular to the two-dimensional cross-section. Both
constant and varying thicknesses are supported. The value of this parameter is used,
among other things, to automatically calculate molar flow rates from the total molar
flux.

224 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA
For 1D components, enter a Cross-sectional area Ac (SI unit: m2) to define a parameter
for the area of the geometry perpendicular to the 1D component. Both constant and
varying areas are supported. The value of this parameter is used, among other things,
to automatically calculate molar flow rates from the total molar flux. The default is 1
m2.

TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
Mass transport due to diffusion is always included. Use the check boxes available under
Additional transport mechanisms to control other transport mechanisms.

Note: Some of the additional transport mechanisms listed below are only available in
certain products. For details see [Link]

• By default, the Convection check box is selected. Clear the check box to disable
convective transport.
• Select the Migration in electric field check box to activate transport of ionic species in
an electric field. See further the theory section Adding Transport Through
Migration.

Transport of ionic species in an electric field is available in a limited set of

add-on products. See
[Link] for more details on
availability.

Mass Transport in Porous Media

The Mass transport in porous media check box activates functionality specific to species
transport in porous media:

• Porous Medium
• Unsaturated Porous Medium
• Porous Electrode Coupling

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 225

 • Volatilization
• Species Source

Note: Mass transport in porous media is only available in a limited set of

add-on products. See
[Link] for more details on
availability.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To display this sections, click the Show button ( ) and select Stabilization.

• When the Crosswind diffusion check box is selected, a weak term that reduces
spurious oscillations is added to the transport equation. The resulting equation
system is always nonlinear. There are two options for the Crosswind diffusion type:
- Do Carmo and Galeão — the default option. This type of crosswind diffusion
reduces undershoots and overshoots to a minimum but can in rare cases give
equation systems that are difficult to fully converge.
- Codina — this option is less diffusive compared to the Do Carmo and Galeão
option but can result in more undershoots and overshoots. It is also less effective
for anisotropic meshes. The Codina option activates a text field for the Lower
gradient limit glim. Its defaults to 0.1[mol/m^3]/[Link], where [Link]
is the local element size.
• For both consistent stabilization methods, select an Equation residual. Approximate
residual is the default and means that derivatives of the diffusion tensor components
are neglected. This setting is usually accurate enough and is computationally faster.
If required, select Full residual instead.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Stabilization. By default,
the Isotropic diffusion check box is not selected, because this type of stabilization adds
artificial diffusion and affects the accuracy of the original problem. However, this
option can be used to get a good initial guess for under resolved problems.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Normally these settings do not need to be changed. Select a Convective term —
Nonconservative form (the default) or Conservative form. The conservative formulation

226 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

should be used for compressible flow. See Convective Term Formulation for more
information.

DISCRETIZATION
To display all settings available in this section, click the Show button ( ) and select
Advanced Physics Options.

The Compute boundary fluxes check box is activated by default so that COMSOL
Multiphysics computes predefined accurate boundary flux variables. When this option
is selected, the solver computes variables storing accurate boundary fluxes from each
boundary into the adjacent domain.

If the check box is cleared, the COMSOL Multiphysics software instead computes the
flux variables from the dependent variables using extrapolation, which is less accurate
in postprocessing results but does not create extra dependent variables on the
boundaries for the fluxes.

The flux variables affected in the interface are:

• ndflux_c (where c is the dependent variable for the concentration). This is the
normal diffusive flux and corresponds to the boundary flux when diffusion is the
only contribution to the flux term.
• ntflux_c (where c is the dependent variable for the concentration). This is the
normal total flux and corresponds to the boundary flux plus additional transport
terms, for example, the convective flux when you use the nonconservative form.

Also the Apply smoothing to boundary fluxes check box is available if the previous check
box is selected. The smoothing can provide a more well-behaved flux value close to
singularities.

For details about the boundary fluxes settings, see Computing Accurate Fluxes in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

The Value type when using splitting of complex variables setting should in most pure
mass transfer problems be set to Real, which is the default. It makes sure that the
dependent variable does not get affected by small imaginary contributions, which can
occur, for example, when combining a Time Dependent or Stationary study with a
frequency-domain study. For more information, see Splitting Complex-Valued
Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 227

 DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable name is the Concentration c by default. The names must be
unique with respect to all other dependent variables in the component.

Add or remove species variables in the model and also change the names of the
dependent variables that represent the species concentrations.

Enter the Number of species. Use the Add concentration ( ) and Remove
concentration ( ) buttons as needed.

FURTHER READING

• Theory for the Transport of Diluted Species Interface

• Numerical Stabilization in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.
• In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for
links to common sections and Table 2-5 for common feature nodes.
You can also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window
or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

• Effective Diffusivity in Porous Materials: Application Library path

COMSOL_Multiphysics/Diffusion/effective_diffusivity
• Micromixer: Application Library path
COMSOL_Multiphysics/Fluid_Dynamics/micromixer

The Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media Interface

This interface ( ), found under the Chemical Species Transport branch ( ), is used
to calculate the species concentration and transport in free and porous media. The
interface is the same as the Transport of Diluted Species interface but it uses other
defaults: The Mass Transport in Porous Media property is selected, and a Porous
Medium node is added by default. The interface includes reaction rate expressions and
solute sources for modeling of species transport and reaction in porous media.

This interface is dedicated to modeling transport in porous media, including immobile

and mobile phases, where the chemical species may be subjected to diffusion,
convection, migration, dispersion, adsorption, and volatilization in porous media. It

228 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

supports cases where either the solid phase substrate is exclusively immobile, or when
a gas-filling medium is also assumed to be immobile.

It applies to one or more diluted species or solutes that move primarily within a fluid
that fills (saturated) or partially fills (unsaturated) the voids in a solid porous medium.
The pore space not filled with fluid contains an immobile gas phase. Models including
a combination of porous media types can be studied.

The main feature nodes are the Porous Medium and Unsaturated Porous Medium nodes,
which add the equations for the species concentrations and provide an interface for
defining the properties of the porous media, as well as additional properties governing
adsorption, volatilization, dispersion and diffusion, migration, and the velocity field to
model convection.

The physics interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analysis.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder — Porous Medium, No Flux (the default boundary condition), and Initial Values.
Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example,
boundary conditions, reaction rate expressions, and species sources. You can also
right-click Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media to select physics features from
the context menu.

SETTINGS
The rest of the settings are the same as The Transport of Diluted Species Interface.

FURTHER READING

• Mass Balance Equation for Transport of Diluted Species in Porous

Media
• Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Diluted
Species Interface

• Variably Saturated Flow and Transport — Sorbing Solute:

Application Library path
Subsurface_Flow_Module/Solute_Transport/sorbing_solute
Web link:
[Link]
ort-8212-sorbing-solute-490

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 229

 Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Diluted
Species Interface
The Transport of Diluted Species Interface has the following domain, boundary, point,
and pair nodes, listed in alphabetical order, available from the Physics ribbon toolbar
(Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or by right-clicking to
access the context menu (all users).

• To add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what operating

system you are using.
• Contextual subnodes (attributes) are available by clicking the parent
node in the Model Builder, and then selecting the subnode from the
Attributes menu.

230 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

• Adsorption • Periodic Condition
• Concentration • Point Mass Source
• Continuity on Interior Boundaries • Porous Matrix
• Dispersion • Porous Medium
• Electrode Surface Coupling • Porous Electrode Coupling
• Equilibrium Reaction • Reaction Coefficients
• Fast Irreversible Surface Reaction • Reactions
• Fluid • Solid
• Flux • Species Properties
• Flux Discontinuity • Species Source
• Fracture • Surface Reactions
• Gas • Surface Equilibrium Reaction
• Inflow • Symmetry
• Initial Values • Thin Diffusion Barrier
• Line Mass Source • Thin Impermeable Barrier
• Liquid • Transport Properties
• Mass-Based Concentrations • Unsaturated Porous Medium
• No Flux • Volatilization
• Open Boundary
• Out-of-Plane Flux
• Outflow
• Partition Condition

Some features require certain add-on modules. For details see

[Link]

For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an
Axial Symmetry node that is valid on boundaries representing the
symmetry axis.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 231

 In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 for common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Prescribing Conditions on Fluid-Solid Interfaces

Defining conditions on interfaces between different phases, typically a wall in contact
with a fluid, it is worthwhile to be careful with how variables in the conditions are
evaluated. COMSOL Multiphysics supports that variables are defined differently on
adjacent domains (or any other geometry dimension). Evaluating a variable with
differing definitions, the mean value is returned on a boundary separating the different
domains. The density, pressure, or temperature are examples of variables that may
differ in a fluid and a solid. In order to specify on which side a variable is evaluated, the
up and down operators (described in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual)
can be used.

Species Properties
Use this node to define parameters specific to each of the species. It is available when
the Migration in electric field check box is selected in the Transport Mechanisms section
of the interface.

The node will change its label depending on what inputs are available in the node. If
only Charge is available, it will be labeled “Species charges”.

CHARGE
Enter the charge number zc (dimensionless, but requires a plus or minus sign) for each
species.

ACTIVITY
This section is available when the Species Activity combo box is set to Debye-Hückel or
User defined.

If Debye-Hückel is selected, enter the ion size number, a0, for each species. If User
defined is selected, enter the activity coefficient, f, for each species.

232 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Transport Properties
The settings in this node are dependent on the check boxes selected under Transport
Mechanisms in the Settings window for the Transport of Diluted Species interface. It
includes only the sections required by the activated transport mechanisms. It has all the
equations defining transport of diluted species as well as inputs for the material
properties.

MODEL INPUTS
The temperature model input is always available. Select the source of the Temperature.
For User defined, enter a value or expression for the temperature in the input field. This
input option is always available.

You can also select the temperature solved for by a Heat Transfer interface added to
the model component. These physics interfaces are available for selection in the
Temperature list.

CONVECTION
If transport by convection is active, the velocity field of the solvent needs to be
specified. Select the source of the Velocity field. For User defined, enter values or
expressions for the velocity components in the input fields. This input option is always
available.

You can also select the velocity field solved for by a Fluid Flow interface added to the
model component. These physics interfaces are available for selection in the Velocity
field list.

DIFFUSION
Use this section to specify diffusion coefficients describing the diffusion of each species
in the solvent fluid.

Use the Source list to select to pick up diffusion coefficients defined in a material or a
Chemistry interface.

Select Material, and a Fluid material to use a diffusion coefficient in a material available
in the model. User-defined property groups including a diffusion coefficient output
property are available for selection in the Fluid diffusion coefficient list.

Select Chemistry to use a diffusion coefficient from a Chemistry interface added to

model component. Diffusion coefficients are automatically defined when Calculate
transport properties is selected on the interface level of a Chemistry interface. All

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 233

 defined diffusion coefficients are available for selection in the Fluid diffusion coefficient
list.

For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Fluid diffusion coefficient Dc of each
species in the corresponding input field. This can be a scalar value for isotropic
diffusion or a tensor describing anisotropic diffusion. Select the appropriate tensor
type — Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full that describes the diffusion transport, and
then enter the values in the corresponding element (one value for each species).

Note that multiple species, as well as Migration in Electric fields (described below) is
only available for certain COMSOL Multiphysics add-on products. See details:
[Link]

MIGRATION IN ELECTRIC FIELD

This section is available when the Migration in electric field check box is selected. From
the Electric potential list, select the source of the electric field.

• Enter a value or expression for the Electric potential V, which is User defined; this
input option is always available.
• Select the electric potential solved by an AC/DC-based interface that has also been
added to the model.
• Select the electric potential defined or solved by Electrochemistry interface that has
been added to the component.

By default the Mobility is set to be calculated based on the species diffusivity and the
temperature using the Nernst-Einstein relation. For User defined, and under Mobility,
select the appropriate scalar or tensor type — Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full —
and type in the value of expression of the mobility um,c.

Enter the Charge number zc (dimensionless, but requires a plus or minus sign) for each
species.

The temperature (if you are using mobilities based on the Nernst–Einstein relation) is
taken from Model Inputs section.

Note that the migration in electric fields feature is only available in some COMSOL
products. See details: [Link]

234 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

EXAMPLE MODELS

• Separation Through Dialysis: Application Library path

Chemical_Reaction_Engineering_Module/Mixing_and_Separation/dialysis
Web link:
[Link]

• Transport in an Electrokinetic Valve: Application Library path

Microfluidics_Module/Fluid_Flow/electrokinetic_valve
Web link:
[Link]
e-603

Solid
Use this node to describe diffusion in a solid phase domain. In this feature, the
activities of the species are assumed to be ideal.

DIFFUSION
Specify the diffusion coefficients describing the diffusion of each species in the solid.

Enter a value or expression for the Diffusion coefficient Dc of each species in the
corresponding input field. This can be a scalar value for isotropic diffusion or a tensor
describing anisotropic diffusion. Select the appropriate tensor type — Isotropic,
Diagonal, or Symmetric that describes the diffusion transport, and then enter the values
in the corresponding element (one value for each species).

ADVANCED
This section is only available with the Advanced Physics Options selected and when the
model contains a split between the material frame and the spatial frame. A split of these
frames occurs when using a Moving Mesh node or a Structural Mechanics interface like
Solid Mechanics. In such a model, the reference geometry (the material frame) differs
from the deformed geometry (the spatial frame). The diffusive transport of species is
solved for on the material frame, but the equation is adjusted for geometry
deformations so that species conservation is achieved on the spatial frame. Use the
Diffusion model to define the frame of reference for the diffusion tensor.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 235

 Select Reference geometry based (Lagrangian) to specify the diffusion tensor in the
undeformed geometry, implying that the diffusion is defined in the material frame
(indicated by coordinates X, Y, Z). This is the preferred setting for an anisotropic
diffusion in combination with solid body translation or rotation. Also in general when
the diffusion tensor components have been measured in an undeformed geometry.

Select Deformed geometry based (Eulerian) to specify the diffusion tensor in the
deformed geometry. This means that the diffusion is defined in the spatial frame
(indicated by coordinates x, y, z). Use this setting when the diffusion tensor
components have been measured in a deformed geometry.

The Advanced Physics Options is found in the Show More Options dialog box, accessed
by clicking the Show More Options button ( ).

Note that multiple species are only available for certain COMSOL Multiphysics
add-on products. See details: [Link]

Initial Values
The Initial Values node specifies the initial values for the concentration of each species.
These serve as an initial guess for a stationary solver or as initial conditions for a
transient simulation.

DOMAIN SELECTION
If there are several types of domains with different initial values defined, it might be
necessary to remove some domains from the selection. These are then defined in an
additional Initial Values node.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Concentration or concentrations,
ci. This also serves as a starting guess for stationary problems.

Mass-Based Concentrations
Use the Mass-Based Concentrations node to add postprocessing variables for mass-based
concentrations (SI unit: kg/m3) and mass fractions (dimensionless) for all species.

236 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

MIXTURE PROPERTIES
The default Solvent density ρsolvent is taken From material. For User defined, enter a
value or expression manually. Define the Molar mass of each species, which is needed
to calculate the mass-based concentration.

Reactions
Use the Reactions node to account for the consumption or production of species
through chemical reactions. Define the rate expressions as required.

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains on which to define rate expression or
expressions that govern the source term in the transport equations.

Several reaction nodes can be used to account for different reactions in different parts
for the modeling geometry.

REACTION RATES
Add a rate expression Ri (SI unit: mol/(m3·s)) for species i. Enter a value or expression
in the field. Note that if you have the Chemistry interface available, provided with the
Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, the reaction rate expressions can be
automatically generated and picked up using the drop-down list. For an example, see
the application Fine Chemical Production in a Plate Reactor as linked below.

REACTING VOLUME
This section is only available when the Mass Transport in Porous Media property is
available and selected. See [Link] for
more details on availability.

When specifying reaction rates for a species in porous media, the specified reaction rate
may have the basis of the total volume, the pore volume, or in the case of using the
volume of a particular phase (applicable when modeling an unsaturated porous
medium).

• For Total volume, the reaction expressions, in mol/(m3·s), are specified per unit
volume of the model domain (multiplied by unity).
• For Pore volume, the reaction expressions, in mol/(m3·s), are specified per unit
volume of total pore space. The reaction expressions will be multiplied by the
domain porosity, εp. (εp equals unity for nonporous domains).

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 237

 • For Liquid phase, the reaction expressions, in mol/(m3·s), are specified per unit
volume of liquid in the pore space. The expressions will be multiplied by the liquid
volume fraction θl. (θl equals the porosity (εp) on Porous Medium domains).
• For Gas phase, the reaction expressions, in mol/(m3·s), are multiplied by the gas
volume fraction θg = εp − θl. θg equals 0 for Porous Medium domains.

FURTHER READING
See the theory chapter on chemical species transport, starting with the section Mass
Balance Equation.

• Fine Chemical Production in a Plate Reactor: Application Library

path
Chemical_Reaction_Engineering_Module/Reactors_with_Mass_and_Heat_T
ransfer/plate_reactor
Web link:
[Link]
te-reactor-8589

No Flux
This node is the default boundary condition on exterior boundaries. It should be used
on boundaries across which there is no mass flux, typically solid walls where no surface
reactions occur. The condition applied for each species corresponds to

– n ⋅ ( – D∇c ) = 0

where n denotes the outward pointing normal of the boundary. When the mass
transport includes migration of ionic species, the no flux condition is:

– n ⋅ ( – D∇c – zu m Fc∇φ ) = 0

CONVECTION
By default, the feature prescribes a vanishing flux due to diffusion and migration in an
electric field. This is the appropriate no flux condition when the relative convective
velocity at the boundary is zero. When the fluid velocity at the boundary is not equal
to that of the boundary, it is often convenient to prescribe the total flux including the
convection. To do this select Include in the Convection section.

When including the convection, the no flux condition prescribed is

238 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 – n ⋅ ( – D∇c + uc ) = 0

or

– n ⋅ ( – D∇c – zu m Fc∇φ + uc ) = 0

when migration of ionic species is included.

Inflow
Use this node to specify all species concentrations at an inlet boundary.

If you want to specify the concentration of a subset of the partaking species, this can
be done by using the Concentration node instead.

For the Electroanalysis interface, this node is available when you select the Convection
check box on the physics interface Settings window.

CONCENTRATION
For the concentration of each species c0,c (SI unit: mol/m3), enter a value or
expression.

BOUNDARY CONDITION TYPE

The option Concentration constraint constrains the concentration values on the
boundary by the use of pointwise constraints.

The other option, Flux (Danckwerts) can be used when the concentration at the
boundary is not known, or when it varies in a nontrivial manner. This may, for example,
be useful when reactions with high reaction rates occur in the vicinity of the inlet. In
this case the concentration far upstream of the boundary is instead prescribed. The Flux
(Danckwerts) condition prescribes the total flux defined by the upstream concentration
and the fluid velocity at the boundary.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options. You can find details about the different constraint settings in the
section Constraint Reaction Terms in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

FURTHER READING
See the theory chapter in the section Danckwerts Inflow Boundary Condition.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 239

 Outflow
Apply this condition at outlets boundaries where species should be transported out of
the model domain by fluid motion or by an electric field (in the case of ions). It is
assumed that convection and migration (in an electric field) are the dominating
transport mechanisms across the boundary, and therefore that the diffusive transport
can be ignored, that is:

n ⋅ ( – D ∇c ) = 0

Note that the Convection or the Migration in electric field transport mechanisms needs
to be included for this node to be available.

Concentration
This condition node adds a boundary condition for the species concentration. For
example, a c = c0 condition specifies the concentration of species c.

CONCENTRATION
Individually specify the concentration for each species. Select the check box for the
Species to specify the concentration, and then enter a value or expression in the
corresponding field. To use another boundary condition for a specific species, click to
clear the check box for the concentration of that species.

When defining conditions on boundaries between different phases, see the section
Prescribing Conditions on Fluid-Solid Interfaces.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
You can find details about the different constraint settings in the section Constraint
Reaction Terms in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Flux
This node can be used to specify the species molar flux across a boundary. The flux can
for example occur due to chemical reactions or a phase change at the boundary. The
flux can also represent the transport to or from a surrounding environment currently
not included model.

The prescribed flux of a species c is by default defined as

240 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 – n ⋅ ( – D∇c ) = J 0

where n denotes the outward pointing normal of the boundary. When the mass
transport includes migration of ionic species, the flux is defined as:

– n ⋅ ( – D∇c – zu m Fc∇φ ) = J 0

The flux prescribed, J0, can include any arbitrary user-specified expression. It can be
constant or a function of a dependent variable or independent variable. Common
examples are a flux dependent of the concentration, temperature, pressure, or the
electric potential φ.

When defining conditions on boundaries between different phases, see the section
Prescribing Conditions on Fluid-Solid Interfaces.

CONVECTION
By default, the flux due to diffusion and migration in an electric field is prescribed. This
is the appropriate flux condition when the relative velocity at the boundary is zero.
When the fluid velocity is not equal to that of the boundary, it is often convenient to
prescribe the total flux, including the convection. To do this select Include in the
Convection section.

When including the convection, the prescribed flux is defined as:

– n ⋅ ( – D∇c + uc ) = J 0

or

– n ⋅ ( – D∇c – zu m Fc∇φ + uc ) = J 0

when migration of ionic species is included.

INWARD FLUX
Select the Species check box for the species for which to specify the flux, and enter a
value or expression for the inward flux in the corresponding field. Use a minus sign
when specifying a flux directed out of the system. To use another boundary condition
for a specific species, click to clear the check box for that species.

External convection
Set Flux type to External convection to prescribe a flux to or from an exterior domain
(not modeled) assumed to include convection. The exterior can for example include a

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 241

 forced convection to control the temperature or to increase the mass transport. In this
case the prescribed mass flux corresponds to

J0 = kc ( cb – c )

where kc is a mass transfer coefficient and cb is the bulk concentration, the typical
concentration far into the surrounding exterior domain.

Symmetry
The Symmetry node can be used to represent boundaries where the species
concentration is symmetric, that is, where there is no mass flux across the boundary.

This boundary condition is identical to that of the No Flux node.

Flux Discontinuity
This node represents a discontinuity in the mass flux across an interior boundary:

– n ⋅ [ ( J + uc ) u – ( J + uc ) d ] = N 0 J = – D∇c

where the value N0 (SI unit: mol/(m2·s)) specifies the jump in total flux at the
boundary. This can be used to model a boundary source, for example a surface
reaction, adsorption, or desorption.

FLUX DISCONTINUITY
In this section the jump in species flux (or surface source) is specified.

Select the Species check box for the species to specify and enter a value or expression
for the material flux jump in the corresponding field. To use a different boundary
condition for a specific species, click to clear the check box for the flux discontinuity
of that species.

Partition Condition
The Partition Condition node can be used to prescribe the relation between the
concentration of a solute species in two adjoining immiscible phases. It can for example
be used on interior boundaries separating two liquid phases, a gas-liquid interface, or
on a boundary separating a liquid phase and a solid or porous media.

Select Partition coefficient from the Relation list to prescribe a linear relationship
between the concentration on either side of a boundary. For a species concentration

242 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

ci, the ratio between the concentration on the upside and on the downside of the
boundary (ci,u and ci,d respectively) is then defined in terms of a partition coefficient
Ki in the manner of

c i, u
K i = --------
-
c i, d

Use the associated input field to prescribe the partition coefficient for each species.

Select User defined from the Relation list to set up a nonlinear relation between the up
and downside concentrations. For such relations f(ci)u=f(ci)d, where f(ci)u is the
expression enforced on the upside. Use the associated input fields to enter the upside
and downside expressions for each species.

The up and downside of the selected boundary is indicated with a red arrow in the
Graphics window. The arrow points from the downside into the upside. Select the
Reverse direction check box to reverse the direction of the arrow on the selected
boundary, and update the definition of the up and downside concentrations
accordingly.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

FURTHER READING
For an example of using a partition condition, see this application example:

Separation Through Dialysis: Application Library path

Chemical_Reaction_Engineering_Module/Mixing_and_Separation/dialysis

Periodic Condition
The Periodic Condition node can be used to define periodicity for the mass transport
between two sets of boundaries. The node prescribes continuity in the concentration
and the mass flux between the “source” and the “destination” side, respectively. Note
that these names are arbitrary and does not influence the direction in which mass is
transported. It is dictated by mass transfer equations in the adjacent domains.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 243

 BOUNDARY SELECTION
The node can be activated on more than two boundaries, in which case the feature tries
to identify two separate surfaces that each consist of one or several connected
boundaries.

DESTINATION SELECTION
For more complex geometries, it might be necessary to specify the destination
selection manually. To do so, right-click the Periodic Condition node and choose Manual
Destination Selection. You can then specify the boundaries that constitute the
destination surfaces in the Destination Selection section.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. This section contains settings for
specifying the type of constraint and whether to use a pointwise or weak constraint. See
Constraint Settings in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for more
information.

ORIENTATION OF SOURCE
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. For information about the
Orientation of Source section, see Orientation of Source and Destination in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

ORIENTATION OF DESTINATION
This section appears if the setting for Transform to intermediate map in the Orientation
of Source section is changed from the default value, Automatic, and Advanced Physics
Options is selected in the Show More Options dialog box. For information about the
Orientation of Destination section, see Orientation of Source and Destination in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

MAPPING BETWEEN SOURCE AND DESTINATION

To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. For information about the
Mapping Between Source and Destination section, see Mapping Between Source and
Destination in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

244 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

FURTHER READING
For an example of using a periodic condition, see this application example:

The KdV Equation and Solitons: Application Library path

COMSOL_Multiphysics/Equation_Based/kdv_equation

Line Mass Source

The Line Mass Source feature models mass flow originating from a tube or line region
with an infinitely small radius.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

SELECTION
The Line Mass Source feature is available for all dimensions, but the applicable selection
differs between the dimensions.

MODEL DIMENSION APPLICABLE GEOMETRICAL ENTITY

2D Points
2D Axisymmetry Points not on the symmetry axis and the symmetry axis
3D Edges

SPECIES SOURCE
Enter the source strength, q· l,c , for each species (SI unit: mol/(m·s)). A positive value
results in species injection from the line into the computational domain, and a negative
value means that the species is removed from the computational domain.

Line sources located on a boundary affect the adjacent computational domains. This
effect makes the physical strength of a line source located in a symmetry plane twice
the given strength.

FURTHER READING
See the section Mass Sources for Species Transport.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 245

 Point Mass Source
The Point Mass Source feature models mass flow originating from an infinitely small
domain around a point.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

SPECIES SOURCE
Enter the source strength, q· p,c , for each species (SI unit: mol/s). A positive value
results in species injection from the point into the computational domain, and a
negative value means that the species is removed from the computational domain.

Point sources located on a boundary or on an edge affect the adjacent computational

domains. This has the effect, for example, that the physical strength of a point source
located in a symmetry plane is twice the given strength.

FURTHER READING
See the section Mass Sources for Species Transport.

Open Boundary
Use this node to set up mass transport across boundaries where both convective inflow
and outflow can occur. On the parts of the boundary where fluid flows into the
domain, an exterior species concentration is prescribed. On the remaining parts, where
fluid flows out of the domain, a condition equivalent to the Outflow node is instead
prescribed.

The direction of the flow across the boundary is typically calculated by a fluid flow
interface and is provided as a model input to the Transport of Diluted Species
interface.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

EXTERIOR CONCENTRATION
Enter a value or expression for the Exterior concentration.

246 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Thin Diffusion Barrier
Use this boundary condition to model a thin layer through which mass is transported
by diffusion only. The node is applicable on interior boundaries and can be used to
avoid meshing thin structures.

THIN DIFFUSION BARRIER

Specify the Layer thickness, ds, and input a Diffusion coefficient, Ds,c, for each of the
species included.

Thin Impermeable Barrier

This feature models a thin mass transfer barrier. It is available on interior boundaries
and introduces a discontinuity in the concentration across the boundary. On each side,
a no-flux condition is prescribed for the mass transport implying that it acts as a barrier.
The feature can be used to avoid meshing thin structures.

Solving a model involving coupled fluid flow and mass transfer, the Thin Impermeable
Barrier feature can be combined with an Interior Wall feature in order to model a thin
solid wall.

Equilibrium Reaction
Use this node to model a reaction where the kinetics is so fast that the equilibrium
condition is fulfilled at all times. The node solves for an additional degree of freedom
(the reaction rate Req) to fulfill the equilibrium condition at all times in all space
coordinates.

If the Apply equilibrium condition on inflow boundaries check box is selected, the
specified inflow concentration values in all active Inflow boundary nodes for the physics
interface are modified to comply with the equilibrium condition.

• A necessary requirement for this is feature to be available is that two or

more species are solved for by the interface.
• This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See
[Link] for more details
on availability.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 247

 EQUILIBRIUM CONDITION
The list defaults to Equilibrium constant or select User defined. For either option, the
Apply equilibrium condition on inflow boundaries check box is selected by default.

For Equilibrium constant, enter an Equilibrium constant Keq (dimensionless). Also enter
a value or expression for the Unit activity concentration Ca0 (SI unit: mol/m3).
Selecting Equilibrium constant defines an equilibrium condition based on the
stoichiometric coefficients, the species activities, and the law of mass action.

For User defined, enter an Equilibrium expression Eeq (dimensionless).

STOICHIOMETRIC COEFFICIENTS
Enter a value for the stoichiometric coefficientνc (dimensionless). The default is 0. Use
negative values for reactants and positive values for products in the modeled reaction.

Species with a stoichiometric coefficient value of 0 are not affected by the Equilibrium
Reaction node.

Surface Reactions
The Surface Reactions node can be used to account for the species boundary flux due
to chemical reactions occurring on a surface (heterogeneous reactions). For a domain
species participating in a surface reaction, the boundary flux corresponds to the
reaction rate at the surface.

SURFACE REACTION RATE

Specify the surface reaction rate J0 of each species resulting from the reactions. Note
that if you have the Chemistry interface available, provided with the Chemical
Reaction Engineering Module, the reaction rate expressions can be automatically
generated and picked up using the drop-down list.

When defining conditions on boundaries between different phases, see the section
Prescribing Conditions on Fluid-Solid Interfaces.

FURTHER READING
For an example of using the Surface Reactions node, see this application example:

Chemical Vapor Deposition of GaAs: Application Library path

Chemical_Reaction_Engineering_Module/Reactors_with_Mass_and_Heat_Tran
sfer/gaas_cvd

248 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Surface Equilibrium Reaction
Use this node to model an equilibrium reaction on a boundary (surface). The settings
for this node are similar to Equilibrium Reaction. Note that a necessary requirement
for this is feature to be available is that two or more species are solved for by the
interface.

When defining conditions on boundaries between different phases, see the section
Prescribing Conditions on Fluid-Solid Interfaces.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

Fast Irreversible Surface Reaction

This boundary node defines an irreversible reaction where the kinetics is so fast that
the only factor limiting the reaction rate is the transport of a species to the reacting
surface.

The node will set the Rate limiting species concentration to zero at the boundary, and
balance the fluxes of the species participating in the reaction and the current densities
according to the Stoichiometric Coefficients settings.

When defining conditions on boundaries between different phases, see the section
Prescribing Conditions on Fluid-Solid Interfaces.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

Porous Electrode Coupling

Use this node to add a molar source in a domain that is coupled to one or multiple
Porous Electrode Reaction nodes of an Electrochemistry Interface.

The molar source is calculated from the number of electrons, stoichiometric

coefficients, and volumetric current densities of the coupled porous electrode reactions
specified in the Reaction Coefficients subnodes.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 249

 In the Transport of Concentrated Species interface, the molar sources (or sinks) are
multiplied by the species molar masses to obtain the corresponding mass sources.

Additional Reaction Coefficients subnodes are available from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) as well as from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Note that if you are also modeling the momentum transport and expect a
nonnegligible total mass source or sink, which is often the case in gas diffusion
electrodes, you need to also add a corresponding Porous Electrode Coupling node in
the Fluid Flow interface.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

Reaction Coefficients
Add this node to the Electrode Surface Coupling and Porous Electrode Coupling
features to define molar fluxes and sources based on electrode current densities in an
Electrochemistry interface.

The molar flux or source is proportional to the stoichiometric coefficients and the
current density according to Faraday’s law.

Current densities from Electrode Reaction (iloc, SI unit: A/m2) or Porous Electrode
Reaction nodes (iv, SI unit: A/m3) of any Electrochemistry interface in the model are
available for selection as the Coupled reaction, and user-defined expressions are also
supported.

Enter the Number of participating electrons nm (dimensionless) and the Stoichiometric

coefficient vc (dimensionless) as explained in the theory section linked below.

Use multiple subnodes to couple to multiple reactions.

Electrode Surface Coupling

Use this node to define a flux boundary condition based on current densities of one or
multiple Electrode Reaction nodes in an Electrochemistry interface.

The flux is proportional to the current densities and the stoichiometric coefficients
according to Faraday’s law as defined by summation over the Reaction Coefficients
subnodes.

250 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Note that if you are also modeling the momentum transport and expect a
nonnegligible total mass flux over the boundary, which is often the case for gas
diffusion electrodes, you need to also add a corresponding Electrode Surface Coupling
node in the Fluid Flow interface.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

Porous Medium
Use this node to model the concentration of diluted species transported by a solvent
(mobile fluid phase) through interstices in a solid porous medium. In addition to
transport due to convection and diffusion, the node contains functionality to include
species evolution through adsorption and dispersion.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

Species transport through a porous medium is affected both by properties of the fluid
phase, and as well as properties of the solid matrix. These properties are defined in the
Fluid and Porous Matrix subnodes respectively. The Porous Medium node supports
material properties using a Porous Material node (described in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual), where properties are defined per phase in a similar
manner.

Add an Adsorption or a Dispersion subfeature to the Porous Medium to account for the
corresponding transport mechanism.

Fluid
Use this node to specify the mass transfer in the mobile fluid solvent filling the pores
of a porous medium. It is used as a subnode to Porous Medium.

MODEL INPUTS
The temperature model input is always available. By default, the Temperature model
input is set to Common model input, and the temperature is controlled from Default

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 251

 Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a locally defined Model Input. If a Heat
Transfer interface is included in the component, it controls the temperature Common
model input. Alternatively, the temperature field can be selected from another physics
interface. All physics interfaces have their own tags (Name). For example, if a Heat
Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the component, the Temperature (ht) option
is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

CONVECTION
If transport by convection is active, the velocity field of the solvent needs to be
specified. For User defined, enter values or expressions for the velocity components in
the input fields. This input option is always available. You can also select the velocity
field solved for by a Fluid Flow interface added to the model component. These
physics interfaces are available for selection in the Velocity field list.

DIFFUSION
Use this section to specify diffusion coefficients describing the diffusion of each species
in the solvent fluid.

Use the Source list to select to pick up diffusion coefficients defined in a material or a
Chemistry interface.

Select Material, and a Fluid material to use a diffusion coefficient in a material available
in the model. User-defined property groups including a diffusion coefficient output
property are available for selection in the Fluid diffusion coefficient list.

Select Chemistry to use a diffusion coefficient from a Chemistry interface added to

model component. Diffusion coefficients are automatically defined when Calculate
transport properties is selected on the interface level of a Chemistry interface. All
defined diffusion coefficients are available for selection in the Fluid diffusion coefficient
list.

For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Fluid diffusion coefficient DF,i of
each species in the corresponding input field.

In a porous medium the diffusivity is reduced due to the fact that the solid grains
impede Brownian motion. Select an Effective diffusivity model to account for the
reduced diffusivity. The available models are Millington and Quirk model (the default),
Bruggeman model, Tortuosity model, or No correction. For Tortuosity model, enter a
value for the tortuosity τF,i (dimensionless).

252 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Note that multiple species, as well as Migration in Electric fields (described below) is
only available for certain COMSOL Multiphysics add-on products. See details:
[Link]

MIGRATION IN ELECTRIC FIELD

This section is available when the Migration in electric field check box is selected. From
the Electric potential list, select the source of the electric field.

• For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Electric potential V. This input
option is always available.
• Select the electric potential solved by an AC/DC-based interface that has added to
the component.
• Select the electric potential defined or solved for by an Electrochemistry interface
added to the component.

By default the Mobility is set to be calculated based on the species effective diffusivity
and the temperature using the Nernst-Einstein relation. For User defined, select the
appropriate scalar or tensor type — Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full — and type
in the value or expression of the effective mobility ume,i.

Enter the Charge number zc for each species.

Porous Matrix
This node sets the porosity when modeling transport of diluted species in a Porous
Medium or a Unsaturated Porous Medium.

The default Porosity εp of the solid matrix is taken From material. The Porous Matrix
node supports the use of a Porous Material node, where the porosity is defined in the
manner of

εp = 1 –  θs, i – θimf, i
i i

where θs,i and θimf,i are the porosities of the Solid and Immobile Fluids subnodes under
the Porous Material node.

Select From pellet bed densities to compute the porosity using the (dry bulk) Bed
density ρb and the (single phase) Pellet density ρpe. The porosity is then defined from

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 253

 ρb
ε p = 1 – -------
-
ρ pe

For User defined, enter a value or expression for the porosity.

Dispersion
Local variations in the velocity as the fluid flows around solid particles lead to
mechanical mixing, referred to as dispersion. Use this feature to account for dispersion
in a Porous Medium or a Unsaturated Porous Medium

This subfeature is available when both the Mass transfer in porous media mass transfer
check box and the Convection check box are selected in the Settings window for the
physics interface.

Select the Specify dispersion for each species individually check box to specify the
dispersion tensor DD (SI unit: m2/s) for each species separately. When not selected the
same dispersion tensor DD is used for all species.

Select an option from the Dispersion tensor list — Dispersivity or User defined.

Select Dispersivity to specify the dispersion in terms of dispersivities (SI unit: m). Select
an option from the Dispersivity model list: Isotropic (the default) or Transverse isotropic
based on the properties of the porous media. For isotropic porous media, specify the
longitudinal and transverse dispersivities. For transverse isotropic porous media,
specify the longitudinal, horizontal transverse, and vertical transverse dispersivities.

For User defined, specify the dispersion components in terms of constants or

expressions. Select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full to enable the appropriate
tensor components.

Unsaturated Porous Medium

Use this node to model the concentration of diluted species transported by a solvent
(mobile fluid phase) through interstices in a solid porous medium. In addition to
transport due to convection and diffusion, the node contains functionality to include
species evolution through adsorption and dispersion.

Use this node to model the concentration of diluted species transported by a liquid
(mobile fluid phase) in a partially filled solid porous medium. The interstices of the
porous medium contains the liquid carrier phase and gas pockets. Apart from

254 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

convection and diffusion, the node contains functionality to include species evolution
through adsorption, dispersion, and volatilization.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

The properties of each phase present are defined using the Liquid, the Gas, and the
Porous Matrix subnodes respectively. The Unsaturated Porous Medium node supports
material properties using a Porous Material node (described in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual), where properties are defined per phase in a similar
manner.

Add an Adsorption or a Dispersion subfeature to the Unsaturated Porous Medium to

account for the corresponding transport mechanism.

Liquid
Use this node to specify the mass transfer in the mobile liquid solvent present in the
pores of the Unsaturated Porous Medium.

MODEL INPUTS
The temperature model input is always available. By default, the Temperature model
input is set to Common model input, and the temperature is controlled from Default
Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a locally defined Model Input. If a Heat
Transfer interface is included in the component, it controls the temperature Common
model input. Alternatively, the temperature field can be selected from another physics
interface. All physics interfaces have their own tags (Name). For example, if a Heat
Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the component, the Temperature (ht) option
is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

SATURATION
Select Saturation or Liquid volume fraction from the list.

For Saturation, enter a value for s (dimensionless) between 0 and 1. The liquid volume
fraction is then computed from the saturation and porosity as θl = εps.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 255

 For Liquid volume fraction, enter a value for θl (dimensionless) between 0 and the value
of the porosity.

Select a Liquid fraction time change: Liquid fraction constant in time (the default), Time
change in liquid fraction, or Time change in pressure head.

• For Time change in fluid fraction, enter dθ/dt (SI unit: 1/s).
• For Time change in pressure head, enter dHp/dt (SI unit: m/s) and a Specific
moisture capacity Cm (SI unit: 1/m). If a Darcy’s Law interface is included in the
component, the time change in pressure head solved for can be selected.

CONVECTION
If transport by convection is active, the velocity field of the solvent needs to be
specified. For User defined, enter values or expressions for the velocity components in
the input fields. This input option is always available. You can also select the velocity
field solved for by a Fluid Flow interface added to the model component. These
physics interfaces are available for selection in the Velocity field list.

DIFFUSION
Use this section to specify diffusion coefficients describing the diffusion of each species
in the solvent liquid.

Use the Source list to select to pick up diffusion coefficients defined in a material or a
Chemistry interface.

Select Material, and a Liquid material to use a diffusion coefficient in a material available
in the model. User-defined property groups including a diffusion coefficient output
property are available for selection in the Liquid diffusion coefficient list.

Select Chemistry to use a diffusion coefficient from a Chemistry interface added to

model component. Diffusion coefficients are automatically defined when Calculate
transport properties is selected on the interface level of a Chemistry interface. All
defined diffusion coefficients are available for selection in the Liquid diffusion coefficient
list.

For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Liquid diffusion coefficient DL,i of
each species in the corresponding input field.

In a porous medium the diffusivity is reduced due to the fact that the solid grains
impede Brownian motion. Select an Effective diffusivity model, liquid to account for the
reduced diffusivity in the liquid. The available models are Millington and Quirk model

256 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

(the default), Bruggeman model, Tortuosity model, or No correction. For Tortuosity
model, enter a value for the tortuosity τL,i (dimensionless).

Note that multiple species, as well as Migration in Electric fields (described below) is
only available for certain COMSOL Multiphysics add-on products. For details see:
[Link]

MIGRATION IN ELECTRIC FIELD

This section is available when the Migration in electric field check box is selected. From
the Electric potential list, select the source of the electric field.

• For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Electric potential V. This input
option is always available.
• Select the electric potential solved by an AC/DC-based interface that has added to
the component.
• Select the electric potential defined or solved for by an Electrochemistry interface
added to the component.

By default the Mobility is set to be calculated based on the species effective diffusivity
and the temperature using the Nernst-Einstein relation. For User defined, select the
appropriate scalar or tensor type — Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full — and type
in the value or expression of the effective mobility ume,i.

Enter the Charge number zc for each species.

Gas
Use this node to specify the mass transfer in the gas phase present in the pores of the
Unsaturated Porous Medium.

DIFFUSION
The settings for the diffusion of each species in the gas phase are identical to those in
the Liquid subnode.

VOLATILIZATION
Enter a value for the volatilization isotherm kG,c (dimensionless) for each species.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 257

 Adsorption
Use this node to model adsorption of the (fluid phase) solute species onto the surface
of the porous matrix. It is available as a subnode to the Porous Medium and the
Unsaturated Porous Medium nodes.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
The density of the porous media is needed when modeling adsorption to the surface
of the porous matrix. Choose to input either the Dry bulk density ρ, or the Solid phase
density ρs. The former is the density of the porous matrix including empty pores, while
the latter corresponds to the density of the pure solid phase. The density can be defined
from the domain material by selecting From material, or from a user defined expression.
When a Porous Material is used on the selection, the density will be requested from a
Solid subfeature. Several Solid features can be used to model a homogeneous mixture
of several solid components.

ADSORPTION
Select an Adsorption isotherm — Langmuir, Freundlich, Toth, BET, or User defined to
specify how to compute cP, the amount of species sorbed to the solid phase (moles per
unit dry weight of the solid):

• For Langmuir:

KL c ∂c K L c Pmax
c P = c Pmax -------------------- , K P = -------P- = ---------------------------
1 + KL c ∂c ( 1 + KL c )
2

Enter a Langmuir constant kL,c (SI unit: m3/mol) and an Adsorption maximum
cp,max,c (SI unit: mol/kg).

• For Freundlich:

258 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 c N ∂c cP
c P = K F  -------- , K P = -------P- = N -----
c ref ∂c c

Enter a Freundlich constant kF,c (SI unit: mol/kg), a Freundlich exponent NF,c
(dimensionless), and a Reference concentration cref,c (SI unit: mol/m3).
• For Toth:
bT c
c P = c Pmax ----------------------------------------------
N 1 ⁄ NT
( 1 + ( bT c ) T )

and

–  1 + ------
1-
∂c  N T
N
KP = -------P- = c Pmax b T ( 1 + ( b T c ) T )
∂c

Enter a Toth constant bT,c (SI unit: m3/mol), a Toth exponent NT,c (dimensionless),
and an Adsorption maximum cp,max,c (SI unit: mol/kg).
• For BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller):
KB c0 c
c P = -------------------------------------------------------------
-
( c S – c )  1 + ( K B – 1 ) -----
c
 c S

and

2 2
∂c K B c 0 c S ( ( K B – 1 )c + c S )
K P = -------P- = -----------------------------------------------------------------
-
∂c 2
( c – c S ) ( c S + ( K B – 1 )c )
2

Enter a BET constant KB,c (dimensionless), a Monolayer adsorption capacity c0,c

(SI unit: mol/kg), and an Saturation concentration cS,c (SI unit: mol/m3).
• For User defined enter an Adsorption isotherm cP,c (SI unit: mol/kg):

cP = f ( c )

For more information, see Adsorption in the theory section.

FURTHER READING
See the theory chapter in the section Mass Balance Equation for Transport of Diluted
Species in Porous Media.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 259

 Volatilization
This feature is available when the Mass transfer in porous media check box is selected in
the Settings window for the physics interface.

Use this feature to model mass transfer at the boundary due to volatilization. The
species dissolved in the liquid are assumed to be vaporized at the boundary, and
transported into the surrounding bulk region due to convection and diffusion. The
mass transfer at the boundary is defined as

– n ⋅ J c = – h c ( k G,c c – c Gatm,c )

where hc is the mass transfer coefficient, kG,c the volatilization coefficient, and cGatm,c
the concentration in the surrounding atmosphere.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

VOLATILIZATION
Enter a Mass transfer coefficient hc defining the transfer into the surrounding media.
This can be given by boundary layer theory. When assuming that no convective flow
is present in the surrounding, the mass transfer coefficient can be defined from the gas
diffusion coefficient DGc and the thickness of the diffusion layer ds in the manner of

D Gc
h c = ----------
ds

Also give the atmospheric concentration for each species, cGatm,c. The Volatilization
coefficient kG,c for each species are taken from the adjacent Unsaturated Porous
Medium domain.

Species Source
In order to account for consumption or production of species in porous domains, the
Species Source node adds source terms expressions Si to the right-hand side of the
species transport equations.

260 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains on which to define rate expression or
expressions that govern the source term in the transport equations.

If there are several types of domains, with subsequent and different reactions occurring
within them, it might be necessary to remove some domains from the selection. These
are then defined in an additional Species Source node.

SPECIES SOURCE
Add a source term Si (SI unit: mol/(m3·s)) for each of the species solved for. Enter a
value or expression in the field of the corresponding species.

Hygroscopic Swelling
The Hygroscopic Swelling multiphysics coupling node ( ) is used for moisture
concentration coupling between the Solid Mechanics interface and either the
Transport of Diluted Species or Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media
interfaces.

Hygroscopic swelling is an effect of internal strain caused by changes in moisture

content. This volumetric strain can be written as

ε hs = β h M m ( c mo – c mo,ref )

where βh is the coefficient of hygroscopic swelling, Mm is the molar mass, cmo is the
moisture concentration, and cmo,ref is the strain-free reference concentration.

This feature requires a license of either the MEMS Module or the Structural Mechanics
Module. The multiphysics feature will appear automatically if both the Transport of
Diluted Species and the Solid Mechanics interfaces are added to the same component.
For the most current information about licensing, please see See
[Link]

FURTHER READING
More information about how to use hygroscopic swelling can be found in Hygroscopic
Swelling Coupling section in the Structural Mechanics Module User’s Guide.

More information about multiphysics coupling nodes can be found in the section The
Multiphysics Branch in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 261

 Out-of-Plane Flux
The out-of-plane flux node is used to prescribe a flux in an out-of-plane domain, and
it can be used to reduce a model geometry to 2D, or even 1D, when the concentration
variation is small in one or more directions. This could be the case for example when
the object to model is thin or slender. Figure 6-1 shows examples of possible situations
in which this type of geometry reduction can be applied.

Jz

Jup

Jdown

Figure 6-1: Geometry reduction from 3D to 1D (top) and from 3D to 2D (bottom).

For a 1D component this node adds a single out-of-plane molar flux J0,z,i for species
i. For a 2D component two fluxes can be prescribed for each species; J0,u,i for the
upside of the domain, and J0,d,i for the downside of the domain.

The fluxes are added as a source contribution to the right-hand side of the transport
equation. For example, in 2D components with diffusion, convection, and
out-of-plane flux present, the mass transfer of species i is defined by the mass
conservation equation

∂c i
------- + ∇ ⋅ J i + u ⋅ ∇c i = R i + S opf, i , (6-1)
∂t

where Sopf,i is the out-of-plane source for species i

J 0, i J 0, u, i + J 0, d, i
- = --------------------------------------
S opf, i = --------- .
dz dz

For external convection on the upside and the downside of the domain, the
out-of-plane flux is

262 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 J 0, i = k c, u, i ( c b, u, i – c i ) + k c, d, i ( c b, d, i – c i )

where kc is a mass transfer coefficient and cb is the bulk concentration, the typical
concentration far into the surrounding exterior domain. The prescribed flux, J0, can
include any arbitrary user-specified expressions. It can be a constant or a function of a
dependent variable or independent variables.

UPSIDE INWARD FLUX

For 1D components, enter the cross-sectional perimeter Pc to get the out-of-plane flux

J 0, i = P c J 0, z, i .

The default value of Pc is the circumference. Either keep the default value, for a circular
cross-section shape, or edit the value to get a user-defined shape of the out-of-plane
cross-section.

The available flux type options are General inward flux and External convection. Select
the Species check box for the species for which to specify the flux, and enter a value or
expression for the inward flux in the corresponding field. Use a minus sign when
specifying a flux directed out of the system. To use another boundary condition for a
specific species, click to clear the check box for that species.

Set Flux type to External convection to prescribe a flux to or from an exterior domain
(not modeled) assumed to include convection. The exterior can for example include a
forced convection to control the temperature or to increase the mass transport. In this
case the prescribed mass flux corresponds to

J0 = kc ( cb – c )

where kc is a mass transfer coefficient and cb is the bulk concentration, the typical
concentration far into the surrounding exterior domain.

DOWNSIDE INWARD FLUX

The available options are General inward flux and External convection. The settings are
the same as for the Upside Inward Flux section.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 263

 FURTHER READING
For an example of using the Out-of-Plane Flux node, see this application example:

Mass Transfer from a Thin Domain: Application Library path

Chemical_Reaction_Engineering_Module/Tutorials/thin_domain

Fracture
Use this node to model mass transport along thin fractures in porous media. The node
assumes that the transport in the tangential direction along the fracture is dominant as
a result of lower flow resistance.

The Fracture feature has two default subfeatures — the Fluid (Fracture) subfeature
where convection and diffusion are specified and the Fracture Material subfeature
where the porosity εp is defined.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

[Link] for more details on
availability.

FRACTURE PROPERTIES
Specify a value for the Fracture thickness dfr.

For the Fracture boundary condition, there are a number of Attributes available which
can be accessed either via the Physics Ribbon toolbar (for Windows) or by
right-clicking on the Fracture node. These attributes are identical to the Boundary,
Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Diluted Species in Fractures
Interface.

Fluid (Fracture)
Use this node to specify the mass transfer in the mobile fluid solvent filling the pores
of a fracture.

It uses the same input options as the Fluid subfeature under the Porous Medium
feature. There are further details about the settings.

264 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

MODEL INPUTS
The temperature model input is always available. By default, the Temperature model
input is set to Common model input, and the temperature is controlled from Default
Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a locally defined Model Input. If a Heat
Transfer interface is included in the component, it controls the temperature Common
model input. Alternatively, the temperature field can be selected from another physics
interface. All physics interfaces have their own tags (Name). For example, if a Heat
Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the component, the Temperature (ht) option
is available for T.

CONVECTION
If transport by convection is active, the velocity field of the solvent needs to be
specified. Select an option from the Velocity field list to specify the convective velocity
along the fracture. For a consistent model, use a Fracture feature in a Darcy’s Law
interface to compute the fluid flow velocity in the fracture.

For User defined, enter values or expressions for the velocity components in the table
shown

DIFFUSION
Use this section to specify diffusion coefficients describing the diffusion of each species
in the solvent fluid.

The Diffusion settings are similar to those for the diffusion coefficients in
the Fluid node under Porous Medium.

Fracture Material
Specify the Porosity, εp (dimensionless) of the porous matrix. This is by default taken
From material. Select From pellet bed densities to compute the porosity from the (dry
bulk) Bed density ρb and the (single phase) Pellet density ρpe through the relation

ρb
ε p = 1 – -------
-
ρ pe

For User defined, enter a value or expression for the porosity.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 265

 The Transport of Diluted Species in
Fractures Interface
The Transport of Diluted Species in Fractures (dsf) interface ( ), found under the
Chemical Species Transport branch ( ), is used to model the transport of a solute
species along thin porous fractures, taking into account diffusion, dispersion,
convection, and chemical reactions. The fractures are defined by boundaries and the
solute species is assumed to be present in a solvent.

The interface supports simulation of species transport along boundaries in 2D and 3D,
and axisymmetric components in 2D. The dependent variable is the molar
concentration, c. Modeling multiple species transport is possible, whereby the physics
interface solves for the molar concentration, ci, of each species i.

This interface is only available in a limited set of add-on products. For a

detailed overview of which interfaces are available in each product, visit
[Link]

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is dsf.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
If the model geometry includes boundaries that should not be included in the mass
transfer simulation, remove those from the selection list.

OUT-OF-PLANE THICKNESS
For 2D components, the Thickness field (default value: 1 m) defines a parameter for the
thickness of the geometry perpendicular to the two-dimensional cross-section. Both
constant and varying thicknesses are supported. The value of this parameter is used,

266 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

among other things, to automatically calculate molar flow rates from the total molar
flux.

TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
Use the Convection check box, available under Additional transport mechanisms, to
control whether to also include convective transport.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To display this sections, click the Show button ( ) and select Stabilization. Use this
section to control the application of the available consistent stabilization methods;
Streamline diffusion and Crosswind diffusion.

• When the Crosswind diffusion check box is selected, a weak term that reduces
spurious oscillations is added to the transport equation. The resulting equation
system is always nonlinear. There are two options for the Crosswind diffusion type:
- Do Carmo and Galeão — the default option. This type of crosswind diffusion
reduces undershoots and overshoots to a minimum but can in rare cases give
equation systems that are difficult to fully converge.
- Codina. This option is less diffusive compared to the Do Carmo and Galeão
option but can result in more undershoots and overshoots. It is also less effective
for anisotropic meshes. The Codina option activates a text field for the Lower
gradient limit glim. Its default value is 0.1[mol/m^3)/[Link], where
[Link] is the local element size.
• For both consistent stabilization methods select an Equation residual. Approximate
residual is the default and means that derivatives of the diffusion tensor components
are neglected. This setting is usually accurate enough and is computationally faster.
If required, select Full residual instead.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Stabilization. By default,
the Isotropic diffusion check box is not selected, because this type of stabilization adds
artificial diffusion and affects the accuracy of the original problem. However, this
option can be used to get a good initial guess for under resolved problems.

DISCRETIZATION
To display all settings available in this section, click the Show button ( ) and select
Advanced Physics Options.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES IN FRACTURES INTERFACE | 267

 The Value type when using splitting of complex variables setting should in most pure
mass transfer problems be set to Real, which is the default. It makes sure that the
dependent variable does not get affected by small imaginary contributions, which can
occur, for example, when combining a Time Dependent or Stationary study with a
frequency-domain study. For more information, see Splitting Complex-Valued
Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable name is Concentration c by default. A dependent variable name
must be unique with respect to all other dependent variables in the component.

Add or remove species variables in the model and also change the names of the
dependent variables that represent the species concentrations.

Enter the Number of species. Use the Add concentration ( ) and Remove
concentration ( ) buttons as needed.

FURTHER READING

• Mass Transport in Fractures in the theory section.

• Numerical Stabilization in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.
• Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Diluted
Species Interface
• In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for
links to common sections and Table 2-5 for common feature nodes.
You can also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window
or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Diluted
Species in Fractures Interface
The Transport of Diluted Species in Fractures Interface has the following boundary,
edge, point, and pair nodes, listed in alphabetical order, available from the Physics

268 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or by
right-clicking to access the context menu (all users).

• Concentration • No Flux
• Flux • Outflow
• Fracture • Reactions
• Inflow • Species Source
• Initial Values

Furthermore, there are the following attributes to the Fracture node

• Adsorption
• Dispersion

Adsorption
Use this node to model adsorption of the fluid phase species onto the porous media
surface of the fracture.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
Use the Porous material list to define a material specifying the matrix properties on the
current selection. By default the Boundary material is used as The Transport of Diluted
Species in Fractures Interface is active on boundaries only. The Density ρ of the porous
media is needed when modeling adsorption to the surface of the porous matrix. By
default the option From material is selected.

ADSORPTION
Select an Adsorption isotherm — Langmuir (the default), Freundlich, Toth, BET, or User
defined to specify how to compute cP, the amount of species sorbed to the solid phase
(moles per unit dry weight of the solid). Also activate the check box for the species ci
for which adsorption takes place.

• For Langmuir:

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES IN FRACTURES INTERFACE | 269

 KL c ∂c P K L c Pmax
c P = c Pmax -------------------- -------- = ---------------------------
1 + KL c ∂c ( 1 + KL c )
2

Enter a Langmuir constant kL,c (SI unit: m3/mol) and an Adsorption maximum
cp,max,c (SI unit: mol/kg):

• For Freundlich:

c N ∂c P cP
c P = K F  -------- -------- = N ----- Freundlich
c ref ∂c c

Enter a Freundlich constant kF,c (SI unit: mol/kg), a Freundlich exponent NF,c
(dimensionless), and a Reference concentration cref,c (SI unit: mol/m3).

• For Toth:
bT c
c P = c Pmax ----------------------------------------------
N 1 ⁄ NT
( 1 + ( bT c ) T )

and

–  1 + ------
1-
∂c P N N T
-------- = c Pmax b T ( 1 + ( b T c ) T )
∂c

Enter a Toth constant bT,c (SI unit: m3/mol), a Toth exponent NT,c (dimensionless),
and an Adsorption maximum cp,max,c (SI unit: mol/kg).
• For BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller):
KB c0 c
c P = -------------------------------------------------------------
-
( c S – c )  1 + ( K B – 1 ) -----
c
cS

and

2 2
K B c 0 c S ( ( K B – 1 )c + c S )
-----------------------------------------------------------------
-
2 2
( c – c S ) ( c S + ( K B – 1 )c )

Enter a BET constant KB,c (dimensionless), a Monolayer adsorption capacity c0,c

(SI unit: mol/kg), and a Saturation concentration cS,c (SI unit: mol/m3).
• For User defined:

270 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 cP = f ( c )

Enter an adsorption isotherm cP,c (SI unit: mol/kg).

For more information, see Adsorption in the theory section.

FURTHER READING
See the theory chapter in the section Mass Balance Equation for Transport of Diluted
Species in Porous Media.

Concentration
Use this node to specify the species concentration on a fracture boundary (applied in
points in 2D and along edges in 3D). For example, a c = c0 condition specifies the
concentration of species c.

CONCENTRATION
Individually specify the concentration for each species. Select the check box for the
Species to specify the concentration, and then enter a value or expression in the
corresponding field. To use another boundary condition for a specific species, click to
clear the check box for the concentration of that species.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
You can find details about the different constraint settings in the section Constraint
Reaction Terms in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Dispersion
Local variations in the velocity as the fluid flows around solid particles lead to
mechanical mixing, referred to as dispersion. Use this feature to account for dispersion
in a Fracture.

This subfeature is available when the Convection check box is selected in the Settings
window for the physics interface.

Select the Specify dispersion for each species individually check box to specify the
dispersion tensor DD (SI unit: m2/s) for each species separately. When not selected the
same dispersion tensor DD is used for all species.

Select an option from the Dispersion tensor list — Dispersivity or User defined.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES IN FRACTURES INTERFACE | 271

 Select Dispersivity to specify the dispersion in terms of dispersivities (SI unit: m). Select
an option from the Dispersivity model list: Isotropic (the default) or Transverse isotropic
based on the properties of the porous media. For isotropic porous media, specify the
longitudinal and transverse dispersivities. For transverse isotropic porous media,
specify the longitudinal, horizontal transverse, and vertical transverse dispersivities.

For User defined, specify the dispersion components in terms of constants or

expressions. Select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full to enable the appropriate
tensor components.

Flux
This node can be used to specify the species flux across a boundary of a porous fracture
(applied in points in 2D and along edges in 3D). The flux of species c is defined as

n ⋅ d fr ( D e ∇c ) = d fr N 0

where N0 is an arbitrary user-specified flux expression. For example, N0 can represent

a flux due to chemical reactions, or a phase change. A positive N0 implies that the
concentration inside the fracture increases.

INWARD FLUX
The available options are General inward flux and External convection. If the latter is
chosen, define a Mass transfer coefficient and a Bulk concentration. Specify the flux of
each species individually. To use another boundary condition for a specific species,
make sure that the check box for the mass fraction of that species is unchecked.

Inflow
Use this node to specify all species concentrations at a fracture inlet. The condition is
applied in points in 2D and along edges in 3D.

If you want to specify the concentration of a subset of the partaking species, this can
be done by using the Concentration node instead.

CONCENTRATION
For the concentration of each species c0,c (SI unit: mol/m3), enter a value or
expression.

272 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

BOUNDARY CONDITION TYPE
This section in the settings is only available for some products. Search for “Inflow” on
the page: [Link] for more details on
availability.

The option Concentration constraint constrains the concentration values on the

boundary by the use of pointwise constraints. The other option, Flux (Danckwerts) can
be more stable and fast to solve when high reaction rates are anticipated in the vicinity
of the inlet. Oscillations on the solutions can also be avoided in such cases. The latter
condition uses a flux boundary condition based on the velocity across the boundary
and the concentration values. See further details in the theory section.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
You can find details about the different constraint settings in the section Constraint
Reaction Terms in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

FURTHER READING
See the theory chapter in the section Danckwerts Inflow Boundary Condition.

No Flux
This node can be used to specify that the species flux across a boundary of a porous
fracture is zero. The condition is applied in points in 2D and along edges in 3D.

Outflow
Set this condition at fracture outlets where species are transported out of the model
domain by fluid motion. The condition is applied in points in 2D and along edges in
3D. It is assumed that convection is the dominating transport mechanism across
outflow boundaries, and therefore that diffusive transport can be ignored, that is:

n ⋅ ( – D e ∇c ) = 0

Reactions
Use the Reactions node to account for the consumption or production of species
through chemical reactions in the fracture. Define the rate expressions as required.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES IN FRACTURES INTERFACE | 273

 BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries on which to define rate expression or
expressions that govern the source term in the transport equations.

Several reaction nodes can be used to account for different reactions in different parts
of the fracture.

REACTION RATES
Add a rate expression Ri for species i. Enter a value or expression in the field. Note that
if you have the Chemistry interface available, included with the Chemical Reaction
Engineering Module, the reaction rate expressions can be automatically generated and
picked up using the drop-down list.

REACTING VOLUME
When specifying reaction rates for a species in a fracture, the specified reaction rate may
have the basis of the pore volume of the fracture, or the total volume.

• For Total volume, the reaction expressions in are specified per unit volume of the
fracture. The reaction expressions will be multiplied by the fracture thickness dfr.
• For Pore volume, the reaction expressions in mol/(m3·s) are specified per unit
volume of total pore space in the fracture. The reaction expressions will be
multiplied by the fracture thickness dfr and the fracture porosity, εp.

Species Source
In order to account for consumption or production of species in a fracture, the Species
Source node adds source terms expressions Si to the right-hand side of the species
transport equations.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries on which to define expressions that
govern the source term in the transport equations.

If there are several different parts of the fracture, with subsequent and different sources
occurring within them, it might be necessary to remove some boundaries from the
selection. The sources in these can then be defined using an additional Species Source
node.

274 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

SPECIES SOURCE
Add a source term Si for each of the species solved for. Enter a value or expression in
the field of the corresponding species.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES IN FRACTURES INTERFACE | 275

 Theory for the Transport of Diluted
Species Interface
The Transport of Diluted Species Interface provides a predefined modeling
environment for studying the evolution of chemical species transported by diffusion
and convection. The physics interface assumes that all species present are dilute; that
is, that their concentration is low compared to a solvent fluid or solid. As a rule of
thumb, a mixture containing several species can be considered dilute when the
concentration of the solvent is more than 90 mol%. Due to the dilution, mixture
properties such as density and viscosity can be assumed to correspond to those of the
solvent.

When studying mixtures that are not dilute, the mixture and transport properties
depend on the composition, and a different physics interface is recommended. See The
Transport of Concentrated Species Interface in the Chemical Reaction Engineering
Module User’s Guide for more information.

Fick’s law governs the diffusion of the solutes, dilute mixtures, or solutions, while the
phenomenon of ionic migration is sometimes referred to as electrokinetic flow. The
Transport of Diluted Species interface supports the simulations of chemical species
transport by convection, migration, and diffusion in 1D, 2D, and 3D as well as for
axisymmetric components in 1D and 2D.

In this section:

• Adding Transport Through • Mass Balance Equation

Migration • Mass Sources for Species Transport
• Convective Term Formulation • Solving a Diffusion Equation Only
• Crosswind Diffusion • Supporting Electrolytes
• Danckwerts Inflow Boundary • References
Condition
• Equilibrium Reaction Theory

Note: Some features explained in this section require certain add-on modules. For
details see [Link]

276 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

The section also includes the theory for The Transport of Diluted Species in Porous
Media Interface:

• Adsorption • Mass Balance Equation for

• Convection in Porous Media Transport of Diluted Species in
Porous Media
• Diffusion in Porous Media
• Mass Transport in Fractures
• Dispersion
• Reactions

Mass Balance Equation

The default node attributed to the Transport of Diluted Species interface models
chemical species transport through diffusion and convection and solves the mass
conservation equation for one or more chemical species i:

∂c i
------- + ∇ ⋅ J i + u ⋅ ∇c i = R i (6-2)
∂t

Equation 6-2 in its form above includes the transport mechanisms diffusion and
convection. If Migration in Electric Field is activated (only available in some add-on
products), the migration mechanism will be added to the equation as well. See more
details in the section Adding Transport Through Migration.

• ci is the concentration of the species (SI unit: mol/m3)

• Di denotes the diffusion coefficient (SI unit: m2/s)
• Ri is a reaction rate expression for the species (SI unit: mol/(m3·s))
• u is the mass averaged velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)
• Ji is the mass flux diffusive flux vector (SI unit: mol/(m2·s))

The mass flux relative to the mass averaged velocity, Ji (SI unit: mol/(m2·s)), is
associated with the mass balance equation above and used in boundary conditions and
flux computations. The Transport of Diluted Species interface always includes mass
transport due to molecular diffusion. In this case the mass flux Ji defines the diffusive
flux vector

J i = – D ∇c i (6-3)

An input field for the diffusion coefficient is available.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 277

 When Migration in Electric Fields is activated, the migration term is also added to
the diffusive flux vector as shown in the section Adding Transport Through Migration.

The third term on the left side of Equation 6-2 describes the convective transport due
to a velocity field u. This field can be expressed analytically or obtained from coupling
the physics interface to one that solves for fluid flow, such as Laminar Flow. Note that
all fluid flow interfaces solve for the mass averaged velocity.

On the right-hand side of the mass balance equation (Equation 6-2), Ri represents a
source or sink term, typically due to a chemical reaction or desorption on a porous
matrix. To specify Ri, another node must be added to the Transport of Diluted Species
interface — the Reaction node for example, which includes an input field for specifying
a reaction expression using the variable names of all participating species.

Equilibrium Reaction Theory

The feature Equilibrium Reaction is described in this section. A chemical equilibrium
reaction system is defined by the stoichiometry of the reaction and the relation
between the chemical activities of the chemical species participating in the reaction (the
equilibrium condition).

The kinetics of the reaction is so fast that the equilibrium condition is fulfilled at all
times in all space coordinates.

The equilibrium condition is commonly based on the stoichiometric coefficients,

νi (dimensionless), of the reaction; the species activities of the reacting species
ai (dimensionless); and an equilibrium constant, Keq (1) according to:

ν
∏ ai i
i ∈ products
K eq = ----------------------------------
–ν
∏ ai i
i ∈ reactants

where the species activities are defined as

ci
a i = γ c, i -------
c a0

where ca0 (SI unit: mol/m3) is the standard molarity, and γc,i (dimensionless) an
activity coefficient.

278 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Defining the stoichiometric coefficients positive for products and negative for
reactants, the above equilibrium condition can also be written:

νi
K eq = ∏ ai
i

The Equilibrium Reaction node solves for a reaction rate so that the equilibrium
condition is always fulfilled in the domain. It is available for the Chemical Reaction
Engineering Module; Battery Design Module; Corrosion Module; Electrochemistry
Module; Electrodeposition Module; and Fuel Cell & Electrolyzer Module.

γc,i is set to unity when the Equilibrium constant is selected in the Settings
window. For nonunity activity coefficients, a user defined equilibrium
condition can be used.

EQUILIBRIUM REACTIONS AND INFLOW BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Contradictory constraints arise if the boundary conditions for concentrations or
activities are set so that the domain equilibrium condition is not fulfilled. Special
treatment is therefore needed at Inflow boundaries, where the concentrations are set
for all species in the mass transport interfaces.

One way of avoiding competing constraints on an inflow boundary is to add an

additional reaction coordinate degree of freedom, solved for to create a set of modified
inflow concentrations that fulfill the domain equilibrium condition. The reaction
coordinate gives rise to a concentration shift, which is the offset to the inflow
concentrations provided by the user. The shift for each species obeys the stoichiometry
of the reaction and the equilibrium expression. The modified inflow concentrations are
then used in the boundary conditions for the domain mass transport equations. The
resulting modified inflow concentrations can be seen as the stationary solution for a
batch reactor with the user inflow concentrations as initial concentrations. In addition,
the domain reaction rate degree of freedom of the equilibrium reaction is constrained
to zero on all Inflow boundaries.

EQUILIBRIUM REACTIONS AND CONCENTRATION BOUNDARY

CONDITIONS
No special treatment is made with regards to input concentration values of the
Concentration boundary node. Using this feature, you can explicitly set one or a set of
concentrations, and the equilibrium condition acts on the rest of the concentrations.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 279

 However, there is no solution to the problem if more concentrations than the number
of species minus the number of equilibrium reactions are set using this feature.

EQUILIBRIUM REACTIONS AND TIME-DEPENDENT SIMULATIONS

Spurious oscillations may occur in a time-dependent problem if the initial conditions
do not fulfill the equilibrium condition. Since equilibrium reactions are assumed to be
infinitely fast, the solution is to initialize the problem using an additional study step,
solving for a stationary problem with all nonequilibrium reaction rates set to zero.
Manual scaling of the reaction rate dependent variables is needed in this study step.

Convective Term Formulation

The default node attributed to The Transport of Diluted Species Interface assumes
chemical species transport through diffusion and convection (depending on the
modules licensed, a check box to activate migration is available) and implements the
mass balance equation in Equation 6-2.

There are two ways to present a mass balance where chemical species transport occurs
through diffusion and convection. These are the nonconservative and conservative
formulations of the convective term:

∂c
nonconservative: ----- + u ⋅ ∇c = ∇ ⋅ J i + R (6-4)
∂t

∂c
conservative: ----- + ∇ ⋅ ( cu ) = ∇ ⋅ J i + R (6-5)
∂t

and each is treated slightly differently by the solver algorithms. In these equations
Ji (SI unit: mol/(m2·s)) is the diffusive flux vector, R (SI unit: mol/(m3·s)) is a
production or consumption rate expression, and u (SI unit: m/s) is the solvent velocity
field. The diffusion process can be anisotropic, in which case D is a tensor.

If the conservative formulation is expanded using the chain rule, then one of the terms
from the convection part, c∇·u, would equal zero for an incompressible fluid and
would result in the nonconservative formulation above. This is in fact the default
formulation in this physics interface. To switch between the two formulations, click the
Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.

280 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Solving a Diffusion Equation Only
Remove the convection term from Equation 6-4 and Equation 6-5 by clearing the
Convection check box in the Transport Mechanisms section for The Transport of
Diluted Species Interface. The equation then becomes

∂----c- = ∇ ⋅ J + R
i
∂t

Mass Sources for Species Transport

Note: The features below are only available in a limited set of add-on products. For a
detailed overview of which features are available in each product, visit
[Link]

There are two types of mass sources in the Transport of Diluted Species interface: point
sources and line sources.

POINT SOURCE
A point source is theoretically formed by assuming a mass injection/ejection, Q· c (SI
unit: mol/(m3·s)), in a small volume δV and then letting the size of the volume tend
to zero while keeping the total mass flux constant. Given a point source strength, q· p,c
(SI unit: mol/s), this can be expressed as

·
lim
δV → 0  Qc = q· p,c (6-6)
δV

An alternative way to form a point source is to assume that mass is injected/extracted

through the surface of a small object. Letting the object surface area tend to zero while
keeping the mass flux constant results in the same point source. For this alternative
approach, effects resulting from the physical object’s volume need to be neglected.

The weak contribution

q· p,c test ( c )

is added at a point in the geometry. As can be seen from Equation 6-6, Q· c must tend
to plus or minus infinity as δV tends to zero. This means that in theory the
concentration also tends to plus or minus infinity.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 281

 Observe that “point” refers to the physical representation of the source. A point source
can therefore only be added to points in 3D components and to points on the
symmetry axis in 2D axisymmetry components. Other geometrical points in 2D
components represent physical lines.

The finite element representation of Equation 6-6 corresponds to a finite

concentration at a point with the effect of the point source spread out over a region
around the point. The size of the region depends on the mesh and on the strength of
the source. A finer mesh gives a smaller affected region but also a more extreme
concentration value. It is important not to mesh too finely around a point source since
this can result in unphysical concentration values. It can also have a negative effect on
the condition number for the equation system.

LINE SOURCE
A line source can theoretically be formed by assuming a source of strength Q· l,c (SI
unit: mol/(m3·s)), located within a tube with cross section δS and then letting δS tend
to zero while keeping the total mass flux per unit length constant. Given a line source
strength, q· l,c (SI unit: mol/(m·s)), this can be expressed as

lim
δS → 0  Q· l,c = q· l,c (6-7)
δS

As in the point source case, an alternative approach is to assume that mass is

injected/extracted through the surface of a small object. This results in the same mass
source, but requires that effects resulting from the physical object’s volume are
neglected.

The weak contribution

q· l,c test ( c )

is added on lines in 3D or at points in 2D (which represent cut-through views of lines).

Line sources can also be added on the axisymmetry line in 2D axisymmetry
components. It cannot, however, be added on geometrical lines in 2D since those
represent physical planes.

As with a point source, it is important not to mesh too finely around the line source.

For feature node information, see Line Mass Source and Point Mass
Source.

282 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Adding Transport Through Migration

Note: Migration is only available in a limited set of add-on products. For a detailed
overview of which features are available in each product, visit
[Link]

In addition to transport due to convection and diffusion, the Transport of Diluted

Species interface supports ionic species transport by migration. This is done by
selecting the Migration in Electric Field check box under the Transport Mechanisms
section for the physics interface. The mass balance then becomes:

∂c i
+ ∇ ⋅ ( – D i ∇c i – z i u m, i F c i ∇V + c i u ) = R i (6-8)
∂t

where

• ci (SI unit: mol/ m3) denotes the concentration of species i

• Di (SI unit: m2/s) is the diffusion coefficient of species i
• u (SI unit: m/s) is the fluid velocity
• F (SI unit: A·s/mol) refers to Faraday’s constant
• V (SI unit: V) denotes the electric potential
• zi (dimensionless) is the charge number of the ionic species, and
• um,i (SI unit: mol·s/kg) is its ionic mobility

In this case the diffusive flux vector is

J i = – D i ∇c i – z i u m, i Fc i ∇V

The velocity, u, can be a computed fluid velocity field from a Fluid Flow interface or
a specified function of the spatial variables x, y, and z. The potential can be provided
by an expression or by coupling the system of equations to a current balance, such as
the Electrostatics interface. Sometimes it is assumed to be a supporting electrolyte
present, which simplifies the transport equations. In that case, the modeled charged
species concentration is very low compared to other ions dissolved in the solution.
Thus, the species concentration does not influence the solution’s conductivity and the
net charge within the fluid.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 283

 The Nernst–Einstein relation can in many cases be used for relating the species
mobility to the species diffusivity according to

D
u m, i = --------i
RT

where R (SI unit: J/(mol·K)) is the molar gas constant and T (SI unit: K) is the
temperature.

Note: In the Nernst–Planck Equations interface, the ionic species contribute to the
charge transfer in the solution. It includes an electroneutrality condition and also
computes the electric potential field in the electrolyte. For more information, see
Theory for the Nernst–Planck Equations Interface. This interface is included in the
Chemical Reaction Engineering Module.

Supporting Electrolytes
In electrolyte solutions, a salt can be added to provide a high electrolyte conductivity
and decrease the ohmic losses in a cell. These solutions are often called supporting
electrolytes, buffer solutions, or carrier electrolytes. The added species, a negative and
a positive ion pair, predominates over all other species. Therefore, the supporting
electrolyte species can be assumed to dominate the current transport in the solution.
In addition, the predominant supporting ions are usually selected so that they do not
react at the electrode surfaces since the high conductivity should be kept through the
process, that is, they should not be electroactive species. This also means that the
concentration gradients of the predominant species in a supporting electrolyte are
usually negligible.

Modeling and solving for a supporting electrolyte in the Electrostatics or Secondary

Current Distribution interfaces will give a potential distribution that drives the
migration in the Transport of Diluted Species Interface.

The current density vector is proportional to the sum of all species fluxes as expressed
by Faraday’s law:

i = F  zi Ni
i

284 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

The electroneutrality condition ensures that there is always a zero net charge at any
position in a dilute solution. Intuitively, this means that it is impossible to create a
current by manually pumping positive ions in one direction and negative ions in the
other. Therefore, the convective term is canceled out to yield the following expression
for the electrolyte current density, where j denotes the supporting species:

 –zj um, j F cj ∇φ
2
i = F (6-9)
j

Equation 6-9 is simply Ohm’s law for ionic current transport and can be simplified to

i = – κ ∇φ (6-10)

where κ is the conductivity of the supporting electrolyte. A current balance gives the
current and potential density in the cell

∇⋅i = 0

which, in combination with Equation 6-10, yields:

∇ ⋅ ( – κ ∇φ ) = 0 (6-11)

Equation 6-11 can be easily solved using the Electrostatics or Secondary Current
Distribution interface and, when coupled to the Transport in Diluted Species interface,
the potential distribution shows up in the migration term.

Crosswind Diffusion
Transport of diluted species applications can often result in models with a very high
cell Péclet number — that is, systems where convection or migration dominates over
diffusion. Streamline diffusion and crosswind diffusion are of paramount importance
to obtain physically reasonable results. The Transport of Diluted Species interface
provides two crosswind diffusion options using different formulations. Observe that
crosswind diffusion makes the equation system nonlinear even if the transport
equation is linear.

DO CARMO AND GALEÃO

This is the formulation described in Numerical Stabilization in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual. The method reduces over- and undershoots to a
minimum, even for anisotropic meshes.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 285

 In some cases, the resulting nonlinear equation system can be difficult to converge.
This can happen when the cell Péclet number is very high and the model contains
many thin layers, such as contact discontinuities. You then have three options:

• Refine the mesh, especially in regions with thin layers.

• Use a nonlinear solver with a constant damping factor less than one.
• Switch to the Codina crosswind formulation.

CODINA
The Codina formulation is described in Ref. 1. It adds diffusion strictly in the direction
orthogonal to the streamline direction. Compared to the do Carmo and Galeão
formulation, the Codina formulation adds less diffusion but is not as efficient at
reducing over- and undershoots. It also does not work as well for anisotropic meshes.
The advantage is that the resulting nonlinear system is easier to converge and that
underresolved gradients are less smeared out.

Danckwerts Inflow Boundary Condition

Constraining the composition to fixed values at an inlet to a reactor may sometimes
result in issues with unreasonably high reaction rates or singularities at the inlet
boundary. These problems may many times be mitigated by using a flux boundary
condition instead, based on the upstream concentrations and the fluid velocity at the
boundary. In chemical engineering, this type of flux boundary condition is also known
as a Danckwerts condition.

Use the Danckwerts condition to specify inlet conditions for domains where high
reaction rates are anticipated in the vicinity to the inlet (Ref. 2).

Given an upstream concentration ci,0, the Danckwerts inflow boundary condition

prescribed the total flux as

n ⋅ ( J i + uc i ) = n ⋅ ( uc i, 0 ) (6-12)

286 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Mass Balance Equation for Transport of Diluted Species in Porous
Media

VARIABLY SATURATED POROUS MEDIA

The following equations for the molar concentrations, ci, describe the transport of
solutes in a variably saturated porous medium for the most general case, when the pore
space is primarily filled with liquid but also contain pockets or immobile gas:

∂ θ
( c ) + ∂ ( ρc P, i ) + ∂ (θ g c G, i) + u ⋅ ∇c i =
∂t l i ∂t ∂t (6-13)
∇ ⋅ [ ( D D, i + D e, i ) ∇c i ] + R i + S i

On the left-hand side of Equation 6-13, the first three terms correspond to the
accumulation of species within the liquid, solid, and gas phases, while the last term
describes the convection due to the velocity field u (SI unit: m/s).

In Equation 6-13 ci denotes the concentration of species i in the liquid (SI unit:
mol/m3), cP, i the amount adsorbed to solid particles (moles per unit dry weight of
the solid), and cG, i the concentration of species i in the gas phase.

The equation balances the mass transport throughout the porous medium using the
porosity εp, the liquid volume fraction θl; the dry bulk density, ρ = (1 − εs)ρs, and the
solid phase density ρs.

For saturated porous media, the liquid volume fraction θl is equal to the porosity εp,
but for unsaturated porous media, they are related by the saturation s as θl = εps. The
resulting gas volume fraction in the case of an unsaturated porous medium is

θ g = ε p – θ l = ( 1 – s )ε p

On the right-hand side of Equation 6-13, the first term introduces the spreading of
species due to mechanical mixing resulting from the porous media (dispersion), as well
as from diffusion and volatilization to the gas phase. The dispersion tensor is denoted
DD (SI unit: m2/s) and the effective diffusion by De (SI unit: m2/s).

The last two terms on the right-hand side of Equation 6-13 describe production or
consumption of the species; Ri is a reaction rate expression which can account for
reactions in the liquid, solid, or gas phase, and Si is an arbitrary source term, for
example due to a fluid flow source or sink.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 287

 Adsorption
The time evolution of the adsorption, the solute transport to or from the solid phase,
is defined by assuming that the amount of solute adsorbed to the solid, cP,i, is a
function of the concentration in the fluid ci. This implies that the solute concentration
in the liquid and solid phase are in instant equilibrium. The adsorption term can be
expanded to give

∂c ∂ε
∂ ( ρc ) = ρ ∂c P, i ∂c i – c ρ ∂ε p = ρK P,i i – c P, i ρ s p (6-14)
∂t P, i ∂ ci ∂ t P, i s ∂ t ∂t ∂t

where KP,i = ∂cP,i/∂ci is the adsorption isotherm.

Volatilization
Volatilization is the process where a solute species in the liquid is transported to the
gas phase due to vaporization. Assuming that the amount of solute in the gas phase,
cG,i, is a linear function of the liquid phase concentration, the volatilization term is
defined as

∂c G, i ∂c i ∂θ g ∂c i ∂θ g
∂θ = θ + k c = θ g k G, i + k G, i c i (6-15)
c G , ∂t ∂t
∂ t g G, i
g ∂ ci ∂ t i i ∂t

where kG,i = ∂cG,i/∂ci is the linear volatilization.

SATURATED POROUS MEDIA

In the case of transport in a saturated porous medium, θl = εp, and the governing
equations are

∂ ε
( c ) + ∂ ( ρc P, i ) + u ⋅ ∇c i = ∇ ⋅ [ ( D D, i + D e, i ) ∇c i ] + R i + S i (6-16)
∂t p i ∂t

Convection in Porous Media

Convection (also called advection) describes the movement of a species, such as a
pollutant, with the bulk fluid velocity. The velocity field u corresponds to a superficial
volume average over a unit volume of the porous medium, including both pores and
matrix. This velocity is sometimes called Darcy velocity, and defined as volume flow

288 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

rates per unit cross section of the medium. This definition makes the velocity field
continuous across the boundaries between porous regions and regions with free flow.

The velocity field to be used in the Model Inputs section on the physics
interface can, for example, be prescribed using the velocity field from a
Darcy’s Law or a Brinkman Equations interface.

The average linear fluid velocities ua, provides an estimate of the fluid velocity within
the pores:

u-
u a = ---- Saturated
εp
u-
u a = --- Unsaturated
θl

where εp is the porosity and θl = sεp the liquid volume fraction, and s the saturation,
a dimensionless number between 0 and 1.

Figure 6-2: A block of a porous medium consisting of solids and the pore space between the
solid grains. The average linear velocity describes how fast the fluid moves within the pores.
The Darcy velocity attributes this flow over the entire fluid-solid face.

CONVECTIVE TERM FORMULATION

The Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media interface includes two formulations
of the convective term. The conservative formulation of the species equations in
Equation 6-13 is written as:

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 289

 ∂ θ
( c ) + ∂ ( ρc P, i ) + ∂ (θ g c G, i) + ∇ ⋅ uc i =
∂t l i ∂t ∂t (6-17)
∇ ⋅ [ ( D D , i + D e , i ) ∇c i ] + R i + S i

If the conservative formulation is expanded using the chain rule, then one of the terms
from the convection part, ci∇·u, would equal zero for an incompressible fluid and
would result in the nonconservative formulation described in Equation 6-13.

When using the nonconservative formulation, which is the default, the fluid is assumed
incompressible and divergence free: ∇ ⋅ u = 0. The nonconservative formulation
improves the stability of systems coupled to a momentum equation (fluid flow
equation).

To switch between the two formulations, click the Show button ( ) and
select Advanced Physics Options. In the section Advanced Settings select
either Nonconservative form (the default) or Conservative form. The
conservative formulation should be used for compressible flow.

Diffusion in Porous Media

The effective diffusion in porous media, De, depends on the structure of the porous
material and the phases involved. Dependent on whether the transport of diluted
species occurs in free flow or in saturated or unsaturated porous media, the effective
diffusivity is defined as:

De = DF Free Flow
εp
D e = ----- D L Saturated Porous Media
τL
θl
D e = ----- D L Unsaturated Porous Media
τL
θl θg
D e = ----- D L + ------ k G D G Unsaturated with Volatilization
τL τG

Here DF, DL, and DG are the single-phase diffusion coefficients for the species diluted
in a fluid, a pure liquid, and a gas phase, respectively (SI unit: m2/s), and τF, τL, and
τG are the corresponding tortuosity factors (dimensionless).

The tortuosity factor accounts for the reduced diffusivity due to the fact that the solid
grains impede Brownian motion. The interface provides predefined expressions to

290 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

compute the tortuosity factors in partially saturated porous media according to the
Millington and Quirk model (Ref. 3):

–7 ⁄ 3 2 –7 ⁄ 3 2
τL = θl εp , τG = θg εp

and Bruggeman model

–5 ⁄ 2 2 –5 ⁄ 2 2
τL = θl εp , τG = θg εp

For saturated porous media θl = εp. The fluid tortuosity for the Millington and Quirk
model is

–1 ⁄ 3
τL = εp

and for the Bruggeman model the tortuosity is defined as

–1 ⁄ 2
τL = εp

User defined expressions for the tortuosity factor can also be applied.

Dispersion
The contribution of dispersion to the mixing of species typically overshadows the
contribution from molecular diffusion, except when the fluid velocity is very low.

The spreading of mass, as a fluid travel through a porous medium is caused by several
contributing effects. Local variations in fluid velocity lead to mechanical mixing
referred to as dispersion occurs because the fluid in the pore space flows around solid
particles, so the velocity field varies within pore channels. The spreading in the
direction parallel to the flow, or longitudinal dispersivity, typically exceeds the
transverse dispersivity from up to an order of magnitude. Being driven by the
concentration gradient alone, molecular diffusion rate is low relative to the mechanical
dispersion, except at very low fluid velocities.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 291

 Figure 6-3: Spreading of fluid around solid particles in a porous medium.

The dispersion is controlled through the dispersion tensor DD. The tensor
components can either be given by user-defined values or expressions or derived from
the directional dispersivities.

Using the longitudinal and transverse dispersivities in 2D, the dispersivity tensor
components are (Ref. 5):

2 2
ui uj
D Dii = α L ------ + α T ------
u u

ui uj
D Dij = D Dji = ( α L – α T ) -----------
u

In these equations, DDii (SI unit: m2/s) are the principal components of the
dispersivity tensor, and DDji and DDji are the cross terms. The parameters αL and αT
(SI unit: m) specify the longitudinal and transverse dispersivities; and ui (SI unit: m/s)
stands for the velocity field components.

In order to facilitate modeling of stratified porous media in 3D, the tensor formulation
by Burnett and Frind (Ref. 4) can be used. Consider a transverse isotropic media,
where the strata are piled up in the z direction, the dispersivity tensor components are:

292 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 2 2 2
u v w
D Lxx = α 1 ------ + α 2 ------ + α 3 -------
u u u
2 2 2
v u w
D Lyy = α 1 ------ + α 2 ------ + α 3 -------
u u u
2 2 2
w u v
D Lzz = α 1 ------- + α 3 ------ + α 3 ------
u u u (6-18)
uv
D Lxy = D Lyx = ( α 1 – α 2 ) -------
u
uw
D Lxz = D Lzx = ( α 1 – α 3 ) --------
u
vw
D Lyz = D Lzy = ( α 1 – α 3 ) --------
u

In Equation 6-18 the fluid velocities u, v, and w correspond to the components of the
velocity field u in the x, y, and z directions, respectively, and α1 (SI unit: m) is the
longitudinal dispersivity. If z is the vertical axis, α2 and α3 are the dispersivities in the
transverse horizontal and transverse vertical directions, respectively (SI unit: m).
Setting α2 = α3 gives the expressions for isotropic media shown in Bear (Ref. 5 and
Ref. 6).

Adsorption
As species travel through a porous medium they typically attach to (adsorb), and
detach (desorb) from the solid phase, which slows chemical transport through the
porous medium. Adsorption and desorption respectively reduces or increases species
concentrations in the fluid. The adsorption properties vary between chemicals, so a
plume containing multiple species can separate into components (Ref. 7). The
Adsorption feature includes four predefined and one user defined relationships to
predict the solid concentrations, cPi from the concentration in the liquid phase, ci:

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 293

 KL c
c P = c Pmax -------------------- Langmuir
1 + KL c
c N
c P = K F  -------- Freundlich
 c ref
bT c (6-19)
c P = c Pmax ---------------------------------------------- Toth
N 1 ⁄ NT
( 1 + ( bT c ) T )
KB c0 c
c P = -------------------------------------------------------------
- BET
( c S – c )  1 + ( K B – 1 ) -----
c
cS

The above equations contains the following parameters:

• Freundlich (Ref. 8)
- Freundlich constant KF (SI unit:·mol/kg), Freundlich exponent NF
(dimensionless), and reference concentration cref (SI unit: mol/m3).
• Langmuir (Ref. 9)
- Langmuir constant KL (SI unit: m3/mol), and adsorption maximum cPmax
(SI unit: mol/kg).
• Toth (Ref. 10)
- Toth constant bT (SI unit: m3/mol), Toth exponent NT (dimensionless), and
adsorption maximum cPmax (SI unit: mol/kg).
• BET (Brunauer–Emmett–Teller, Ref. 11)

- BET constant KB (dimensionless), the monolayer adsorption capacity c0

(SI unit: mol/kg) and the saturation concentration, cS (SI unit: mol/m3).
These predefined expressions are adsorption isotherms that describe the amount of
species sorbed to the solid. Applying the isotherms, as defined in the Adsorption
section above, assumes that adsorption is at equilibrium locally. This implies that the
species phase transfer, between the fluid and the solid phase (within the porous
medium), is much faster than the transport within the fluid phase.

Using a Species Source feature, arbitrary expressions can be entered to define, for
example, nonequilibrium and temperature-dependent adsorption laws, in the manner
of Fetter (Ref. 12), or Bear and Verruijt (Ref. 13).

The retardation factor, RF, describes how adsorption slows the solute velocity, uc,
relative to the average linear velocity of the fluid, ua, as in

294 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 ρ b ∂c P u
RF = 1 + ----- -------- = ----a-
θ ∂c uc

If the contaminant moves at the average linear velocity of the fluid for RF = 1. For
RF > 1, the contaminant velocity is lower than the fluid velocity owing to residence
time on solids.

Reactions
Chemical reactions of all types influence species transport in porous media. Examples
include biodegradation, radioactive decay, transformation to tracked products,
temperature- and pressure-dependent functions, exothermic reactions, and
endothermic reactions. The reactions represent change in species concentration per
unit volume porous medium per time. Reaction terms are used on the right-hand side
of the governing equation to represent these processes. For reactions in a fluid phase,
multiply the expression by the fluid volume fraction θ. Similarly, solid phase reaction
expressions include the bulk density, ρb, and gas phase reactions include the gas
volume fraction, av.

The following expressions define some common types of reactions:

ln 2
R Li = – θ --------- c i Radioactive decay — liquid
λ Li
ln 2 ∂c Pi
R Pi = – ρ b ---------  ---------- c i Radioactive decay — solid
λ Pi  ∂c i 
∂c Gi
R Gi = – --------- a v  ----------- c i Radioactive decay — gas
ln 2
λ Gi ∂c
R Lk = θζ Li c i Creation from parent c Li — liquid
∂c Pi
R Pk = ρ b ζ Pi  ---------- c i Creation from sorbed parent c Pi — solid
 ∂c i 
∂c Gi
R Gk = – ζa v  ----------- c i Reaction — gas
∂c

where λ is the chemical half life, ζ is a reaction rate, and the subscripts L, P, and G
denote liquid, solid, and gas phases, respectively. In the equations, the reactions either
depend on liquid concentration ci or solid phase concentrations cPi obtained using the
sorption derivative with ci or gas phase concentration cGi depending on the gas volume
fraction, the volatilization, and the liquid concentration.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 295

 Reaction rates can vary with results from other equations in your model, such as
temperature. For example, enter the Arrhenius rate law given in Ref. 14:

Ea ( T – TR )
ζ T = ζ R exp ------------------------------ (6-20)
R u TT R

In Equation 6-20, T denotes the current absolute temperature, TR denotes the

reference absolute temperature, Ea is the activation energy, and Ru is the universal gas
constant.

Mass Transport in Fractures

When thin fractures occur in porous media, fluid flow tends to move faster along the
fracture than in the surrounding media. The transport of chemical species therefore
also occur also faster in the direction of the fractures.

The fluid flow in a fracture can be modeled using Darcy’s law formulated in a thin
sheet of porous medium (a fracture):

κ
u = --- ∇ t p
μ

Here u is the tangential Darcy velocity, κ is the fracture permeability, μ the fluid’s
dynamic viscosity, and ∇tp is the tangential gradient of the fluid pressure.

The equation to solve for mass transport of species ci in a thin fracture, embedded in
a porous media, is derived from Equation 6-13. The resulting equation is:

∂ρ b c P, i ∂ε p c i
d fr  ------------------ + ------------- + ∇ t ⋅ ( D e, i ∇ t c i ) + u ⋅ ∇ t c i = d fr R i + d fr S i + n 0 (6-21)
∂t ∂t

Here dfr is the fracture thickness, cP, i the amount of species adsorbed to (or desorbed
from) the porous matrix (moles per unit dry weight of the solid), εp is the fracture
porosity, and De is the effective diffusivity. The first two terms on the right hand side
represent source terms from reactions, and n0 corresponds to out-of plane flux from
the adjacent porous domain.

In order to arrive at the tangential differential equation, the gradient is split into the
contributions normal and tangential to the fracture:

∇c i = ∇ n c i + ∇ t c i

296 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

The normal gradient is defined in the direction normal to the boundary representing
the fracture and the tangential gradient is defined along the boundary. Assuming that
the variations in the normal (thin) direction of the fracture are negligible compared to
those in the tangential direction, the gradient is simplified as:

∇c i = ∇ t c i

Using The Transport of Diluted Species in Fractures Interface, the transport along
fracture boundaries alone is solved for. In this case the transport in the surrounding
porous media neglected and the out-of plane flux n0 vanishes.

See Fracture for more information about the boundary feature solving
Equation 6-21. See The Transport of Diluted Species in Fractures
Interface for more information about the physics interface solving the
equation on boundaries only.

References
1. R. Codina, “A discontinuity-capturing crosswind-dissipation for the finite element
solution of the convection-diffusion equation”, Computer Methods in Applied
Mechanics and Engineering, vol. 110, pp. 325–342, 1993.

2. P.V. Danckwerts, “Continuous flow systems: Distribution of residence times”,

Chem. Eng. Sci., vol. 2, no. 1, 1953.

3. R.J. Millington and J.M. Quirk, “Permeability of Porous Solids”, Trans. Faraday
Soc., vol. 57, pp. 1200–1207, 1961.

4. R.D. Burnett and E.O. Frind, “An Alternating Direction Galerkin Technique for
Simulation of Groundwater Contaminant Transport in Three Dimensions: 2.
Dimensionality Effects”, Water Resour. Res., vol. 23, no. 4, pp. 695–705, 1987.

5. J. Bear, Hydraulics of Groundwater, McGraw Hill, 1979.

6. J. Bear, Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media, Elsevier Scientific Publishing, 1972.

7. D.M. Mackay, D.L. Freyberg, P.V. Roberts, and J.A. Cherry, “A Natural Gradient
Experiment on Solute Transport in a Sand Aquifer: 1. Approach and Overview of
Plume Movement”, Water Resour. Res., vol. 22, no. 13, pp. 2017–2030, 1986.

8. H.M.F. Freundlich, “Über die Adsorption in Lösungen” (in German), Z. Phys.

Chem., vol 57, pp. 385–470, 1906

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 297

 9. I. Langmuir, “The Constitution and Fundamental Properties of Solids and Liquids,
Part I Solids”, J. Amer. Chem. Soc., vol. 38, pp. 2221–2295, 1916.

10. J. Toth, “State equation of the solid gas interface layer”, Acta Chem. Acad. Hung.
vol. 69, pp. 311–317, 1971.

11. S. Brunauer, P.H. Emmett, E. Teller, “Adsorption of gases in multimolecular

layers”, J. Am. Chem. Soc., vol. 60 (2), pp. 309–319, 1938.

12. C.W. Fetter, Contaminant Hydrogeology, Prentice Hall, 1999.

13. J. Bear and A. Verruijt, Modeling Groundwater Flow and Pollution, D. Reidel
Publishing, 1994.

14. I. Langmuir, “Chemical Reactions at Low Temperatures”, J. Amer. Chem. Soc.,

vol. 37, 1915.

15. J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson, Chemical Engineering, vol. 2, 4th ed.,
Pergamon Press, Oxford, U.K., 1991.

16. J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson, Chemical Engineering, vol. 1, 4th ed.,
Pergamon Press, Oxford, U.K., 1991.

17. D.E Rosner, Transport Processes in Chemically Reacting Flow Systems, ISBN-13:
978-1483130262, Butterworth–Heinemann, 1986.

18. R.B. Bird, W.E. Stewart, and E.N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, 2nd ed.,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2007.

298 | CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 7

Heat Transfer Interfaces

This chapter has information about the heat transfer interfaces used for modeling,
particularly in porous media. As with all other physical descriptions simulated by
COMSOL Multiphysics®, any description of heat transfer can be directly coupled
to any other physical process. This is particularly relevant for systems based on
chemical reactions and mass transfer along with fluid flow. These physics interfaces
are found under the Heat Transfer branch ( ) when adding a physics interface.

In this chapter:

• The Mechanisms for Heat Transfer

The documentation of all features in the Heat Transfer and Heat Transfer in Porous
Media interfaces are available in the Heat Transfer Module User’s Guide,
specifically in these sections:

• The Heat Transfer Module Interfaces

• The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface
• Theory for the Heat Transfer Module
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Porous Media
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

299
 The Mechanisms for Heat Transfer
This section includes these topics:

• Selecting the Right Heat Transfer Interface

• Heat Conduction
• Heat Convection and Conduction

• The Heat Transfer Module Interfaces

• Theory for the Heat Transfer Module
• The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Porous Media
• The Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

Selecting the Right Heat Transfer Interface

The Heat Transfer branch included with the Subsurface Flow Module license includes
a number of subbranches to describe energy transport.

Heat transfer through conduction and convection (both nonisothermal flow and
conjugate heat transfer) in solid and free media is supported by physics interfaces
shipped with the basic COMSOL Multiphysics license.

If you are using this module with enhanced Heat Transfer interface features, see also
the Heat Transfer Module documentation for additional information. See Where Do
I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

This module also includes The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface. The physics
interface itself supports heat transfer in porous media where the thermal conductivity
and heat capacity are affected by the extent of porosity. As a porous media is made up
of a solid matrix filled with a fluid, heat is transported at different rates through the
two types of media. The Heat Transfer in Porous Media interface provides tools and
support for defining an appropriate matrix model.

The Heat Transfer in Porous Media interface characterizes temperature distributions

for geological phenomena and freely couple to other features in a model. The physics

300 | CHAPTER 7: HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES

interface applies to systems consisting of porous media, solids, and fluids. Included are
physics interfaces to calculate effective properties for porous media consisting of fluids
and solid components, or a rock formation with different mineral proportions. The
physics interface also features predefined expressions to represent the geotherm as a
radiogenic heat source.

The Heat Transfer in Fractures (htlsh) interface ( ), found in the Thin Structures
physics area under the Heat Transfer branch ( ), is used to model heat transfer by
conduction and convection in layered materials represented by boundaries. The
interface is active on all boundaries where a layered material is defined, with a Porous
Medium model active by default. All functionalities for including other boundary
contributions, such as surface-to-ambient radiation, are also available.

Heat Conduction
The Heat Transfer interface in this module provides tools for analyzing heat transfer
that is proportional to a temperature gradient, or conduction. It accounts explicitly for
the geotherm as a heat source. This physics interface provides options to calculate
thermal properties for multicomponent media. It incorporates boundary and source
options to represent transversal fluxes such as convection and radiation at adjacent
domains that you do not explicitly model.

The physics interface describes heat flow with negligible impacts of moving fluids. Just
a few targets for conduction modeling include resistive heating in cores, estimating a
surface heat flux, describing a temperature profile with depth, phase changes,
exothermic reactions, and cooling earth analyses. The physics interface provides tools
to consider radiative and convection heat transfers at boundaries so that you can focus
on the physics in the domain of interest. With the COMSOL Multiphysics
“just-type-it-in” modeling flexibility, it is straightforward to create nonlinear
expressions where, for example, thermal conductivity varies with temperature as well
as other physics.

Heat conduction figures into radiogenic decay, pressure-temperature phase changes,

cooling-earth models, radiation, exothermic and endothermic reactions of solutes,
microbial processes, diurnal heating, and many other earth processes. Conductive heat
transfer can be long-term steady or exquisitely sensitive over tiny time increments. It
can involve molten materials, mineral grains, fluids trapped within interstices,
human-made structures, and molten rock. The heat conduction can operate within
closed systems, but the geometry of interest often interacts at edges and surfaces with
adjacent domains through moving fluids, conduction across a semi-insulating layer,

THE MECHANISMS FOR HEAT TRANSFER | 301

 and radiation. The models can cover such large distances that the tiny amount of heat
given off by the spontaneous decay of the radiogenic particles present in most rocks
produces the discernible temperature gradient with depth known to many as the
geotherm.

Heat Convection and Conduction

The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface can also set up analyses for heat
transferred by convection and conduction for subsurface flow applications. Use this
physics interface to describe heat carried by moving oil, water, or magma that you
describe with a velocity field. Presumably the fluid velocity is nonzero but not
necessarily so. You can couple the Heat Transfer interface to a Fluid Flow interface if
you want to model, for example, rising magma, hot springs, liquid-steam transfers,
conduction in a solid rock, buoyancy flow in streams, magma convection, and hot oil
moving through a pipe. For models involving large depth changes, this physics
interface provides a number of options to characterize the geothermal gradient.

The physics interface assumes that the model domain includes a single fluid moving
through a domain with a number of immobile constituents, including several different
solids and trapped fluids. Such is the case in many porous media.

The physics interface can also describe heat transferred with a moving fluid, which can
be a surface flow or one confined to interstices in a porous medium. Analyses can cover
thermal pollution migrating in a stream, transfer of hot oil into and up a well, steam
injection, and diurnal heating in variably saturated soil.

In this context it is worth mentioning that it is possible to model inflow of heat

through a virtual domain at inlet boundaries of fluid domains using the so-called
Inflow boundary condition. Accordingly, an Outflow Boundary condition is available
at the outlet. Furthermore, an Open Boundary condition is available to define a
boundary as the limit between a nonsolid domain of the geometry and the rest of the
same fluid domain that is not represented in the geometry. At the open boundary both
inflow and outflow conditions are supported.

This physics interface easily combines with others for an unlimited number of
interesting analyses. Consider, for example, that it is straightforward to include the
impacts of temperature change on hydraulic conductivity, biodegradation and
chemical reaction rates, electric and magnetic potential fields, and rock strength.
Likewise, you can feed back results of other physics, including reactions that consume
heat, to a heat transfer model.

302 | CHAPTER 7: HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES

Phase Change
When modeling heat transfer in solids, fluids, and porous media, the properties of a
phase changing material are specified according to the apparent heat capacity
formulation. This formulation gets its name from the fact that the latent heat is
included as an additional term in the heat capacity.

The subnode Phase Change Material is available under the Solid, Fluid, or Porous
Medium node.

With phase transitions in porous media, there is often a remaining phase that does not
participate in the phase transition. For example, water in the soil, which does not freeze
even at values far lower than 0 degrees, or water in food, which does not evaporate
completely during cooking. To consider such residual phases Immobile Fluids (Porous
Medium) can be used.

Frozen Inclusion: Application Library path

Subsurface_Flow_Module/Heat_Transfer/frozen_inclusion

A more detailed description of the functionalities mentioned above and the discussion
of a variety of modeling techniques can be found in the following sections of the Heat
Transfer Module User’s Guide:

• Heat Transfer Variables

• Using the Boundary Conditions for the Heat Transfer Interfaces
• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer
• Heat Transfer Consistent and Inconsistent Stabilization Methods
• Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Coupling
• Solver Settings
• Theory for the Inflow Boundary Condition
• Theory for Heat Transfer with Phase Change

See also The Heat Transfer Module Interfaces and Theory for the Heat Transfer
Module.

THE MECHANISMS FOR HEAT TRANSFER | 303

304 | CHAPTER 7: HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES
 8

Multiphysics Interfaces and Couplings

The Subsurface Flow Module contains predefined multiphysics interfaces for

poroelasticity and multiphase flow in porous media. When a predefined
multiphysics interface is added from the Model Wizard or Add Physics window, it
adds the constituent interfaces and the Multiphysics node which automatically
includes one or more multiphysics couplings.

In this chapter:

• Theory for the Poroelasticity Interfaces

• The Poroelasticity Interfaces
• Theory for the Multiphase Flow in Porous Media Interface
• The Multiphase Flow in Porous Media Interface
• The Reacting Flow in Porous Media Interface
• The Nonisothermal Flow, Brinkman Equations Interface

305
 Theory for the Poroelasticity
Interfaces
Small Strain Poroelasticity
Poroelasticity theory describes the interaction between fluid flow and deformation in
elastic porous media. This bidirectional multiphysics coupling relates fluid flow and
solid deformation with linear constitutive relations.

Of the two constitutive relations governing poroelastic behavior, one relates the stress,
strain, and pore pressure:

σ = C:ε – α B p f I (8-1)

Here, σ is the Cauchy stress tensor, ε is the strain tensor, αB is the Biot–Willis
coefficient, and pf is the fluid pore pressure. For linear elasticity, the coefficients in the
elasticity matrix C must be measured under “drained” conditions by measuring the
strain induced by a change in stress (or by measuring the induced stress by changes in
strain) under constant pore pressure.

By splitting the above relation into volumetric and deviatoric parts, it can be seen that
the deviatoric part (shear stress) is independent of the pore pressure. For an isotropic
linear elastic material, this means that

dev ( σ ) = 2G d dev ( ε )

where Gd is the shear modulus of the drained porous matrix.

The volumetric coupling is derived by taking the trace of the stress tensor σ, as written
in Equation 8-1

– p m = trace ( σ )/3 = K d ε vol – α B p f

Here, the mean pressure pm is positive in compression, Kd is the bulk modulus of the
drained porous matrix, and the volumetric strain εvol is a measurement of the porous
matrix dilation or contraction (negative in compression).

306 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

Note that the Poroelasticity multiphysics coupling adds the contribution from the pore
pressure, αBpf, as a load. In this setting, the variables for the stress tensor σ and mean
pressure pm are effective stress measures.

The mean pressure and the volumetric strain are available from the Solid
Mechanics interface in the variables [Link] and [Link],
respectively. The fluid pore pressure is available from the Darcy’s Law
interface in the dependent variable p.

The other constitutive relation in Biot’s theory of poroelasticity (Ref. 1) relates the
increment in fluid content ζ to changes in volumetric strain and pore pressure. The
pore pressure is proportional to the dilation of the porous matrix and the variation in
fluid content:

p f = M ( ζ – α B ε vol ) (8-2)

Biot and Willis (Ref. 1) measured the coefficients αB and M with the unjacketed
compressibility test and derived expressions for these coefficients in terms of solid and
fluid bulk moduli (or compressibilities).

The variable M, sometimes called the Biot modulus, is the inverse of the storage
coefficient Sp in the Darcy’s law interface. It is defined through Equation 8-2 as the
change in fluid content due to changes in pore pressure under constant deformation
(constant volumetric strain):

1- = ∂ζ
S p = ----
M ∂ pf ε ii

Using this definition, it is possible to measure the storage coefficient Sp directly in the
lab, and, in the case of an ideal isotropic porous material, it can be calculated from basic
material properties as

ε αB – εp
S p = -----p- + -----------------
- = ε p χ f + ( α B – ε p )χ s (8-3)
Kf Ks

where εp is the initial porosity, Kf the fluid bulk modulus (the inverse of the fluid
compressibility χf), and Ks the solid bulk modulus (the inverse of the solid
compressibility χs); that is, the theoretical bulk modulus of a homogeneous block of
the solid material making up the porous matrix.

THEORY FOR THE POROELASTICITY INTERFACES | 307

 The Biot–Willis coefficient, αB, relates the volume of fluid expelled (or sucked into) a
porous material element due to the volumetric change of the same element. This
coefficient can be measured experimentally as the change in mean pressure due to
changes in the pore pressure under constant deformation (constant volumetric strain).
In the case of an ideal isotropic porous material it can be defined in terms of the
drained and solid bulk moduli as

∂p m K
αB = = 1 – ------d-
∂ pf ε ii
Ks

The drained bulk modulus Kd is always smaller than the solid bulk modulus Ks (a solid
block is stiffer than a porous block made of the same material), and therefore the Biot–
Willis coefficient is bounded to εp ≤ αB ≤ 1.

The Biot–Willis coefficient depends on the properties of the porous matrix but not on
the properties of the fluid. A soft porous matrix is represented by a Biot–Willis
coefficient close to unit (since Kd << Ks), while for a stiff matrix, αB is close to the
porosity εp, since Kd ≈ (1 − εp)Ks.

By replacing Ks = Kd/(1 − αB), the storage coefficient Sp in Equation 8-3 is calculated

in terms of the porosity εp, the Biot–Willis coefficient αB, and the bulk moduli of the
fluid Kf and the drained porous matrix Kd as

ε ( 1 – αB )
S p = -----p- + ( α B – ε p ) --------------------- (8-4)
Kf Kd

For a soft porous matrix, αB ≈ 1, or for a stiff porous matrix, αB ≈ εp, the lower bound
for the poroelastic storage is Sp ≈ εp/Kf.

A special case of Biot’s theory of poroelasticity arises if both the solid and the fluid
phases are assumed incompressible. In this case, it follows that χf = χs = 0, the Biot–
Willis coefficient αB = 1, and the storage coefficient Sp = 0. The corresponding
governing equations are then identical to those derived for a biphasic porous medium
with incompressible solid and fluid constituents (Ref. 3). This version of the
poroelasticity coupling is available by selecting the Biphasic poroelasticity model, see
Poroelastic Coupling Properties.

The linear momentum balance for a fully saturated porous solid in equilibrium under
gravitational load reads

– ∇ ⋅ σ = – ∇ ( α B p f ) + ρ av g (8-5)

308 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

where σ is the stress tensor computed from linear elasticity, and g is the gravitational
acceleration. The average density ρav is computed from

ρ av = ρ f ε p + ρ d

where ρf represents the fluid density, ρd = (1 − εp)ρs the density of the dry porous
matrix, and ρs the density of the solid material.

The density of the dry porous matrix, ρd, and the drained bulk modulus,
Kd, correspond to the user inputs for the density and bulk modulus in the
Solid Mechanics interface.

The fluid-to-structure coupling enters as an additional volumetric force in the

momentum equation as described in Equation 8-5, which can be identified as an
external load due to the fluid pressure, see External Stress in the Structural Mechanics
Module User’s Guide for details.

Equation 8-5, which describes an equilibrium state (inertial effects are neglected), also
applies to the case of a time-dependent flow model. This is a valid assumption in
geotechnical and biological applications since the time scale of the inertial response is
generally many orders of magnitude faster than the time scale of the flow. When you
study the coupled process on the time scale of the flow, you can therefore assume that
the solid reaches a new equilibrium immediately in response to a change in the flow
conditions. This means that the stresses and strains change in time — even if
Equation 8-5 appears to be stationary — and that the structure-to-fluid coupling term,
involving the rate of strain, is nonzero.

When Include inertial terms is selected, the average density is used in the inertial term
for the momentum equation. In the presence of a volume force f (for example,
gravity), the momentum balance then reads

∂ 2 u-
ρ av --------- –∇ ⋅ σ = – ∇ ( αB pf ) + f (8-6)
∂t 2

where u represents the solid displacement and ρav the average density.

Inertial effects are also included when modeling waves in saturated porous media, see
the Theory for the Poroelastic Waves Interfaces section in the Acoustics Module User’s
Guide for details.

THEORY FOR THE POROELASTICITY INTERFACES | 309

 Darcy’s Law
Darcy’s law describes the flow and pore pressure fields in the poroelastic medium. The
fluid equation comes from the mass conservation

∂ ρ
( ε ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρf vd ) = Qm (8-7)
∂t f p

where ρf is the fluid density, εp is the porosity, and Qm is a mass sink or source. The
so-called Darcy velocity vd is computed from Darcy’s law

κ
v d = – --- ∇p f
μ

where κ is the permeability of the porous matrix, μ is the fluid viscosity, and pf is the
pore pressure. If gravity is included, Darcy’s velocity is augmented by

κ
v d = – --- ( ∇p f – ρ f g )
μ

where g is the gravitational acceleration. Note that the Darcy velocity vd is actually the
relative velocity of the fluid with respect to the pore walls weighted by the porosity,

vd = εp ( vf – vs )

The storage model Sp for linear poroelasticity is derived from

∂ ρ ∂p f
( ε ) = ρf Sp
∂t f p ∂t

where the poroelastic storage term Sp is calculated from Equation 8-4 for Biot
poroelasticity and it is set to zero for biphasic poroelasticity.

For small strain poroelasticity, the mass source or sink Qm reads

∂
Q m = – ρ f α B ----- ε vol
∂t

where ∂εvol/∂t is the rate of change in volumetric strain (of the porous matrix), ρf is the
fluid density, and αB is the Biot–Willis coefficient. You can interpret the
right-hand-side term as the rate of expansion of the pore space. As εvol increases with
time, the volume fraction available for the fluid increases and thereby gives rise to a
fluid sink; as indicated by the negative sign in the source term Qm.

310 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

The poroelastic storage together with the expression for the mass source translate the
mass conservation equation, Equation 8-7, into

∂p f ∂
ρf Sp + ∇ ⋅ ( ρ f v d ) = – ρ f α B ----- ε vol (8-8)
∂t ∂t

Large Strain Poroelasticity

When a porous body experiences large deformations (large strains or large rotations),
the infinitesimal theory cannot be used. In a large deformation context, the
momentum equation, Equation 8-6, reads

∂ 2 u- T
ρ av --------- –∇ ⋅ P T = ∇ ⋅ Pp + f (8-9)
∂t 2

where the gradient ∇ = ∂/∂X corresponds to the material gradient with respect to the
undeformed configuration, and P is the (effective) first Piola–Kirchhoff stress tensor.
See Equation of Motion in the Structural Mechanics Theory chapter for details.

The pore pressure contribution enters as a load in Equation 8-9. The first Piola–
Kirchhoff stress generated from the pore pressure reads

P p = – α B p f JF – T (8-10)

where F is the deformation gradient and J is the volume change. In biphasic

poroelasticity, the total stress in the mixture is often of interest. The corresponding
Cauchy stress is computed as

σ mix = σ – p f I (8-11)

where σ is the (effective) Cauchy stress computed in the Solid Mechanics interface.

Darcy’s law is also written with respect to the undeformed configuration. The material
Darcy velocity field reads

κ
V d = – --- ∇p f
μ

where κ is the material permeability tensor of the porous matrix, μ is the fluid viscosity,
and pf is the pore pressure. The symbol ∇ = ∂/∂X corresponds to the gradient with
respect to the undeformed configuration.

THEORY FOR THE POROELASTICITY INTERFACES | 311

 Darcy’s velocity in the current (deformed) configuration is then computed with the
so-called Piola transformation (Ref. 2)

1
v d = --- F ⋅ V d
J

The mass conservation, Equation 8-8, is then written as (Ref. 2)

∂p f 1 ∂
ρf Sp + --- ∇ ⋅ ( ρ f V d ) = – ρ f α B ----- ε vol (8-12)
∂t J ∂t

where the rate of volumetric strain is now computed from Hencky’s strain

∂- ∂ 1 ∂J
---- ε = ----- log J = --- ------
∂t vol ∂t J ∂t

For large strain poroelasticity, the poroelastic storage coefficient Sp is now computed
0
from the current porosity εp and not from the initial porosity ε p of the undeformed
porous matrix. The poroelastic storage (Equation 8-3) in a large strain context still
reads

ε αB – εp
S p = -----p- + -----------------
- (8-13)
Kf Ks

with the important difference that the current porosity in the deformed matrix, εp, is
now derived from mass conservation of the solid. For Biot poroelasticity, the current
(deformed configuration) porosity is expressed in terms of the volume change J and
the pore pressure pf as

· · 1
εp
- = J
---------------------- --- + ------ p· f
( αB – εp ) J Ks

For biphasic poroelasticity, the current porosity has the simple closed-form expression

1–ε
ε p = 1 – --------------0
J

where ε0 stands for the initial (undeformed) porosity.

For numerical reasons, and also since the solid mechanics equations are solved in a
total Lagrangian formulation (see Lagrangian Formulation for details), it is more
efficient to write the mass conservation equation for the fluid in the undeformed

312 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

configuration. This is done by multiplying Equation 8-12 by the volume change J, so
that it reads

∂p f ∂J
Jρ f S p + ∇ ⋅ ( ρ f V d ) = – ρ f α B ------ (8-14)
∂t ∂t

In the biphasic poroelasticity formulation, the first term on the left hand side is
neglected as the storage coefficient Sp is set to zero.

Unsaturated Poroelasticity
For unsaturated poroelasticity, the pore pressure is computed from the volume average
of the liquid water and moist air pressures, pl and pm

pf = sl pl + sm pm

here, sl is the liquid saturation, and sm = 1 − sl is the moist air saturation.

The liquid water and moist air pressures are computed by solving the continuity
equations for dry air and moisture content

a ∂p a ∂s l ∂ε vol s ∂p f
sm ρa Sp + ∇ ⋅ Γa = εp ρa – sm ρa αB – sm ρa Sp
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t

v ∂φ w ∂s l ∂ε vol s ∂p f
s m ρ v S p p v, sat + ∇ ⋅ Γw = εp ( ρv – ρl ) – ρw αB – ρw Sp
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t

here, ρa stands for the dry air density, ρv is the vapor density, ρl is the liquid water
density, ρw is the volume average water density (vapor and liquid), and φw is the
relative humidity.
i
The storage coefficients, S p , for vapor, dry air, and solid are defined as

v
Sp = εp χv

a
Sp = ε p χa

s
S p = ( α B – ε p )χ s

where χi stands for the compressibility of the i-component.

THEORY FOR THE POROELASTICITY INTERFACES | 313

 For a formulation equivalent to Large Strain Poroelasticity, the continuity equations
read

v ∂φ w ∂s l ∂J s ∂p f
Js m ρ v S p p v, sat + ∇ ⋅ Γ w = Jε p ( ρ v – ρ l ) – ρ w α B – Jρ w S p
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t

a ∂p a ∂s l ∂J s ∂p f
Js m ρ a S p + ∇ ⋅ Γ a = Jε p ρ a – s m ρ a α B – Js m ρ a S p
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t

The moisture flux Γw and the dry air flux the Γa are described in details in the Theory
for Moisture Transport in Solids chapter.

References for the Poroelasticity Interfaces

1. M.A. Biot, “Mechanics of Deformation and Acoustic Propagation in Porous
Media,” J. Appl. Phys., vol. 33, pp. 1482–1498, 1962.

2. O. Coussy, Poromechanics, John Wiley & Sons, 2004.

3. W. Ehlers, “Foundations of multiphasic and porous materials,” Porous Media:

Theory, Experiments and Numerical Applications, W. Ehlers and J. Bluhm, eds.,
Springer-Verlag, 2002

314 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

The Poroelasticity Interfaces
The Poroelasticity, Solid Interface
The Poroelasticity, Solid interface ( ) combines a transient formulation of Darcy’s
law with a quasistatic formulation of Solid Mechanics. The coupling occurs on the
domain level, where the pore pressure from the Darcy’s Law interface acts as a load for
the Solid Mechanics interface, causing swelling or shrinking. Changes in volumetric
strain affect the pore space, acting as a mass source or sink in Darcy’s Law.

When a predefined Poroelasticity, Solid interface is added from the Structural Mechanics
branch ( ) of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows, the Solid Mechanics and
Darcy’s Law interfaces are added to the Model Builder.

In addition, the Multiphysics node is added, which automatically includes the

Poroelasticity multiphysics coupling.

On the Constituent Physics Interfaces

• The Solid Mechanics interface is described in The Solid Mechanics Interface.
• The Darcy’s Law interface is described in The Darcy’s Law Interface.

To model orthotropic or anisotropic porous materials requires the

Structural Mechanics Module. For information about the constitutive
equations and theory background, see Structural Mechanics Theory.

Theory for the Poroelasticity Interfaces.

SETTINGS FOR PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, for example
Poroelasticity, specific settings are included with the physics interfaces and the coupling
features.

However, if the physics interfaces are added one at a time, followed by the coupling
features, these modified settings are not automatically included.

THE POROELASTICITY INTERFACES | 315

 For example, if single Solid Mechanics and Darcy’s Law interfaces are added, an empty
Multiphysics node appears in the model tree. You can choose from the available
coupling features, but the settings in the constituent interfaces are not modified.

Coupling features are available from the context menu (right-click the
Multiphysics node) or from the Physics toolbar, Multiphysics menu.

TABLE 8-1: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR A POROELASTICITY INTERFACE.

PHYSICS INTERFACE OR MODIFIED SETTINGS

COUPLING FEATURE

Solid Mechanics For the Solid Mechanics interface, under Structural

Transient Behavior, the Structural transient behavior is
set to Quasistatic.
Darcy’s Law For the Darcy’s Law interface, a Poroelastic storage
model is added by default.
Poroelasticity The Domain Selection is the same as that of the
participating physics interfaces.
The corresponding Solid Mechanics and Darcy’s Law
interfaces are preselected in the Coupled Interfaces
section.

Failure of a Multilateral Well: Application Library path

Subsurface_Flow_Module/Poromechanics/multilateral_well

Poroelasticity (Multiphysics Coupling)

The Poroelasticity multiphysics coupling node ( ) links the Solid Mechanics and
Darcy’s Law interfaces bidirectionally to account for poroelastic deformation.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

316 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is poro1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual (the default)
from the Selection list to choose specific domains to define the poroelasticity coupling,
or select All domains as needed.

When Poroelasticity is added as an effect of adding a Poroelasticity interface, the

selection is the same as for the participating physics interfaces.

Only domains that are active in the physics interfaces selected in the Coupled
Interfaces section can be selected.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. The Solid
mechanics and Flow in porous media lists include all applicable physics interfaces.

The default values depend on how the coupling node is created.

• If it is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual toolbar
(macOS and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics interface
of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it is added automatically when a multiphysics interface is selected in the Model
Wizard or Add Physics window, then the two participating physics interfaces are
selected.

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the Poroelasticity node from a
physics interface. If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder, for
example if Darcy’s Law is deleted, then the Flow in porous media list defaults to None as
there is nothing to couple to.

If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then
in order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the physics
interface again from the Solid mechanics or Flow in porous media lists. This
is applicable to all multiphysics coupling nodes that would normally
default to the once present interface. See Multiphysics Modeling
Workflow in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THE POROELASTICITY INTERFACES | 317

 POROELASTIC COUPLING PROPERTIES
In the Poroelasticity model list, choose between Biot and Biphasic. The Biot
poroelasticity model (default) is commonly used in geotechnical applications where the
compressibility of the solid and/or fluid phase is important. In contrast, the biphasic
model assumes that both the solid and the fluid phases are incompressible, which is
valid for soft materials like biological tissues and hydrogels. Note that even if both
constituents are modeled as incompressible, the porous medium can still undergo large
volume changes as a result of fluid inflow or outflow.

In the Reference pressure level list, choose User defined to enter a reference pressure pref
(SI unit: Pa) at which the pore pressure does not affect the porous matrix deformation.
The default value is 1 atm. If applicable, the list also contains options to inherit the
value from another physics interface that announces the reference pressure level as a
model input. For example, the reference pressure level can often be inherited from the
corresponding input in the Darcy’s Law interface that is part of the Poroelasticity
coupling.

For the Biot-Willis coefficient list, the default is to take its value From material. Choose
User defined to enter a Biot–Willis coefficient αB (dimensionless) in the text field. The
user input is only required if the Poroelasticity model is set to Biot.

318 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

Theory for the Multiphase Flow in
Porous Media Interface
The model equations that are solved in the Multiphase Flow in Porous Media interface
are based on the mass conservation of each phase and on an extended Darcy’s law. The
mass conservation equation for each phase is given by

∂
( ε ρ s ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρi ui ) = Qi (8-15)
∂t p i i

where εp (dimensionless) is the porosity, and the vector ui should be interpreted as the
volumetric flux of phase i (SI unit m3/(m2·s) or m/s). The volumetric fluxes are
determined using the extended Darcy’s law (Ref. 2)

κ ri
u i = – ------- κ ( ∇p i – ρ i g ) (8-16)
μi

where κ denotes the permeability (SI unit: m2) of the porous medium, g the
gravitational acceleration vector (SI unit: m/s2), and μi the dynamic viscosity (SI unit:
kg/(m·s)), pi the pressure field (SI unit: Pa), and κri the relative permeability
(dimensionless) of phase i, respectively. The phase pressures pi are related through the
capillary pressure functions p cij :

p i – p j = p cij ( s 1, …, s N ) i≠j (8-17)

One phase pressure can be chosen independently so that N − 1 capillary pressure

relations are needed to define the other phase pressures. In addition it is assumed that
all phases together fill the pore space completely, so that we have

 si = 1 (8-18)
i=1

Pressure-Saturation Formulation
The algebraic relations in Equation 8-17 and Equation 8-18 allow for a reduction of
the number of dependent variables. An often used way is to eliminate N − 1 phase
pressures and one of the saturations. This results in a so-called pressure-saturation

THEORY FOR THE MULTIPHASE FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA INTERFACE | 319

 formulation (Ref. 3). The procedure in the Multiphase Flow in Porous Media interface is
to pick one of the phases, let us say phase i c , then express the volume fraction, or
saturation, s ic , of this phase in terms of the saturations of the other phases and in
addition to use the pressure, p ic , of this phase to define the other phase pressures:

N
 
 s i
sic = 1–
  
(8-19)
 i = 1, i ≠ i c 

p i = p ic + p c ( s 1, …, s N ) for i ≠ i c (8-20)
i

The equations for the saturations si, (i ≠ ic) are given by Equation 8-15 and
Equation 8-16. To arrive at an equation for p ic , the conservation equations of all
phases are summed. This results in

N
   N 
∂
εp  ρi si + ∇ ⋅ 
 ρ u 
i i = Q tot (8-21)
∂t  
 i=1  i = 1 

where the total mass source Qtot is given by

Q tot =  Qi (8-22)
i=1

The equations for the saturations si are solved in the Phase Transport in Porous Media
interface (Equation 8-15 and Equation 8-16). The Equation 8-21 for the pressure
field p i c , needed as an input to the Phase Transport in Porous Media interface, is solved
for in the Darcy’s Law interface: the Multiphase Flow in Porous Media multiphysics
coupling interface replaces the equation

∂ 1
( ε ρ ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρ tot u d ) = Q m where u d = – --- κ ( ∇p – ρ tot g ) (8-23)
∂ t p tot μ

which is originally implemented in the Darcy’s Law interface, with Equation 8-21 by
adding the following terms to the left-hand side of Equation 8-23:

 N 
∇ ⋅   ρ i u i – ρ tot u d (8-24)
i = 1 

320 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

and by setting the right-hand side Qm to be equal to Qtot. The volume averaged
density ρtot is given by

ρ tot =  ρi si (8-25)
i=1

Furthermore, the Multiphase Flow in Porous Media multiphysics coupling interface

couples the user inputs for the porosity and permeability of the porous matrix in the
Darcy’s Law interface to the corresponding user input fields in the Phase and Porous
Media Transport Properties feature, and couples the pressure field computed for in the
Darcy’s Law interface to the user input field for the pressure of the phase computed
from the volume constraint.

Note that when the hydraulic conductivity of a domain is specified in the Darcy’s Law
interface (instead of the permeability), the coupled Phase and Porous Media Transport
Properties feature is supplied with a permeability that is computed using a reference
kinematic viscosity of 1.004*10−6 m2s−1 (kinematic viscosity of water at 293.15 K).

In the other direction, the multiphysics coupling node provides the averaged density
(denoted by ρtot in Equation 8-24 above) and effective viscosity to the Darcy’s Law
interface.

Mass Source
When adding a Mass Source node in the coupled Phase Transport interface, it is by
default assumed that the net mass source of all phases, Qtot, equals zero. This implies

Qic = –  Qi (8-26)
i = 1, i ≠ i c

However, when mass is transferred from or to phases not accounted for in the phase
transport interface — for instance, when mass is released or absorbed by the solid part
of the porous matrix — select the Mass transfer to other phases check box. In this case
the mass source for the phase calculated from the volume constraint should also be
specified, and the net total mass source Qtot is supplied as a right-hand side to the
Darcy Equation 8-21 for p ic .

THEORY FOR THE MULTIPHASE FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA INTERFACE | 321

 Boundary Conditions
When supplying boundary conditions for the coupled Phase Transport in Porous Media
and Darcy’s Law interfaces, bear in mind that the Pressure boundary condition in the
Darcy’s Law interface affects the pressure of the phase from the volume constraint, p i c .
If the pressure of another phase needs to supplied, then take into account the capillary
pressure.

Since the coupled Darcy’s Law interface uses the conservation equation for the total
mass (Equation 8-21) to solve for p ic , the Mass Flux boundary condition in the Darcy’s
Law interface should be used to prescribe the mass flux of all phases together.

If the mass flux of the phase computed from the volume constraint needs to be
prescribed at a boundary, and the total mass flux is not known a priori, it might be
necessary to compute for the total mass flux in the form of a Lagrange multiplier by
using the weak constraint formulation for the pressure boundary condition in the
Darcy’s Law interface.

Thin Barrier (Multiphysics Coupling)

The Thin Barrier multiphysics coupling uses the Extra Dimension tool to solve the
equations for the pressure and saturations through the thin barrier structure’s
thickness. The thin structure has its domain represented by the product space between
the lumped boundary and the additional dimension for the thickness. Inside this
product space, it is convenient to split the gradient operator into a tangential part and
a normal part: ∇=∇t+∇n.

The following assumptions, used in deriving the Thin Barrier equations from the
equations solved in the Multiphase Flow in Porous Media interface, justify the
simplification ∇=∇n:

• A thin barrier can be considered as a boundary of thickness significantly smaller than

the typical lengths of the overall model.
• The permeability of the porous material inside the thin barrier is significantly smaller
than the permeability of the porous material in the adjacent domains.

• There is no mass source or sink inside the thin barrier.

In addition, these assumptions imply that the effect of gravity on the phase transport
can be neglected. This results in the following set of equations for the saturations si,
(i ≠ ic) and the pressure p ic :

322 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

 ∂
( ε ρ s ) + ∇ n ⋅ ( ρ i u i ) = 0 for i ≠ i c (8-27)
∂t p i i

κ ri
u i = – ------- κ∇ n p i (8-28)
μi

N
   N 
∂
εp ρ i s i + ∇ n ⋅ 
 ρ i u i = 0
 (8-29)
∂t   
 i=1  i = 1 

Together with the algebraic relations

N
 
 s i
sic = 1–
  
(8-30)
 i = 1, i ≠ i c 

p i = p ic + p c ( s 1, …, s N ) for i ≠ i c (8-31)
i

Here εp (dimensionless) denotes the porosity and κ the permeability (SI unit: m2) of
the porous material in the thin barrier. Further more ρi denotes the density (SI unit:
kg/m3), μi the dynamic viscosity (SI unit: kg/(m·s)), pi the pressure field (SI unit:
Pa), ui the (normal) volumetric flux (SI unit: m/s) and κri the relative permeability
(dimensionless) of phase i, respectively.

Since the interfaces between the thin barrier and the adjacent domains are boundaries
between a more permeable and a less permeable porous domain, conditions analogous
to the Porous Medium Discontinuity Boundary Condition are needed to couple the
equation Equation 8-27 for the saturations inside the thin barrier to the equations in
the adjacent domains. These condition at the extremities of the extra dimension can
be written as:

 t d d t
t t  p ec, i if p ci ( s i ) ≤ p ec, i
p ci ( si ) L = 0 =  for i ≠ i c (8-32)
 p dc ( s di ) if
d d
p ci ( s i ) > p ec, i
t
 i

where the superscript t is used to indicate the saturation and capillary pressure inside
the thin barrier (the low permeable side of the interface), and the superscript d
indicates the domain adjacent to the downside of the thin barrier (the high permeable
side), and

THEORY FOR THE MULTIPHASE FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA INTERFACE | 323

  t u u t
t t  p ec, i if p c i ( s i ) ≤ p ec, i
p ci ( s i ) L = ds =  for i ≠ i c (8-33)
 p uc ( s ui ) if
u u t
p ci ( s i ) > p ec, i
 i

where the superscript u indicates the domain adjacent to the upside of the thin barrier
(again the high permeable side) and where ds is the length of the extra dimension, or
equivalently, the thickness of the thin structure.

The additional conditions are continuity of the fluxes for all phases and continuity of
the pressure of the phase ic computed from the volume constraint. Note that this last
condition assumes that this phase is present both inside the thin barrier and in the
adjacent domains. Furthermore, this boundary condition assumes that the phase ic
computed from the volume constraint is the wetting phase and it is necessary that the
settings for the van Genuchten or Brooks and Corey capillary pressure model in the
adjacent domains match this assumption.

Please find related information under

• Theory for the Phase Transport Interfaces in the CFD Module User’s
Guide and
• Using Extra Dimensions in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

References
1. J. Bear, Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media, Elsevier Scientific Publishing, 1972.

2. Z. Chen, G. Huan, and Y. Ma, Computational Methods for Multiphase Flows in

Porous Media, Philadelphia: Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 2006.

3. R. Helmig, Multiphase Flow and Transport Processes in the Subsurface – A

Contribution to the Modeling of Hydrosystems, Springer–Verlag, 1997.

324 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

The Multiphase Flow in Porous Media
Interface
The Multiphase Flow in Porous Media interface ( ) combines the Darcy’s Law interface
with the Phase Transport in Porous Media interface to model the flow and transport of
multiple immiscible phases in a porous medium.

When a predefined Multiphase Flow in Porous Media interface is added from the Porous
Media and Subsurface Flow branch ( ) of the Model Wizard or Add Physics window,
Phase Transport and Darcy’s Law interfaces are added to the Model Builder. In addition,
the Multiphysics node is added, which automatically includes the Multiphase Flow in
Porous Media multiphysics coupling.

On the Constituent Physics Interfaces

The Phase Transport in Porous Media interface is used to simulate the transport of
immiscible multiple species in a porous medium and solves for their averaged volume
fractions (also called saturations). The interfaces between the different phases are not
tracked explicitly, although microscopic interfacial effects are taken into account in the
macroscopic equations through the capillary pressure functions.

The Darcy’s Law interface is used to simulate fluid flow through interstices in a porous
medium. It can be used to model low-velocity flows in media where the permeability
and porosity are very small, and for which the pressure gradient is the major driving
force and the flow is mostly influenced by the frictional resistance within the pores.

SETTINGS FOR PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, for example
Multiphase Flow in Porous Media, specific settings are included with the physics
interfaces and the coupling features.

However, if physics interfaces are added one at a time, followed by the coupling
features, these modified settings are not automatically included.

For example, if single Phase Transport in Porous Media and Darcy’s Law interfaces are
added, an empty Multiphysics node appears in the model tree. You can choose from the
available coupling features but the settings in the constituent interfaces are not
modified.

THE MULTIPHASE FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA INTERFACE | 325

 Multiphase Flow in Porous Media (Multiphysics Coupling)
The Multiphase Flow in Porous Media multiphysics coupling node ( ) links
bidirectionally the Phase Transport in Porous Media and Darcy’s Law interfaces.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is mfpm1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual (the default)
from the Selection list to choose specific domains to define the multiphase flow
coupling, or select All domains as needed.

When Multiphase Flow in Porous Media is added as an effect of adding a Multiphase Flow
in Porous Media interface, the selection is the same as for the participating physics
interfaces.

Only domains that are active in the participating physics interfaces (which are chosen
from the Coupled Interfaces selection list) can be selected.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. The Phase
transport and Flow in porous media lists include all applicable physics interfaces.

The default values depend on how the coupling node is created.

• If it is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual toolbar
(Mac and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics interface
of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it is added automatically when a multiphysics interface is selected in the Model
Wizard or Add Physics window, then the two participating physics interfaces are
selected.

326 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the Multiphase Flow in Porous
Media node from a physics interface. If the physics interface is removed from the Model
Builder, for example Darcy’s Law is deleted, then the Flow in porous media list defaults
to None as there is nothing to couple to.

Please find related information under

• The Phase Transport Interfaces and

• Theory for the Phase Transport Interfaces

in the CFD Module User’s Guide.

Well (Multiphysics Coupling)

The Multiphase Flow in Porous Media ( ) interface contains an optional Well
multiphysics coupling feature on points (in 2D) or edges (in 3D). The Well coupling
node is intended to model injection or production wells and links bidirectionally the
Phase Transport in Porous Media and Darcy’s Law interfaces.

The Subsurface Flow Module license is required to use this coupling feature (see
[Link]

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The default Name (for the first Well multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is
wellmpp1.

POINT OR EDGE SELECTION

When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual (the default)
from the Selection list to choose specific points or edges, or select All points or All edges
as needed.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section controls which individual interfaces are coupled by the current coupling
feature. If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then in
order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the correct physics interface
again from the Phase transport or Flow in porous media lists

THE MULTIPHASE FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA INTERFACE | 327

 WELL
Select whether the well is a production or injection well: for an injection well positive
mass fluxes signify inflowing fluxes and for a production well positive mass fluxes are
outflowing fluxes.

Either specify the total Total mass flow rate M0 (SI unit: kg/s), the Total mass flow rate
per unit length Ml (SI unit: kg/(m·s)), the Pressure p0 (SI unit: Pa), the Pressure head
Hp0 (SI unit: m), or the Hydraulic head H0 (SI unit: m). The elevation D used to
convert the hydraulic head to a pressure, is defined by the gravity effects in the coupled
Darcy’s Law interface.

Select the Specify well diameter check box to define the Well diameter dw (SI unit: m).
This averages the mass source on the boundary of a cylinder around the line. This
option avoids obtaining an increasing pressure value at the line when meshing finer
than this diameter. It makes use of the circavg operator.

If the well diameter is defined, the option to specify the Total mass flux N0 (SI unit:
kg/(m2·s)) is also available.

PHASES
The number of Phase sections depends on the number of phases defined in the coupled
Phase Transport in Porous Media interface: the number of sections is equal to the
number of phases not computed from the volume constraint, which is in turn equal to
the number of phases defined in the coupled Phase Transport in Porous Media
interface minus one.

Specify the boundary condition for each phase not computed from the volume
constraint. You can choose to enter a value for the Mass flow rate M0,i (SI unit: kg/s),
the Mass flow rate per unit length Ml,i (SI unit: kg/(m·s)), or the Volume fraction s0,i
(dimensionless). If the well diameter is specified, the option to specify the Mass flux N0,i
(SI unit: kg/(m2·s)) is also available. For a production well, you can additionally
choose the Outflow option. For an injection well you can additionally choose to specify
the Fraction of total volumetric flow rate s0,i (dimensionless).

Fraction of total volumetric flow rate

When the Fraction of total volumetric flow rate s0,i is specified for a phase, a mass flow
rate per unit length Ml,i is supplied for that phase, which is given by

M l, i = ρ i s 0, i V l (8-34)

where Vl is the total volumetric flow rate per unit length, which is computed as follows:
assume that there are N phases, and that phase 1 is the phase computed from the

328 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

volume constraint, that for phases i, for i = 2, ..., p, the fraction of total volumetric flow
rate s0,i is supplied, and that for the phases i, for i = p+1, ..., N, the mass flow rate per
unit length Ml,i is given. Then Vl can be computed from the relation

p N
M l, 1 M l, i
V l = -----------
ρ1
-+  V l s i, 0 +  -----------
ρi
(8-35)
i=2 i = p+1

where the mass flow rate Ml,1 for the phase computed from the volume constraint is
given by

p N

M l, 1 = M l –  Vl ρi si, 0 –  M l, i (8-36)
i=2 i = p+1

Note that the total mass flow rate per unit length Ml is readily available when any of
the Total mass flow rate, Total mass flow rate per unit length, or the Total mass flux
options is chosen. Furthermore, the total mass flow rate per unit length Ml is also
available as a Lagrange multiplier in case any of the Pressure, the Pressure head, or the
Hydraulic head is given, as these conditions are implemented as weak constraints. For
the mass flow rates per unit length Ml,i of the individual phases, it holds similarly that
they are readily available when any of the Mass flow rate, Mass flow rate per unit length,
or the Mass flux options are chosen, and that for the Volume fraction option,
implemented as a weak constraint, the mass flow rate per unit length Ml,i is computed
as a Lagrange multiplier.

Outflow
When the Outflow option is specified for a phase si, an outflowing mass flow rate per
unit length Ml,i is supplied for that phase, which is given by

N
ρ i κ ri ρ i κ ri
M l, i = ------------ M l
λr μi
with λ r =  -----------
μi
- (8-37)
i=1

where κri denotes the relative permeability of phase i.

Thin Barrier (Multiphysics Coupling)

The Multiphase Flow in Porous Media ( ) interface contains an optional Thin Barrier
multiphysics coupling feature on edges (in 2D) or surfaces (in 3D). The Thin Barrier
coupling node can be used to avoid meshing interior permeable structures that are less

THE MULTIPHASE FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA INTERFACE | 329

 permeable than the adjacent porous domains. It links bidirectionally the Phase
Transport in Porous Media and Darcy’s Law interfaces.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The default Name (for the first Thin Barrier multiphysics coupling feature in the model)
is tbls1.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual (the default)
from the Selection list to choose specific boundaries, or select All boundaries as needed.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section controls which individual interfaces are coupled by the current coupling
feature. If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then in
order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the correct physics interface
again from the Phase transport or Flow in porous media lists

SHELL PROPERTIES
The Thin Barrier multiphysics coupling feature is designed to be only applicable for a
Single Layer Material. Select the Single Layer Material to be used for the thin barrier from
the Layer list. The Thickness of the thin barrier is set in the Layer Definition section of
the Shell Property Group window of the Single Layer Material. Also use this section to
set the number of Mesh elements that are used in the Extra Dimension to solve the
equations through the thickness of the thin barrier layer.

MODEL INPUT
The material properties of the different phases, such as density and viscosity, can be
defined through user inputs, variables, or by selecting a boundary material. For the
latter option, additional inputs, for example temperature or pressure, may be required
to define these properties. These model inputs appear in this section.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
Select the material to use as porous matrix inside the thin barrier. Select Boundary
material (the default) from the Porous material list to use the material defined for the
thin barrier boundary. Select another material to use that material’s properties.

The default Porosity εp (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) uses the value From
material, defined by the Porous material selected. For User defined the default is 0.5.

330 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

The default Permeability κ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material, as defined by the
Porous material selected. For User defined the default is 1e-9 m2.

CAPILLARY PRESSURE
Select a Capillary pressure model — User defined (the default), van Genuchten, Brooks
and Corey, or Capillary diffusion. The van Genuchten and Brooks and Corey options are
only available when there are not more than two phases present in the model.

• For User defined, enter an expression for the Capillary pressure pc (SI unit: Pa) for
the phases that are not computed from the volume constraint. The pressure of the
corresponding phase is equal to the pressure of the phase computed from the
volume constraint plus the capillary pressure supplied for this phase.

• For van Genuchten, enter an Entry capillary pressure pec (SI unit: Pa), the Constitutive
relations constant mvG (dimensionless), and Constitutive relations constant lvG
(dimensionless).
• For Brooks and Corey, enter an Entry capillary pressure pec (SI unit: Pa) and the Pore
size distribution index λp (dimensionless).
• For Capillary diffusion, enter a capillary diffusion coefficient Dc (SI unit: m2/s) for
the phases that are not computed from the volume constraint.

PHASE PROPERTIES
Select the material to use for each phase. Select Boundary material (the default) from
the Fluid list to use the material defined for the domain. Select another material to use
that material’s properties.

Enter the Density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3), Dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) and Relative
permeability κr (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) for each phase. The defaults
for the Density and Dynamic viscosity are From material, and User defined for the Relative
permeability. For User defined, the default values are 1000 kg/m3, 0.001 Pa·s. and s i2 ,
respectively.

The Relative permeability input fields are only available when the Capillary pressure
model is set to User defined or Capillary diffusion. In the other cases (van Genuchten or
Brooks and Corey) the relative permeabilities are defined by the van Genuchten or Brooks
and Corey model. For the van Genuchten and Brooks and Corey model, specify the
Residual saturation sri (dimensionless, default value 0) for each phase.

THE MULTIPHASE FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA INTERFACE | 331

 INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression in the field for the volume fraction inside the thin barrier
of each phase, except for the one computed from the volume constraint, and in the
field for the pressure of the phase computed from the volume constraint.

Please find related information under

• Single Layer Materials in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual and
• Theory for the Multiphase Flow in Porous Media Interface in the
Subsurface Flow Module User’s Guide.

332 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

The Reacting Flow in Porous Media
Interface
The Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Transport of Diluted Species interface ( ) is used
to study the flow and chemical composition of a gas or liquid moving through the
interstices of a porous medium.

It combines the Brinkman Equations and Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media
interfaces. The Reacting Flow, Diluted Species multiphysics coupling feature, which is
added automatically, couples the fluid flow and mass transport.

The interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analysis in 2D, 2Daxi, and
3D.

Detailed information is available in the section The Reacting Flow in Porous Media
Multiphysics Interfaces of the Chemical Reaction Engineering User’s Guide.

THE REACTING FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA INTERFACE | 333

 The Nonisothermal Flow, Brinkman
Equations Interface
The Nonisothermal Flow, Brinkman Equations multiphysics coupling is used to model
heat transfer and flow in porous media where both the temperature and flow fields
have to be coupled. Here, the nonlocal couplings between porous media flow and heat
transfer are set up automatically.

The interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analysis in 2D, 2D axial
symmetry, and 3D.

When the Brinkman Equations multiphysics interface is chosen from the

Fluid Flow>Nonisothermal Flow branch of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows, the
Heat Transfer in Porous Media and the Brinkman Equations interfaces are added to the
Model Builder. In addition, the Multiphysics node is added, which automatically includes
the multiphysics coupling feature Nonisothermal Flow.

Furthermore, a Porous Material node with a Fluid and a Solid subnode is automatically
generated under Component>Materials.

Settings for the Brinkman Equations Interface and the Coupling

Feature
When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, specific settings are
included with the physics interfaces and the coupling features.

By default in the Settings window for Brinkman Equations, the Compressibility option is
set to Weakly compressible flow. The Density ρ in the Porous Medium>Fluid subnode is
automatically set to the variable from the Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics coupling
feature. Other options for Compressibility are Incompressible flow or Compressible
flow (Ma<0.3).

For Heat Transfer in Porous Media in the Porous Medium>Fluid subnode, the
Absolute pressure, pA (Model Input section of the Porous Medium>Fluid node) and the
Velocity field, u (Heat Convection section) are automatically set to the variables from the
Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics coupling feature.

Note that if the physics interfaces are added one at a time, followed by the coupling
feature, these modified settings may not be automatically included.

334 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

To get all the modified settings presented below automatically, you may right-click the
component node, select Add Multiphysics, and add the Nonisothermal Flow coupling
feature.

The settings for the interfaces and the coupling feature are described fully
under the following links:

• The Nonisothermal Flow, Brinkman Equations Interface in the CFD

Module User’s Guide.
• The Brinkman Equations Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface in the Heat Transfer
Module User’s Guide

For more general information on Nonisothermal Flow see

• The Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer, Laminar Flow,

Turbulent Flow and LES Interfaces in the CFD Module User’s Guide
• Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Coupling in the Heat Transfer Module
User’s Guide
• The Multiphysics Branch in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW, BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 335

336 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS
I n d e x
A absolute pressure 48, 187 common settings 19
adsorption 258, 269 concentration (node)
Application Libraries window 21 transport of diluted species 240
application library examples constitutive relations, poroelasticity 306
Brinkman equations 181 contributing velocity (node)
convection and diffusion 235 Darcy’s law 130
creeping flow 41 convection 288
Darcy’s law 112 convective terms, diluted species 280
fluid model 303 creeping flow (spf) interface 40
free and porous media flow 192
D Darcy velocity 136, 288
laminar flow 46
Darcy’s law interface 110
migration in electric field 235
Darcy’s law interface theory 103
poroelasticity 316
Darcy’s law material model 170
Richards’ equation 156
Darcy’s law, poroelasticity and 310
storage model 145
documentation 20
transport of diluted species 228
domain nodes
atmosphere/gauge (node) 140
Brinkman equations 181
average linear velocity 106, 150
Darcy’s law 112
B Biot–Willis coefficient 306, 318 free and porous media flow 192
boundary nodes tff interface 211
Brinkman equations 181 tffs interfaces 211
Darcy’s law interface 112 tpdl interface 162
fracture flow 172 transport of diluted species 230
free and porous media flow 192 domain source (node)
tff interface 211 shallow water equations 212, 215
tffs interfaces 211
E edge nodes
tpdl interface 162
Darcy’s law interface 112
transport of diluted species 230
tff interface 211
boundary stress (node) 59
tffs interface 211
Brinkman equations 175
electrode-electrolyte interface coupling
Brinkman equations interface 178
(node)
theory 175
free and porous media flow 133
Brooks and Corey retention model 150
transport of diluted species 250
C CFL number elevation 132
settings 46, 181 emailing COMSOL 21

INDEX| 337
 Equilibrium Reaction Brinkman equations 186
theory for 278 Darcy’s law 131
equilibrium reaction (node) 247 fracture flow 174
free and porous media flow 197
F Faraday’s law 284
shallow water equations 212
flow continuity (node) 63
single-phase, laminar flow 49
fluid and matrix properties (node)
spf interfaces 49
fracture flow 174
tpdl interface 164
fluid flow
transport of diluted species 236
Brinkman equations theory 175
inlet (node) 52
fracture flow theory 168
shallow water equations 213
porous media and subsurface flow 155,
single-phase flow 52
171
tpdl interface 166
Richards’ equation theory 148
interior wall (node)
fluid properties (node)
shallow water equations 215
free and porous media flow 193
internet resources 20
single-phase, laminar flow 47
intrinsic volume averages 175
fluids and matrix properties (node) 163
flux (node) 272 K knowledge base, COMSOL 22
transport of diluted species 240, 272
L laminar flow interface 41
flux discontinuity (node) 242
Langmuir constant 294
Darcy’s law 138
leaking wall, wall boundary condition 51,
transport of diluted species 242
198
fracture flow (node) 143
line mass source (node)
fracture flow interface 171
fluid flow 65
theory 168
species transport 245
free and porous media flow interface 190
line source
theory 189
species transport 282
Freundlich exponent 294
local
fully developed flow 54
CFL number 46, 181
G general stress (boundary stress condi-
M mass based concentrations (node) 236
tion) 59
mass flux (node)
gravity 66
tpdl interface 165
H hydraulic head (node) 140 mass source (node)
Hygroscopic Swelling 261 Brinkman equations 185
hyporheic zones 175 Darcy’s law 129
material models, fracture flow 169
I inflow (node) 239
MPH-files 21
initial values (node)

338 | I N D E X
 multiphysics transport of diluted species 243
poroelasticity 315 periodic flow condition (node) 61
multiphysicsporoelasticcouplinglayered permeability models 118, 126, 147
315 pervious layer (node) 141
physics interfaces, common settings 19
N Nernst–Einstein relation 234, 253, 257,
point mass source (node)
284
fluid flow 65
no flow (node) 137
species transport 246
no flux (node) 238
point nodes
tpdl interface 165
Brinkman equations 181
no slip, wall boundary condition 50, 198
Darcy’s law interface 112
no viscous stress (open boundary) 59
free and porous media flow 192
nodes, common settings 19
tff interface 211
nonconservative formulations 280
tffs interfaces 211
normal stress, normal flow (boundary
transport of diluted species 230
stress condition) 60
point source
O Ohm’s law 285
species transport 281
open boundary (node)
poroelasticity interface
single-phase flow 58
theory 306
spf interfaces 58
poroelasticity multiphysics interface 315
transport of diluted species 246
porous electrode coupling (node) 249
outflow (node)
free and porous media flow 133
transport of diluted species 240
porous media and subsurface flow
outlet (node) 55
Brinkman equations interface 178
shallow water equations 214
Darcy’s law interface 110
single-phase flow 55
fracture flow interface 171
spf interfaces 55
free and porous media flow interface
tpdl interface 166
190
P pair nodes Richards’ equation interface 155
Brinkman equations 181 theory, Brinkman equations 175
Darcy’s law interface 112 theory, free and porous media flow
free and porous media flow 192 189
tff interface 211 porous media and subsurface flow theo-
tffs interfaces 211 ry 168
transport of diluted species 230 porous media transport properties
partially saturated porous media (node) (node) 251, 254
254 porous media, variably saturated 148
periodic condition (node) Porous Medium (node)

INDEX| 339
 Brinkman equations 182, 194 symmetry (node) 57
pressure (node) 133, 136, 138 Darcy’s law 137
pressure and saturation (node) 165 shallow water equations 215
pressure head (node) 140 spf interfaces 57
pressure point constraint (node) 64 transport of diluted species 242
pseudo time stepping
T technical support, COMSOL 21
settings 46, 181
theory
R Reacting Volume 237, 274 Brinkman equations 175
reaction coefficients (node) 250 fracture flow 168
reactions (node) free and porous media flow 189
transport of diluted species 237 poroelasticity 306
relative humidity 313 Richards’ equation 148
retardation factor 294 shallow water equations 217
retention models 150 transport of diluted species in porous
Richards’ equation interface 155 media interface 277
theory 148 transport of diluted species interface
276
S saturated porous media 148
thickness
shallow water equations, time explicit
fracture 264
(swe) interface 208
out-of-plane 132
shallow water interfaces
thin diffusion barrier (node) 247
theory 217
Thin Impermeable Barrier 247
single-phase flow interface
tortuosity factors 290
laminar flow 41
traction boundary conditions 59
sliding wall 52
transport of diluted species in porous
slip, wall boundary condition 51, 198
media interface 228
solids deformation, poroelasticity and
theory 277
308
transport of diluted species interface
standard settings 19
224, 266
Stokes equations 40
theory 276
Stokes flow 40
two-phase Darcy’s law (tpdl) interface
storage model 170
161
stratified porous media 292
superficial volume average, porous me- V van Genuchten retention model 150
dia 175 volume averages 175
superficial volume averages, porous me- volume force (node) 49
dia 288 Brinkman equations 186
Supporting Electrolytes 284 free and porous media flow 196
surface equilibrium reaction (node) 249 spf interfaces 49

340 | I N D E X
W wall (node)
free and porous media flow 197
shallow water equations 215
single-phase flow 50
websites, COMSOL 22

INDEX| 341
342 | I N D E X