Lecture 7
Respiratory system
The respiratory system has two large sections: the airways and the respiratory
section.
The airways are composed of parts located outside the lungs (nasal cavity,
nasopharynx, larynx, trachea and main bronchi) and intrapulmonary bronchi (large,
medium, small bronchi and terminal bronchioles).
Nasal cavity.
The wall is formed by the mucous membrane, which is adjacent either to the
periosteum or perichondrium. The mucous membrane contains only two layers: the
epithelium and lamina propria. The epithelium in the vestibule area is a multilayer
squamous keratinized, and further a multilayer cylindrical, ciliary. Lamina propria
(loose connective tissue) consists of: mucous and serous glands, a dense net of
venous sinuses, as well as small accumulations of lymphoid tissue.
In the mucous membrane of the upper part of the cavity and in the dome area
there is an organ of smelling, which consists of three types of cells: receptor,
supporting and basal. Receptor cells are mutated bipolar neurons. Their peripheral
processes (dendrites) end with a club-shaped extension, on the surface of which there
are cilia. Supporting cells are located between the receptor cells, holding them in a
certain position. Basal cells in their broad base in contact with the basement
membrane. Functionally, they are cambial, i.e. supporting, and possibly receptor, are
formed from them.
In the nasal cavity there is: purification, warming or cooling (depending on the
ambient temperature) of the inhaled air and its moistening.
The trachea has the following membranes: mucous, submucous, fibro-
cartilaginous and adventitious. The mucous membrane has two layers: the epithelium
and lamina propria. The epithelium is a multirow cylindrical ciliated. Types of cells in
the epithelium: cylindrical ciliary, goblet, intercalary and brush. The latter are
functionally chemoreceptor (determine the chemical composition of the inhaled air).
In lamina propria made of loose connective tissue (Fig. 35) there is the capillary net
and accumulations of lymphoid tissue - an organ of immune defense.
The submucous membrane consists of loose connective tissue, which
imperceptibly passes into lamina propria of the mucous membrane. There are
accumulations of lymphoid tissue, as well as the terminal sections of mixed protein-
mucous glands, the excretory ducts of which open to the surface of the epithelium.
The fibrous-cartilaginous membrane has two components: the hyaline
cartilage, which forms the cartilaginous half-rings, and the dense fibrous connective
tissue surrounding them on all sides.
Fig. 35
1. Multirow cylindrical epithelium
2. Lamina propria
3. The submucosa
4. Tracheal glands
5. Fibrous-cartilaginous membrane
7. Adventitious membrane
The adventitious membrane is a layer of loose connective tissue between the
trachea and esophagus (the outer membranes of these organs merge).
The bronchial tree has the following departments - bronchi: major, large,
medium, small and terminal bronchioles.
The main bronchi (the point of bifurcation of the trachea) there are same
membranes in the wall as in trachea. The difference is that in the fibrocartilaginous
membrane there are full cartilaginous rings.
Large bronchi (lobar). Differences: 1. The muscular plate of the mucous
membrane is well expressed. 2. In the fibrous-cartilaginous membrane there are
cartilaginous plates, which are connected with each other with a dense fibrous
connective tissue.
Middle bronchi. Differences: 1. The epithelium is lower and less goblet cells.
2. The muscular plate of the mucous membrane is well expressed. 3. In the
submucosa, there are fewer ending sections of mixed glands and they are located in
groups. 4. The fibrous-cartilaginous membrane is represented by individual
cartilaginous islands connected by dense connective tissue.
Small bronchi. Differences: 1. The epithelium is low multirow and few goblet
cells. 2. The muscular plate of the mucous membrane is expressed. 3. There are no
submucosal and fibrous-cartilaginous membranes (Fig. 36).
Fig. 36
1. Large bronchus.
2. Small bronchus.
3. Respiratory bronchiole.
4. Respiratory ducts.
6. Respiratory sacs.
[Link]
Due to the fact that in the small bronchi there is a muscular plate and there is
no cartilaginous base (the wall is pliable) with a reduction in muscle elements, a
complete blockage of the lumen is possible. This moment plays a significant role in
the mechanism of development of the main symptom of bronchial asthma - difficult
exhaling as a result of bronchospasm. You should know the role of the components of
the small bronchi in the mechanism of bronchospasm: 1. Smooth muscle cells of the
muscle plate - their constriction narrows the lumen of the bronchi; 2. Goblet cells -
hypersecretion of mucus reduces lumen; 3. Capillaries - swelling of their walls as a
result of increased permeability (the effect of histamine) also leads to a narrowing of
the lumen. The combination of these factors occurs with hypersensitivity in some
individuals to various allergens.
Terminal bronchioles. Differences: 1. The epithelium is a single-layer cubic
ciliary; single goblet cells. 2. Lamina propria and muscle plates of the mucosa are
weakly expressed.
Respiratory department
The structural unit of the respiratory department is the acinus. It has the
following parts: respiratory bronchioles, alveolar passages, sacs, the wall of which is
formed by alveoli.
Respiratory bronchioles. Differences: 1. Single-layer cubic epithelium
without cilia; 2. L. propria and muscle plates are very weakly expressed.
Alveoli. There are two types of cells in the wall: pneumocytes of types I and II.
Macrophages are located in the cavity or in their wall.
Type I pneumocytes have a flattened shape; There are two parts: a narrow non-
nuclear and a broad nuclear. The surface of the cells is uneven; there are many
microbubbles in the cytoplasm. General organelles are poorly developed. Cell
function - gas exchange between the alveolar cavity and blood in the capillaries
through a narrow non-nuclear part (Fig. 37).
Type II pneumocytes are located between type I pneumocytes. These are rather
large cells of irregular round shape. There are microvilli on the surface of the cells,
and their cytoplasm contains a well-developed granular endoplasmic reticulum and
numerous mitochondria. However, the most remarkable feature of the cytoplasm of
these cells are lamellar bodies containing a substance - surfactant. The bodies are
secreted from the cells by exocytosis, and their secretory product, the surfactant,
spreads as a thin pellicle over the entire surface of the alveolar epithelium. The
composition of the surfactant includes phospholipids and mucopolysaccharides. The
role of surfactant is a significant reduction in surface tension, which:
- provides expansion of the alveoli,
- prevents them from falling.
Especially important is the presence of surfactant for newborns, when the
alveoli first straighten. It is possible that the lack of surfactant at birth, not all alveoli
(atelectasis) are straightened. This condition is called - respiratory distress syndrome.
Symptoms: cyanosis and shortness of breath. It often occurs in premature babies.
Macrophages (alveolar, pulmonary). These are large cells, usually with an
uneven surface (pseudopodia), which are located either in the wall of the alveoli,
between the pneumocytes, or in the cavity. Develop from blood monocytes. The role
of alveolar macrophages is to perform a phagocytic function (removing microbes,
dust particles or other substances that can enter the alveolar cavity).
Fig. 37
1. Alveola
2. Pneumocyte I - type
3. Endothelial cell
4. Capillary
5. The basement membrane
In heart failure (blood stasis), red blood cells enter the lumen of the alveoli,
where they are captured by macrophages and form an iron-containing pigment
(brown) from hemoglobin. Pigment-containing macrophages are secreted by
coughing - these are cells of heart defects (an indicator of heart failure).
The path of gas diffusion - the airborne barrier includes:
- narrow non-nuclear part of type I pneumocytes - 0.2 μm,
- basal membrane of pneumocytes +
- the basement membrane of the capillary; in total - 0.1 μm,
- capillary endothelium - 0.2 μm
Total: approximately 0.5 microns.
The cells of the wall of the alveoli are located on the basement membrane,
from the outside of which there is a dense network of capillaries and elastic fibers
(scaffold). The latter create elasticity and at the same time prevent overstretching of
the alveoli. In addition, in the interalveolar septa, there is a net of reticular and
collagen fibers supporting the capillaries and cells of loose connective tissue
(fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, etc.).
Non-respiratory lung function
1. Release of Ig A. It occurs when the mucosal epithelium interacts with B-
lymphocytes or plasma cells in lamina propria.
2. Change of some vasoactive substances in the pulmonary circulation. Example.
Angiotensin I, passing through the capillary net of the lung, turns into angiotensin II
(see section "Excretory system").