MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

Start Lecture Take Test Pass/Fail

Fundamental Principles
1. Force – Area – Pressure
2. Hydrostatic pressure: Measured Depth vs. True Vertical Depth
3. Volume, capacity and displacement
4. U-tubing
5. Frictional pressure losses: in pipe, in annulus
6. Pressure drop across the bit
7. Circulation pressures
8. Equivalent circulating density
9. Equivalent static density
10. Bottomhole pressure
11. Overburden pressure
12. Normal – subnormal – abnormal pressures
13. Drilling window: Pore pressure – Fracture pressure
14. Gas behavior: expansion, migration
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

1. Force – Area – Pressure

Force: The concept of force was essential to the development of

mechanics and all of physics. A force "pushing" or "pulling“ a mass m
produces an acceleration a,

In a gravitational field with gravitational acceleration g, a mass m therefore

experiences a force known as its weight

Area: A measurement of the size of a surface, having units of distance

squared.
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

1. Force – Area – Pressure

100 lbs
P= 2
= 10 psi
10 in
Pressure is the force per unit
area applied on a surface in a P
direction perpendicular to that
surface. Mathematically:
Click
F=100 lbs here for
animation
where:

p is the pressure
A=10 in2
F is the normal force
A is the area.
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

1. Force – Area – Pressure

Summary
In this section we have learnt the following concepts:
-Force
-Area
-Pressure

Important to remember:
Pressure is the force per unit area applied on a surface in a direction
perpendicular to that surface.
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

2. Hydrostatic pressure

Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure due to the weight of a

fluid. The mathematical expression of the hydrostatic
pressure is as follows:

p=ρ gh
where:
ρ is the density of the fluid
g is the acceleration due to gravity
h is the vertical height of the fluid column
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

2. Hydrostatic pressure

In oil field units:

p = 0.052 × MW × DTVD

where:
p is the hydrostatic pressure in psi
MW is the density of the drilling fluid in ppg
DTVD is the vertical height of the fluid column in feet
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

2. Hydrostatic pressure
Example calculation 1:
Calculate the hydrostatic pressure at the
bottom of the well with the given parameters

Measured Depth, MD = 10,000 ft

True Vertical Depth, TVD = 10,000 ft
Mud Weight, MW = 10 ppg
Hole size = 12-1/4”

p = 0.052 × MW × DTVD

p = 0.052 ×10 ppg × 10,000 ft

p = 5,200 psi
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

2. Hydrostatic pressure
Example calculation 2:
Calculate the hydrostatic pressure at the
bottom of the well with the given parameters

Measured Depth, MD = 10,000 ft

True Vertical Depth, TVD = 10,000 ft
Mud Weight, MW = 10 ppg
Hole size = 16”

p = 0.052 × MW × DTVD

p = 0.052 ×10 ppg × 10,000 ft

p = 5,200 psi
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

2. Hydrostatic pressure
Example calculation 3:
Calculate the hydrostatic pressure at the
bottom of the well with the given parameters

Measured Depth, MD = 10,000 ft

True Vertical Depth, TVD = 10,000 ft
Mud Weight, MW = 10 ppg
Hole size = 16” down to 5000 ft and
12-1/4” between 5000 ft and 10000 ft

p = 0.052 × MW × DTVD

p = 0.052 ×10 ppg × 10,000 ft

p = 5,200 psi
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

2. Hydrostatic pressure
Example calculation 4:
Calculate the hydrostatic pressure at the
bottom of the well with the given parameters

Measured Depth, MD = 10,900 ft

True Vertical Depth, TVD = 10,000 ft
Mud Weight, MW = 10 ppg
Hole size = 16”

p = 0.052 × MW × DTVD

p = 0.052 ×10 ppg × 10,000 ft

p = 5,200 psi
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

2. Hydrostatic pressure
Example calculation 5:
Calculate the hydrostatic pressure at the
bottom of the well with the given parameters

Measured Depth, MD = 16,350 ft

True Vertical Depth, TVD = 10,000 ft
Mud Weight, MW = 10 ppg
Hole size = 12-1/4”

p = 0.052 × MW × DTVD

p = 0.052 ×10 ppg × 10,000 ft

p = 5,200 psi
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

2. Hydrostatic Pressure
Summary
In this section we have learnt:
-Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure due to the weight of a fluid

-In field units p = 0.052 × MW × DTVD

Important to remember:
1. We use True Vertical Depth to calculate hydrostatic pressure.
2. Fluid in the horizontal section of the well does NOT create hydrostatic
pressure
3. Since pressure is the force per unit area, size of the hole does NOT
change the hydrostatic pressure
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

3. Volume, Capacity and Displacement

The geometries we deal with in drilling are mostly cylindrical.

Wellbore, drill pipe drill collars, pump plungers,…. This makes our
calculations easier

In this section we will cover:

Volume,
Capacity and
Displacement
And give you simple example calculations.
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

3. Volume, Capacity and Displacement

Volume:
Volume of a cylinder is calculated as follows:

V = Ax − s × DMD

Where:
π d2
AX-S is the cross-sectional area of the cylinder and can be calculated as Ax − s = 4
where d is the diameter of the cylinder

DMD is the total measured length (depth in drilling).

MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

3. Volume, Capacity and Displacement

Drill pipe, drill collar, casing strings have
cylindrical shape. And even a well can be Length
treated as a pipe (cylinder) when calculating
the volumes.
In Field Units:
Inside volume of pipe:
ID 2
V= × DMD
1029.4

Where:
ID
V is the volume of the pipe (barrels)
ID is the inside diameter of the pipe (inches)
OD
DMD is the total measured length of pipe (feet)
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

3. Volume, Capacity and Displacement

Example calculation 6:
Calculate the required volume of mud to fill a
5” drill string that has the given properties

Total Length, DMD = 10,000 ft

Inside diameter, d = 4.276”
10,000 ft

π d2 π × 4.276 2
Ax − s = = = 14.36in 2 = 0.0998 ft 2
4 4

V = Ax − s × DMD = 0.0998 ft 2 ×10000 ft = 998 ft 3

which is equal to 177.7 bbl
4.276”
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

3. Volume, Capacity and Displacement

Capacity:
Capacity of a pipe or an annular space is nothing but a unit volume of one
foot length.
Capacity of a pipe is calculated as follows:
ID 2
CP =
1029.4

Where:
Cp is the capacity of the pipe in bbl/ft
ID is the inside diameter of the pipe in inches
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

3. Volume, Capacity and Displacement

Example calculation 7:
Calculate the capacity of a 5” drill pipe that
has an internal diameter of 4.276”

Inside diameter, d = 4.276”

d2 4.276 2
Cp = = = 0.01776 bbl / ft
1029.4 1029.4

4.276”
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

3. Volume, Capacity and Displacement

Annular Capacity:
Capacity of an annular space is calculated as follows:

ID 2 − OD 2
Ca =
1029.4

Where:
Ca is the capacity of the annular space in bbl/ft
ID is the inside diameter of the casing/liner or the hole size in inches
OD is the outside diameter of the drill pipe/collars in inches
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

3. Volume, Capacity and Displacement

8.681”
Example calculation 8:
Calculate the capacity of the annular space
between the 9-5/8” casing and 5” drill pipe

Inside diameter of casing , ID = 8.681”

Outside diameter of drill pipe, OD = 5”

ID 2 − OD 2 8.6812 − 52
Ca = = = 0.04892 bbl / ft
1029.4 1029.4

5”
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

3. Volume, Capacity and Displacement

Displacement:
Displacement of a pipe is nothing but the unit volume of steel that has 1 ft
length. Displacement of a pipe is calculated as follows:

OD 2 − ID 2
Cd =
1029.4

Where:
Cd is the displacement of the pipe in bbl/ft
OD is the outside diameter of the pipe in inches
ID is the inside diameter of pipe in inches
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

3. Volume, Capacity and Displacement

5” Example calculation 9:
Calculate the displacement of a stand that
has the given properties

Outside diameter, OD = 5”

Inside diameter, ID = 4.276”

90 ft
Length, L = 90 ft

52 − 4.276 2
D= = 0.006524 bbl / ft
1029.4
Displacement of the stand is

0.06525 bbl / ft × 90 ft = 0.587 bbl

4.276”
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

3. Volume, Capacity and Displacement

Summary
In this section we have learnt how to calculate:
-Pipe capacity
-Annular capacity
-Pipe displacement
-Volume

Useful equations to remember:

ID 2
Pipe capacity : Cp =
1029.4
ID 2 − OD 2
Annular capacity : Ca =
1029.4
OD 2 − ID 2
Pipe displacement: Cd =
1029.4

Volume : V = C( p , a , d ) × L
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

4. U-tubing
Pressure at the bottom of a U-tube is the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid that
fills the tube. P1 and P2 are always equal if both tubes have equal pressure at
the top – here they are both atmospheric. Fluid column heights, h1 and h2 will
be different if the density of the fluids occupying the tubes are different.

In this example, both legs of the u-tube

are filled with the same fluid, therefore,
fluid column heights are equal.
h1 h2

Pressures at the bottom of each leg are

equal regardless of the fluid density.

P1 = P2
P1 P2
P1 = Cρ1h1 P2 = Cρ 2 h2 C is a constant that changes with different unit
systems, i.e., metric, English, SI, CGS, etc…
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
4. U-tubing
If one leg of the U-tube is filled with a heavier fluid, and the other one with a
lighter fluid, then the level of the heavier fluid will fall. However, hydrostatic
pressure created by each fluid, P1 and P2 are always equal.
In this example, one leg is filled with water
(density of water, ρ1=8.33 ppg)
and the other is filled with mercury
(density of mercury, ρ2=113.3 ppg)

h1 P1 = Cρ1h1
P2 = Cρ 2 h2 ρ2 113.3
h1 = h2 = = 13.6h2
ρ1 8.33
h2
P1 = P2
ρ1h1 = ρ 2 h2
P1 P2 Height of water column will be 13.6 times
taller than the height of the mercury column.
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

4. U-tubing
If one leg of the U-tube is filled with one type fluid, and the other one with two
different fluids, then the levels of the fluids are different. However, hydrostatic
pressure at the bottom of each leg, P1 and P2 are always equal.
In this example, one leg is filled with water (density of water,
ha ρ1=8.33 ppg) and the other is filled with water and mercury
(density of mercury, ρ2=113.3 ppg) Assume h1=20”, h2=1”,
then we can calculate the height of the air column, ha
h2
h1

h3

P1 P2
P1 = Cρ1h1 P2 = Cρ 2 h2 + Cρ1h3
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

4. U-tubing In this example, one leg is filled with water (density of water,
ρ1=8.33 ppg) and the other is filled with water and mercury
(density of mercury, ρ2=113.3 ppg) Assume h1=20”, h2=1”,
then we can calculate the height of the air column, ha

P1 = Cρ1h1 = C × 8.33 × 20 = 166.6 × C

ha P2 = C ( ρ 2 h2 + ρ1h3 ) = (113.3 ×1 + 8.33h3 ) × C
P1 = P2 ⇒ 166166
.6 ×.6C==113
(113
.3+ 8.33h33) × C
h2
h1 166.6 − 113.3
h3 = ⇒ h3 = 6.4"
8.33
The lengths of the U-tube legs are equal. Therefore,
h3 total length of air, mercury and water in the right leg
is equal to the length of left leg.
h1 = ha + h2 + h3 ⇒ 20" = ha + 1"+6.4"
P1 P2 Then : ha = 20"−1"−6.4" = 12.6"
P1 = Cρ1h1 P2 = Cρ 2 h2 + Cρ1h3
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

4. U-tubing

Before we continue,
I want you to remember these two equations

ha
P1 = P2

h2
h1 = ha + h2 + h3
h1

Or, simply remember that:

h3 - Pressure at the bottom of each leg of the U-tube is
always equal when pressure at the top are equal

P1 P2
P1 = Cρ1h1 P2 = Cρ 2 h2 + Cρ1h3
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

4. U-tubing
The well can be represented by a u-tube. In the U-tube, one leg represents
the inside of the drill string and the other leg represents the annulus.

Drill pipe

Annulus
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
4. U-tubing
If a heavy slug is pumped into the drill pipe prior to tripping, when the pumps stop,
the heavy fluid will displace the lighter fluid in the annulus, and an increase in the
pit level will occur. The increase in pit volume will be equivalent to the total volume
of the slug and the empty space above the heavy slug inside the drill string.
Air

Heavy slug
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

4. U-tubing
Example calculation 10:

A10 bbl 12 ppg slug is pumped into the

5” drill pipe prior to tripping out. The
casing, drill pipe and drilling fluid
properties are as follows.
Casing OD : 9.625”
Casing ID : 8.681”
Drillpipe OD : 5”
Drillpipe ID : 4.276”
Mud weight : 10 ppg

Calculate
1. Level of top of slug in the drill pipe
2. The pit gain after the slug is pumped
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

4. U-tubing
Example calculation 10:

Level of top of slug in the drill pipe is the fall

in drilling fluid due to heavy slug. Fall of
drilling fluid level can be calculated as
follows:

Lslug × (ρ slug − MW )
L fall =
MW
Where:
Vslug
Lslug =
Cp
2
ID p
and Cp =
1029.4
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

4. U-tubing
Example calculation 10:

Capacity of drill pipe:

4.276 2
Cp = = 0.01776 bbl / ft
1029.4

Length of the slug inside the drill pipe:

10 bbl
Lslug = = 563 ft
0.01776 bbl / ft

Fall in drilling fluid level:

563 ft × (12 ppg − 10 ppg )

L fall = = 112.6 ft
10 ppg
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

4. U-tubing
Example calculation 10:

The pit gain after the slug is pumped is

equal to the total volume of the heavy
slug and air inside the drill pipe

Pit Gain = Vslug + Vair

Volume of air inside the drill pipe:

Vair = L fall × C p
Vair = 112.6 ft × 0.01776 bbl / ft = 2.0 bbl
Then the pit gain is

Pit Gain = 10 bbl + 2 bbl = 12 bbl

MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

4. U-tubing
Summary

In this section we introduced

-the U-tube concept
-representation of a well with u-tube

Points to remember:
-A well can be represented with a u-tube
-Pressures at the bottom of the well, below the bit, both in the drill string and in the
annulus are equal
-If a heavy slug is pumped into the drill string the level of the fluid inside the drill
string falls after circulation is stopped
-Pit gain due to pumping heavy slug is greater than the volume of the slug pumped
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

5. Frictional pressure losses

Frictional pressure losses occur due to resistance of fluid to flow inside a

pipe (drill string, surface pipes, etc.) and through the annular space
between the wellbore and the drill string.

Pump

Friction between the fluid and the pipe surface creates pressure against
the pump.
s8

MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

5. Frictional pressure losses

Frictional pressure loss is a function of (but not limited to) the flow rate, fluid
rheology, flow regime, effective flow area, and length of the flow path.

There are several mathematical models for frictional pressure loss

calculation for different mud rheologies and flow regimes. However,
Bingham-Plastic model is widely accepted by our industry.

Flow regime has also significant effect on the frictional pressure loss. Flow
can be laminar or turbulent. Flow regime can be estimated using a
dimensionless number, which is known as Reynolds Number.
Slide 37

s8 text formatting

we need to be careful here. We are introducing a lot of new concepts and not explaining them. If I don't know anything about fluid
mechanics I should be lost here...
ex: don't know what is the difference between laminar and turbulent flow...what is newtonian or now-newtonian fluid??? plastic
viscosity, yield point????

What is Bingham-Plastice model????

sarita, 2/15/2007
s9

MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

5. Frictional pressure losses

The mathematical expression of the frictional pressure losses for

Bingham-Plastic model both for pipe flow and annular flow are listed
below
Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow

In pipe :

In annulus:

Where:
ρ is the mud weight
µp is the plastic viscosity of mud
V is the mean fluid velocity, which is inside pipe and in annulus
Ty is the yield point of mud
d is the ID of pipe
d1 is the OD of pipe
d2 is the ID of casing or hole size
Slide 38

s9 suggestion: can we type in the equations instead of paste them as pictures??? It may look clear...
sarita, 2/15/2007
s10

MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

5. Frictional pressure losses
The flow regime, laminar vs. turbulent, is determined by Reynolds Number.
Reynolds Number can be calculated as follows.
928 ρvd 757 ρv(d 2 − d1 )
In pipe: N Re = In annulus: N Re =
µp µp
Where:
ρ is the mud weight
µp is the plastic viscosity of mud
V is the mean fluid velocity, which is inside pipe, and in annulus
d is the ID of pipe
d1 is the OD of pipe
d2 is the ID of casing or hole size
Critical Reynolds Number is a dimensionless number where the flow regime
becomes Turbulent.
If Reynolds Number is less than the Critical Reynolds Number, the flow is Laminar.
If it is greater, then the flow is Turbulent.
For Newtonian fluids (mostly pure liquids) such as, water, diesel, etc… critical
Reynolds number is 2100.
Therefore, if NRe < 2100 flow is Laminar, if NRe > 2100 Turbulent.
Slide 39

s10 what is Critical Reynolds number????

sarita, 2/15/2007
s12

MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

5. Frictional pressure losses

Determination of the flow regime for non-Newtonian fluids, such as mud,
requires an extended work, but required equations are available in the
literature.

In general, during routine drilling operations, flow inside the drillstring is

assumed to be TURBULENT. And flow in the annulus is assumed to be
LAMINAR.
Although this is not always valid this assumption is widely accepted for quick
calculations.
Slide 40

s12 what do you mean by "Determination of the flow regime for non-Newtonian fluids, such as mud, requires an extended work"???? There
are well known equations for Re calculation for non Newtonian fluids available in the literature
sarita, 2/15/2007
 MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
5. Frictional pressure losses
Example calculation 11:

8.8 ppg viscous fluid will be circulated at a rate of 80 gpm in an 3” hole through
a 2” pipe. ID of the pipe is 1.61” inches. The fluid used in this well is known to
be a Newtonian fluid, and its viscosity is 25 cp. Determine the flow regime
inside the pipe and in the annulus.

Velocity of the fluid inside the pipe = 12.61 ft/sec

Then the Reynolds Number is = 6632

6632 > 2100. Therefore, flow inside the pipe is TURBULENT

Velocity of the fluid inside the annulus = 6.54 ft/sec

Then the Reynolds Number is = 1743

1743 < 2100. Therefore, flow in the annulus is LAMINAR
 MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

5. Frictional pressure losses

Example calculation 12:

Calculate the frictional pressure loss inside a 1000 ft 2”-pipe with an ID of 1.61”.
Properties of the fluid is given below. Assume the flow is turbulent

Fluid density: 9.0 ppg

Plastic viscosity: 16 cp
Pump
Flow rate 150 gpm

Remember the equation for frictional pressure losses

for Turbulent Flow in pipe (from previous slide)
Velocity of the fluid inside the pipe = 23.64 ft/sec

Then pressure drop per foot of pipe =0.8068 psi/ft

Multiplying with the pipe length, Total Pressure Drop = 1000 X 0.8068 = 807 psi
 MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

5. Frictional pressure losses

Example calculation 13:
Calculate the frictional pressure loss inside the annulus between 9-5/8” casing
and 5” drill pipe. ID of the casing is 8.535”. Casing setting depth is 9800 ft.
Properties of the fluid is given below. Assume the flow in annulus is laminar.
Fluid density: 15.0 ppg
Plastic viscosity: 18 cp
Yield Point: 12 lbf/100sqft
Flow rate 780 gpm

Velocity of the fluid inside the annulus = 6.66 ft/sec

Then pressure drop per foot in annulus =0.0265 psi/ft

Multiplying with the length, Total Pressure Drop = 9800 X 0.0265 = 260 psi
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

5. Frictional pressure losses

Example calculation 14:
Calculate the frictional pressure loss
inside the annulus of a 10,000 ft
deep VERTICAL well if the average
pressure drop per ft is 0.02 psi

Annular frictional pressure (AFP)

= 0.02 X 10,000 = 200 psi
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

5. Frictional pressure losses

Example calculation 15:
Calculate the frictional pressure loss
inside the annulus of a well with a
TVD of 10,000 ft and MD of 16,350 ft.
Assume average pressure drop per ft
is 0.02 psi.

Which depth should be used here,

TVD or MD?

Annular frictional pressure (AFP)

= 0.02 X 16,350 = 327 psi
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

5. Frictional Pressure Losses

Summary
In this section we have learnt how to calculate the
frictional pressure loss
-Inside the pipe
-In the annulus
Points to remember:
Frictional pressure loss is a function of
-Length of the pipe or annulus
-Diameter of the pipe or size of the annulus
-Flow rate
-Fluid properties, such as density, viscosity, yield point and rheology
Although there are several sophisticated models for frictional pressure loss
predictions, observed pressure may be different from the predicted ones.
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

6. Pressure drop across the bit

The biggest pressure drop in the drill string occurs at the bit, due to the
restricted flow area of the nozzles.

Pressure drop at the nozzles can be calculated as follows:

8.311×10 −5 ρ q 2
∆Pb =
Cd2 At2
Where:
ρ is the mud weight
q is the flow rate
Cd is the nozzle coefficient, typically 0.95
At is the total nozzle area
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

6. Pressure drop across the bit

Example calculation 16:

A 15 ppg drilling fluid is being circulated

through a bit containing two 12/32” and one
13/32” nozzles at a rate of 500 gpm. Calculate
the pressure drop across the bit.
π
At = 2
(12 2 + 12 2 + 132 ) = 0.3505 in 2
4(32)

8.311×10 −5 ×15 × 5002

∆Pb = = 1875 psi
0.952 0.35052
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

6. Pressure Drop Across the Bit

Summary

In this section we have learnt how to calculate

-the pressure drop across the bit

Points to remember:
The biggest pressure drop in the drill string occurs through the nozzles at the bit.
Pressure drop across the bit is affected by
- flow rate
- fluid density
- nozzle size
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

7. Circulation pressures
The pressure on the stand pipe gauge is the sum of the frictional pressure
losses plus pressure drop across the bit that occur in the circulation system
(plus the surface back pressure if the well is drilled with extra surface back
pressure, i.e. MPD or UBD).

Pressure losses occur in

Surface equipment, such as swivel or top drive
Drill pipe
Drill collars
Bit through the nozzles
Annulus
(MPD/UBD chokes and piping if used)
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

7. Circulation pressures
Friction occurs both in the vertical and horizontal sections of the pipe. Unlike
the hydrostatic pressure calculations, Measured Depth (MD) has to be used
when calculating frictional pressure losses rather than using True Vertical
Depth (TVD).

It is worth to remember here that hydrostatic pressure does not affect the
circulation pressures.
 MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

7. Circulation pressures
Surface
Here is a simplified representation of equipment

the circulation pressures; starting

MPD
from the pump, down the drill pipe Choke RCD

and drill collars, through the bit, up

the annulus, through the MPD
equipment, and including Surface
back pressure at the MPD choke
Surface equipment
Surface plumbing

P
Drill collars.
Drill pipe

Nozzles

MPD equipment

P
Drill collar annulus

Drilling choke
Drill pipe annulus

and
 MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

7. Circulation pressures
Here is another sketch that shows the magnitude of the pressures that are
created in different sections in the system. Pump feels any pressure that is
created inside the drill string, bit, annulus or the surface equipment.

Additional
3000 SBP
Frictional pressure drop

Pressure drop
across the bit
In the annulus
Pump Pressure, psi

2000

P
drop
1000
s s ure
e
l pr l string
na
tio ril
Fric e the d
insid
Pressure
0 drop
at surface
0
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
7. Circulation pressures
This graph illustrates the magnitude of
the pressures created at different depths
Surface
Pressure drop Pump pressure, psi Additional
equipment

at surface
0 1000 2000 3000
SBP MPD
0 RCD
Choke
Fric e the d

drop
insi
tion
d

Frictional pressure
al p ill strin
Depth, ft

In the annulus
ress

P
r
ure
drop
g

Pressure drop
across the bit
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
7. Circulation pressures
This graph illustrates the magnitude of
the pressures created at different depths
This graph does NOT show the
Pressure drop Pump pressure, psi Additional hydrostatic pressure.
at surface
0 1000 2000 3000
SBP
0 This graph does NOT show the
pressure at the given depth.
This graph shows the parasitic
Fric e the d

drop
insi

(frictional) pressure losses that are

tion
d

created in the entire well system.

Frictional pressure
al p ill strin

If you look at the frictional pressure

Depth, ft

In the annulus
ress

losses inside the drill string, you will

r

see that the slope of that line is

ure

greater than the slope of the frictional

drop
g

pressure losses in the annulus.

At the bottom of the graph you will
Pressure drop find the pressure drop at the bit.
across the bit
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

7. Circulation pressures
Example calculation 17:

Calculate the total pressure that the pump

will see during an MPD operation while
circulating mud through the entire well for
given conditions.

Pressure drop at
Surface equipment : 75 psi
Drill pipe : 600 psi
Drill collars : 175 psi
Bit through the nozzles : 1875 psi
Annulus : 260 psi
MPD equipment : 80 psi
TOTAL : 3065 psi
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

7. Circulation Pressures
Summary

In this section we have learnt how to calculate

-the circulation pressures

Points to remember:
-Pump pressure is the sum of the frictional pressure losses plus pressure drop
across the bit that occur in the circulation system (plus the surface back pressure if
the well is drilled with extra surface back pressure, i.e. MPD or UBD).
-Hydrostatic pressure is not a component of the circulation pressure.
-Measured Depth (MD) is used for circulation pressure calculations.
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
8. Equivalent circulating density, ECD
Pump pressure is a measurement of the total frictional pressure losses
through the entire circulating system. However, only the pressure drop in the
annulus (plus SBP in case of MPD/UBD) plus the hydrostatic pressure is
applied to the wellbore.

Equivalent circulating density, ECD, is the expression of the annular

pressure (static hydrostatic + the frictional pressure losses + SBP) in terms
of gradient (ppge – pounds per gallon equivalent). ECD can be calculated
as follows.
AFP + SBP
ECD = MW +
0.052 × DTVD
Where:
ECD is the equivalent circulating density, in ppg
MW is the mud weight in the annulus, in ppg
AFP is the annular frictional pressure loss, in psi
SBP is the surface back pressure from the MPD/UBD equipment, in psi
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

8. Equivalent circulating density, ECD

Example calculation 18:

The latest casing in a 12,000 ft deep well

was set at 4000 ft. Calculate the ECD at the
bottom of the well and at the casing shoe
using the information given below:
MW : 15 ppg
AFP (total) : 360 psi
AFP (above shoe) : 140 psi
SBP : 200 psi

360 psi + 200 psi

ECDbottom = 15 + = 15.90 ppge
0.052 × 12000
140 psi + 200 psi
ECDshoe = 15 + = 16.63 ppge
0.052 × 4000
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
8. Equivalent circulating density, ECD
ECD along the well w/no SBP 0 psi
AFP + SBP
Remember the ECD equation. Set ECD = MW +
0.052 × DTVD
SBP = 0 psi
0.03 x3000 + 0
Consider that a well is being drilled ECD3000 ft = 12 +
0.052 × 3000
= 12.57 ppge

conventionally (returns open to 0.03x 4000 + 0

ECD4000 ft = 12 + = 12.57 ppge
atmosphere, no SBP) with a 12.0 0.052 × 4000

ppg mud. ECD5000 ft = 12 +

0.03 x5000 + 0
= 12.57 ppge

D?
0.052 × 5000
Assume that the average AFP is

SE
0.03 x6000 + 0
0.03 psi/ft. Current depth is 10000 ECD6000 ft = 12 + = 12.57 ppge

RI
0.052 × 6000

RP
ft. Latest casing was set at 3000 ft. ECD7000 ft = 12 +
0.03 x7000 + 0
= 12.57 ppge

SU
0.052 × 7000

Let’s calculate the ECD at the ECD8000 ft = 12 +

0.03 x8000 + 0
= 12.57 ppge
0.052 × 8000
following depths:
0.03 x9000 + 0
10000, 9000, 8000, 7000, 6000, ECD9000 ft = 12 +
0.052 × 9000
= 12.57 ppge

5000, 4000 and 3000 ft. ECD10000 ft = 12 +

0.03 x10000 + 0
= 12.57 ppge
0.052 × 10000
 MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
8. Equivalent circulating density, ECD
ECD along the well w/no SBP

Now let’s look at the ECD vs. depth Equivalent density, ppgeq
11 11.5 12 12.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 15 15.5 16
3000
The green line is the static MW
4000

The blue line is the ECD.

5000

If the pump rate and mud properties AFP + SBP

Depth, ft 6000 ECD = MW +
are kept constant, then the ECD is 0.052 × DTVD
pretty much constant, and is an 7000
add-on on top of the MW.
8000

9000

10000
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
8. Equivalent circulating density, ECD
ECD along the well while maintaining a constant SBP
AFP + SBP
Remember the ECD equation. ECD = MW +
0.052 × DTVD
Consider that a well is being drilled
with a 12.0 ppg mud while ECD3000 ft = 12 +
0.03 x3000 + 300
= 14.50 ppge
0.052 × 3000
maintaining 300 psi constant SBP.
0.03 x 4000 + 300
Assume that the average AFP is ECD4000 ft = 12 +
0.052 × 4000
= 14.02 ppge

0.03 psi/ft. Current depth is 10000 ECD5000 ft = 12 +

0.03 x5000 + 300
= 13.73 ppge
ft. Latest casing was set at 3000 ft. 0.052 × 5000
0.03 x6000 + 300
ECD6000 ft = 12 + = 13.59 ppge
0.052 × 6000
Let’s calculate the ECD at the 0.03 x7000 + 300
ECD7000 ft = 12 + = 13.40 ppge
following depths: 0.052 × 7000
10000, 9000, 8000, 7000, 6000, ECD8000 ft = 12 +
0.03 x8000 + 300
= 13.30 ppge
5000, 4000 and 3000 ft. 0.052 × 8000
0.03 x9000 + 300
ECD9000 ft = 12 + = 13.22 ppge
0.052 × 9000
Then we will plot ECD vs. depth and 0.03 x10000 + 300
ECD10000 ft = 12 + = 13.15 ppge
see how it looks like 0.052 × 10000
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
8. Equivalent circulating density, ECD
ECD along the well while maintaining a constant SBP
Now let’s look at the ECD vs. depth
plot. The green line is the static mud Equivalent density, ppgeq
weight and the blue line is the ECD. 11 11.5 12 12.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 15 15.5 16
3000
0.03 x3000 + 300
ECD3000 ft = 12 + = 14.50 ppge
0.052 × 3000
0.03 x 4000 + 300 4000
ECD4000 ft = 12 + = 14.02 ppge
0.052 × 4000

0.03 x5000 + 300 5000

ECD5000 ft = 12 + = 13.73 ppge
0.052 × 5000
AFP + SBP
0.03 x6000 + 300 6000 ECD = MW +
Depth, ft
ECD6000 ft = 12 + = 13.59 ppge 0.052 × DTVD
0.052 × 6000
0.03 x7000 + 300
ECD7000 ft = 12 + = 13.40 ppge 7000
0.052 × 7000

0.03 x8000 + 300

ECD8000 ft = 12 + = 13.30 ppge 8000
0.052 × 8000
0.03 x9000 + 300
ECD9000 ft = 12 + = 13.22 ppge 9000
0.052 × 9000
0.03 x10000 + 300
ECD10000 ft = 12 + = 13.15 ppge
0.052 × 10000 10000
 MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

8. Equivalent Circulating Density, ECD

Summary
In this section we have learnt how to calculate
-the ECD with no SBP
-the ECD while maintaining SBP

Points to remember:
-Equivalent circulating density, ECD, is the expression of the annular pressure
(including static hydrostatic + the frictional pressure losses + SBP) in terms of
gradient (ppge – pounds per gallon equivalent).
-With no SBP, ECD is constant along the well (in the annulus), if all other mud
properties are constant.
-If the well is drilled with SBP, ECD at shallower portions is greater than the deeper
sections.
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
9. Equivalent static density, ESD
There is no frictional pressure loss when the pumps are off (no circulation).
However, due to cuttings load, average mud weight in the annulus can be
higher. Contrarily, due to gas influxes, average mud weight may be reduced.

If the circulation is stopped, and surface back pressure is applied (i.e.,

during connections) then, average mud weight along the wellbore will not be
equal to the static mud weight.

Equivalent static density, ESD, is the expression of the annular pressures

(static hydrostatic + SBP) in terms of gradient (ppge – pounds per gallon
equivalent). ESD can be calculated as follows.
SBP
ESD = MW +
0.052 × DTVD
Where:
ESD is the equivalent static density, in ppg
All other terms were previously defined.
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
9. Equivalent static density, ESD
ESD along the well while maintaining back pressure
SBP
Remember the ESD equation. ESD = MW +
0.052 × DTVD
Consider that a well is being drilled
with a 12.0 ppg mud while ESD3000 ft = 12 +
600
= 15.85 ppge
0.052 × 3000
maintaining 300 psi SBP while
600
drilling. ESD4000 ft = 12 +
0.052 × 4000
= 14.88 ppge

When the circulation is stopped ESD5000 ft = 12 +

600
= 14.31 ppge
SBP is increased to 600 psi to 0.052 × 5000
600
compensate the loss of annular ESD6000 ft = 12 +
0.052 × 6000
= 13.92 ppge
friction. Current depth is 10000 ft. 600
ESD7000 ft = 12 + = 13.65 ppge
Latest casing was set at 3000 ft. 0.052 × 7000

600
ESD8000 ft = 12 + = 13.44 ppge
Let’s calculate the ESD at the 0.052 × 8000
600
following depths: ESD9000 ft = 12 +
0.052 × 9000
= 13.28 ppge
10000, 9000, 8000, 7000, 6000, 600
ESD10000 ft = 12 + = 13.15 ppge
5000, 4000 and 3000 ft. 0.052 ×10000
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
9. Equivalent static density, ESD
ESD along the well while maintaining SBP during connections
Now let’s look at the ESD vs. depth
plot. The green line is the static mud
Equivalent density, ppgeq
weight and the pink line is the ESD. 11 11.5 12 12.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 15 15.5 16
600 3000
ESD3000 ft = 12 + = 15.85 ppge
0.052 × 3000
600 4000
ESD4000 ft = 12 + = 14.88 ppge
0.052 × 4000
600 5000
ESD5000 ft = 12 + = 14.31 ppge
0.052 × 5000
SBP
ESD6000 ft = 12 +
600
= 13.92 ppge 6000
ESD = MW +
0.052 × 6000 Depth, ft 0.052 × DTVD
600
ESD7000 ft = 12 + = 13.65 ppge 7000
0.052 × 7000

600
ESD8000 ft = 12 + = 13.44 ppge 8000
0.052 × 8000 MW

600
ESD9000 ft = 12 + = 13.28 ppge 9000 ESD
0.052 × 9000
600
ESD10000 ft = 12 + = 13.15 ppge
0.052 ×10000 10000
 MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

Comparison of MW, ESD and ECD

Let’s consider the following:

A well is drilled with 12.0 ppg mud Equivalent density, ppgeq
11 11.5 12 12.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 15 15.5 16
This is the static mud weight 3000

with no circulation, no SBP

4000

This is the ECD assuming

0.03 psi/ft AFP and no SBP 5000

This is the ESD assuming Depth, ft 6000

300 psi SBP

7000

This is the ECD assuming

0.03 psi/ft AFP and 300 psi SBP 8000

This is the ESD assuming SBP is 9000

increased to 600 psi, no circulation

10000
 MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
Comparison of MW, ESD and ECD
Results
If there is no circulation, and no SBP,
equivalent density along the wellbore Equivalent density, ppgeq
is equal to the mud weight. 11 11.5 12 12.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 15 15.5 16
3000

Circulation creates friction in the

annulus, therefore ECD is greater 4000

than static mud weight.

5000
If the AFP is replaced with SBP
during connection BHP stays the Depth, ft 6000
same, but annular ECD becomes
more pronounced at shallower 7000
depths.
8000
ESD =ECD at the bottom
ESD>ECD above the bit
9000
Previous statement is true with or
without SBP 10000
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

10. Bottomhole pressure, BHP

Bottomhole pressure in general is the pressure at the bottom of the hole that is the
sum of the hydrostatic pressure of the mud, any annular frictional pressure and the
surface back pressure from the UBD/MPD equipment (if any).
Bottomhole pressure can be calculated as follows:

PBHP = Phydrostatic + AFP + SBP

Where:
PBHP is the bottomhole pressure, in psi
Phydrostatic is the hydrostatic pressure of the mud, in psi
AFP is the annular frictional pressure losses, in psi
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
10. Bottomhole pressure, BHP
Static BHP (no circulation) with 0 SBP

If there is no circulation, and no SBP, then the bottomhole pressure is equal to the
hydrostatic pressure of the mud.
In this case bottomhole pressure can be calculated as follows:

PBHP = Phydrostatic = 0.052 × MW × DTVD

MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
10. Bottomhole pressure, BHP
Circulating BHP with 0 SBP

In dynamic conditions, with no SBP, bottomhole pressure is the sum of the

hydrostatic pressure of the mud and any friction in the annulus.
In this case bottomhole pressure can be calculated as follows:

PBHP = Phydrostatic + AFP

PBHP = (0.052 × MW × DTVD ) + ( g AFP × DMD )
Where:
gAFP is the annular frictional pressure loss gradient, in psi/ft
DMD is the total Measured Depth, in ft.
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
10. Bottomhole pressure, BHP
Static BHP (no circulation) with SBP

If there is no circulation, but a pre-determined SBP is maintained for pressure

control or well control purposes, then the bottomhole pressure is equal to the
hydrostatic pressure of the mud and the SBP.
In this case bottomhole pressure can be calculated as follows:

PBHP = Phydrostatic + SBP

PBHP = (0.052 × MW × DTVD ) + SBP
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
10. Bottomhole pressure, BHP
Circulating BHP with SBP

In dynamic conditions, with SBP, bottomhole pressure is the sum of the hydrostatic
pressure of the mud and any friction in the annulus and SBP created by the
MPD/UBD equipment.
In this case bottomhole pressure can be calculated as follows:

PBHP = Phydrostatic + AFP + SBP

PBHP = (0.052 × MW × DTVD ) + ( g AFP × DMD ) + SBP
 MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

10. Bottomhole Pressure, BHP

Summary
In this section we have learnt how to calculate
-the static BHP with no SBP
-the static BHP while maintaining SBP
-dynamic BHP with no SBP
-dynamic BHP with SBP

Points to remember:
Bottomhole pressure in general is the pressure at the bottom of the hole that is the
sum of the hydrostatic pressure of the mud, any annular frictional pressure and the
surface back pressure from the UBD/MPD equipment (if any).

In general terms, BHP can be expressed as:

PBHP = Phydrostatic + AFP + SBP

 MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

10. Bottomhole Pressure, BHP

Summary
Bottomhole Pressure,
Bottomhole Pressure,psipsi
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Let’s look at the BHP variation 0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
0
vs. depth for various scenarios Static
Static
1000 Dynamic
1000 Static
Dynamic
Static
Static+SBP
Dynamic
Static+SBP
-The green solid line is the 2000
2000
Dynamic+SBP

static BHP with no SBP 3000

3000
-The blue solid line is the 4000
4000
dynamic BHP with no SBP, ft
Depth, ft
Depth,
5000
assuming 0.03 psi/ft AFP 5000

-The dashed green line is the 6000

6000

static BHP while maintaining 7000

7000
300 psi SBP
8000
8000
-The dashed blue line is the
9000
9000
dynamic BHP assuming 0.03
psi/ft AFP and 300 psi SBP 10000
10000
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

11. Overburden pressure

Overburden pressure at a depth is the weight of the rock and fluids above that
depth.
Although the vertical overburden stress resulting from geostatic load is assumed
equal to 1.0 psi/ft of depth, this assumption is not valid at all times.
The overburden pressure can be calculated as follows:

0.052 (ρ g − ρ fl ) φs
Pob = 0.052 ρ g D −
K
(1 − e )
− KD

Where:
Pob is the overburden pressure, in psi
ρg is the rock bulk density, in ppg
ρfl is the fluid density inside the rock, in ppg
φs is the rock porosity at surface
K is the porosity decline constant
D is the depth of interest, in feet
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

11. Overburden pressure

Average overburden pressure gradient is
average the weight of the rock and fluids
that can be expressed in psi/ft.
Average overburden pressure gradient can
be calculated as follows:

Pob
g ob =
D
Where:
gob is the overburden pressure gradient

As can be seen from the figure, the

average overburden pressure gradient
increases with depth.
 MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

11. Overburden pressure

Example calculation 19:
Calculate the overburden pressure at 12,000 ft depth with the given
parameters.
Then calculate the average overburden pressure gradient.
Rock bulk density, ρg = 21.7 ppg
Fluid density, ρfl = 8.9 ppg
Rock porosity at surface, φs = 41%
Porosity decline cons, K = 0.000085 ft-1

0.052 (21.7 − 8.9 )× 0.41

Pob = 0.052 × 21.7 ×12000 −
0.000085
( )
1 − e −0.000085×12000 = 11487 psi

11484 psi
g ob = = 0.9572 psi / ft
12000 ft
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

11. Overburden Pressure

Summary

In this section we have learnt how to estimate

-the overburden pressure

Points to remember:
-Overburden pressure at a depth is the weight of the rock and fluids above
that depth.
-Several models have been proposed by the researchers for overburden
pressure estimation. However, these are estimations.

-Mother nature may always surprise us.

MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

12. Normal – subnormal – abnormal pressures

When formation pore pressure is approximately equal to theoretical hydrostatic
pressure for the given depth, formation pressure is said to be normal.
Usually, water occupying the pore spaces is marine. Therefore, the normal pore
pressure is that of a column of seawater. The table below lists the normal pressure
gradient for several areas.

Fluid Pressure
Weight Gradient
Example Area Formation Fluid (ppg) (psi/ft)

Rocky Mountains Fresh water 8.33 0.433

Brackish water 8.4 0.437
North Sea Normal salt water 8.7 0.452
Most sedimentary basins Salt water 8.5 0.442
Gulf of Mexico Salt water 8.9 0.465
Gulf of Mexico, some areas Salt water 9.2 0.478
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

12. Normal – subnormal – abnormal pressures

Subnormal pore pressure is any formation pressure that is less than the
corresponding pore fluid hydrostatic pressure.

Abnormal pore pressure is defined as a pore pressure greater than

normal pressure. The upper limit of the abnormal pressure is the weight of
the overburden. Other terms used for abnormal pressure are
overpressure
surpressure
geopressure

Causes of abnormal pressure will be discussed later in Module 4.

MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

13. Drilling window: Pore pressure – Fracture pressure

When an abnormal formation pressure is encountered, mud weight has
to be increased to prevent any well control event. However, since the
wellbore pressure has to be maintained below the fracture pressure,
there is a maximum pressure inside the wellbore that can be tolerated.

This means there is a maximum depth into which the well can be drilled
safely without cementing another casing string.

A knowledge of the pressure at which formation will occur in all depths in

the well is essential for planning and safely drilling a well.
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

13. Drilling window: Pore pressure – Fracture pressure

This graph is a common way of plotting
the estimated pore pressure (PP) and
fracture pressure (FP) vs. depth. The
pressures (PP and FP) were converted to
ppg equivalents for easy interpretation.
The curve to the left is a typical pore
pressure behavior of Gulf of Mexico wells.
The formations down to 8500 ft are
relatively normally pressured ones.
Transition begins below 8500 ft, and most
formations below this depth are
abnormally pressured.
The curve to the right is the estimated
fracture gradient of the formations. If
pressure inside the well exceeds the FP
at that given depth, well looses its
integrity, and lost returns occur.
 MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

13. Drilling window: Pore pressure – Fracture pressure

There is a minimum wellbore pressure that
the well can be drilled safely without inviting
formation fluids into the well.

Similarly, there is a maximum wellbore

pressure that the rock can stand without
fracturing.

The tolerance between the pore pressure

and the fracture pressure is called the drilling
window.
 MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

13. Drilling window: Pore pressure – Fracture pressure

There is a minimum mud weight that can
provide sufficient hydrostatic pressure for
safe drilling.

Also, there is a maximum mud weight that

does not initiate formation fracture, while
drilling with circulation.

Mud weights between the PP (ppgeq) and FP

(ppgeq) is the mud window. Do not forget
that ECD should always be considered.

If the mud weight is less than the PP (ppgeq)

then formation fluids enter the well.

If the mud weight is greater than the FP

(ppgeq) then formation breaks, mud losses
into the subsurface formation begin.
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

13. Drilling window: Pore pressure – Fracture pressure

Pore Press. < Well Press. < Frac. Press.

Well is stable

Pore Pressure > Well Pressure

Influx into wellbore

Well Pressure > Fracture Pressure

Formation fractures
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

13. Drilling window: Pore pressure – Fracture pressure

Now we can maintain well control
throughout open hole with overbalance
without losing returns by describing the
condition at any depth in the well in
Equivalent Mud Weight:

EMWform < EMWwell < EMWfracture

Or in terms of pressure at any point in the

well:

Pform < Pwell < Pfracture

MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

13. Drilling window: Pore pressure – Fracture pressure

(Bourgoyne, 1991)
Typical behavior of formation pressure, wellbore pressure and formation fracture pressure
in abnormally pressured wells
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

13. Drilling window: Pore pressure – Fracture pressure

Maintaining a mud weight between the
estimated pore pressure and estimated
fracture pressure is not that difficult.

The most difficult part of it is that, these

pressures are estimated pressures.

Estimations sometimes are way off of the

encountered conditions.
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

13. Drilling window: Pore pressure – Fracture pressure

Here are some examples of abnormal pore pressures of Texas and Louisiana
Gulf Coast. Note the variety of pore pressure gradients below.
Area Formation Form. Press. Depth
Pressure Gradient encountered
Iberia 7200 psi 0.52 psi/ft @ 13844 ft
St. Martin 6210 psi 0.54 psi/ft @ 11500 ft
Offshore Lafourche 6820 psi 0.64 psi/ft @ 11000 ft
Jefferson Davis 7920 psi 0.73 psi/ft @ 10948 ft
Chambers 9422 psi 0.78 psi/ft @ 12080 ft
Offshore Vermilion 9996 psi 0.84 psi/ft @ 11900 ft
Terrebonne 11647 psi 0.87 psi/ft @13387 ft
Cameron 12500 psi 0.90 psi/ft @ 13950 ft
Offshore St. Mary 12790 psi 0.92 psi/ft @ 13825 ft
Offshore Galveston 11750 psi 0.97 psi/ft @ 11750 ft
 MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

13. Drilling window: Pore pressure – Fracture pressure

Estimation of formation fracture pressure made before setting casing in the

well (and prior to doing a Leak-off test) are based on empirical correlations.

The more commonly used fracture pressure equations and correlations

include
1. Hubbert and Willis Equation
2. Pennebaker Correlations
3. Eaton Correlation
4. Mathews and Kelly Correlation
5. Christman Equation
6. MacPherson and Berry Correlation
s24

MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

13. Drilling window: Pore pressure – Fracture pressure

In general, the fracture pressure is the sum of the minimum stress and the pore
pressure, and can be expressed as:

Pf f = σ min + Pf
All of the mentioned equations and correlations use the same equation above.
However, they have different methodologies to calculate the minimum stress.

For example, according to a study conducted by Hubbert and Willis,

Pob − Pf
σ min =
3
Therefore,
Pob + 2 Pf
Pf f =
3
Slide 93

s24 Lots of new variables without proper definition.

Do we need to get into details about pore pressure and fracture pressure estimation????
If that is the case I believe we will need to define this new variables as minimum stress, etc
none of them is identified.

I believe Pff is fracture pressure right? What about pore pressure, how do we estimate????
sarita, 2/15/2007
 MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

13. Drilling window: Pore pressure – Fracture pressure

Pennebaker replaced the coefficient (1/3)

in Hubbert and Willis Equation with a
matrix stress coefficient, F, and concluded

Bourgoyne, 1991
with the following correlation

σ min = F ( Pob − Pf )

Therefore,

Pf f = F ( Pob − Pf ) + Pf
 MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

13. Drilling window: Pore pressure – Fracture pressure

Eaton came up with a different way of

estimating the minimum stress. Rather
than the matrix stress coefficient, he used

Bourgoyne, 1991
the Poisson’s ratio to calculate the
minimum stress.
µ
σ min = ( Pob − Pf )
1− µ
Therefore,
µ
Pf f = ( Pob − Pf ) + Pf
1− µ
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
13. Drilling window: Pore pressure – Fracture pressure
Summary
In this section we have learnt about
-Pore pressure, and
-Fracture pressure estimation

Points to remember:
-Several models have been proposed by the researchers for pore pressure
and fracture pressure estimation. However, these are estimations.

-Mother nature may always surprise us.

-Pressure inside the wellbore has to be kept greater than the pore pressure,
but less than the fracture pressure

Pore Pressure < Wellbore Pressure <Fracture Pressure

MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

14. Gas behavior: expansion, migration

Boyle’s Law
When a container that is filled with gas is compressed, the pressure inside
the container increases. Boyle’s Law of Gas states that
Gas Pressure X Gas Volume = A Constant Value
or
P1 V1 = P2 V2
Ideal Gas Law
Gas volume is affected by temperature changes. Any gas expands if heated.
If the gas is not allowed to expand, then its pressure increases.
P1 V 1 P V
= 2 2
T1 T2
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

14. Gas behavior: expansion, migration

Here is an example of gas expansion during a well control event. A 5-bbl gas kick
is being circulated out using the Driller’s method of well control.

Bottom hole pressure is kept at 5700 psi (slightly greater than the formation
pressure).

Choke pressure is adjusted accordingly.

Observe the gas expansion while the gas is approaching surface, and observe the
increase in choke pressure, which is required to maintain a constant bottom hole
pressure.
s25

MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

Example 20:
Consider a well being drilled
conventionally with a 10 ppg water
based mud. Currently, the well is at
10,000 ft TVD. The hydrostatic pressure
created by the mud is:
Latest casing at 3000 ft Phyd = 0.052 x 10 x 10000 = 5200 psi
Pressure at shoe = 1560 psi

There is a gas reservoir at 10,000.1 ft

with an estimated pore pressure of 5700
psi.

What should happen when the driller

TVD = 10000 ft
drills into this higher pressure zone?
Hydrostatic Pressure = 5200 psi
Formation Pressure = 5700 psi
Slide 99

s25 there is a gas reservoir at 10,000 ft (typo)

sarita, 2/15/2007
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
SICP = 517 psi
Example 20:
Driller drills into the kick
BOPs are closed, and now the well is
shut in.
5 bbl gas enters the wellbore, therefore,
pit gain at time of shut in is 5 bbls.
Pit gain = 5 bbl

*Recorded choke pressure (CP) is:

Pressure at shoe = 2077 psi Pore pressure – Hydrostatic pressure of
= 13.32 ppge mud – Hydrostatic pressure of gas kick
CP = 5700 – 5183 = 517 psi
Everything is pretty straight forward up
to here. Simple physics, little bit algebra
TVD = 10000 ft
Hydrostatic Pressure = 5183 psi
BHP = 5700 psi
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
SICP = 554 psi Example 20:
Gas kick is being circulated up the annulus using the
Driller’s method of Well Control. Driller’s Method will be
explained in Module 4. At the moment, just know that the
gas will be circulated upwards, and pressure on top of
the gas bubble will reduce.
Pit gain = 13 bbl Remember that if pressure acting on gas reduces,
volume of the gas increases (gas expands).
If the gas is circulated up to the casing shoe (kick is now
Pressure at shoe at 3000 ft TVD), hydrostatic pressure above the gas is:
= 2114 psi
= 13.55 ppge 0.052 x 10 x 3000 = 1560 psi
Due to reduction in the hydrostatic above it, the gas
expands.
Using a hydraulic model, it was estimated that total pit
gain including gas expansion at this time is 13 bbls.
In order to compensate the loss of hydrostatic
TVD = 10000 ft due to gas expansion choke pressure has to be
BHP = 5700 psi increased to 554 psi
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
SICP = 657
850 psi

Example 20:
When the gas reaches the surface there is no
hydrostatic pressure acting on it.
Only pressure on top of the gas is the choke
Pit
Pitgain
Gain==40
43bbl
bbls pressure.
Due to reduction in pressure on top of the gas, it will
continue to expand. Meanwhile, choke pressure has
Pressure at shoe to be increased accordingly to compensate the
= 2060 psi reduction in hydrostatic pressure.
=Pmud
13.21=ppge
3650 psi
Using the same model, it was estimated that total pit
gain including gas expansion at this time is 43 bbls.
In order to compensate the loss of hydrostatic due
to gas expansion choke pressure has to be
increased to 657 psi

BHP==4500
BHP 5700psi
psi
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
SICP = 517 psi SICP = 554 psi SICP = 657
850 psi

Pit gain = 5 bbl Pit gain = 13 bbl Pit

Pitgain
Gain==40
43bbl
bbls

Pressure at shoe Pressure at shoe Pressure at shoe

= 2077 psi = 2114 psi = 2060 psi
Pmud = 3650 psi

TVD = 10000 ft

BHP = 5700 psi BHP = 5700 psi BHP==4500

BHP 5700psi
psi
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

Example 21:
Now let’s repeat the previous example
with a smaller volume of influx. Let’s say
1 bbl.
All other parameters are the same.

Pressure at shoe = 1560 psi

TVD = 10000 ft
Hydrostatic Pressure = 5200 psi
Formation Pressure = 5700 psi
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
SICP = 503 psi
Example 21:
Driller drills into the kick
Very fast reaction.
BOPs are closed, and now the well is
Pit gain = 1 bbl shut in.
1 bbl gas enters the wellbore, therefore,
pit gain at time of shut in is 1 bbl.
Pressure at shoe
= 2063 psi
= 13.23 ppge * Recorded choke pressure (CP) is:
Pore pressure – Hydrostatic pressure
CP = 5700 – 5197 = 503 psi

TVD = 10000 ft
Hydrostatic Pressure = 5197 psi
BHP = 5700 psi
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
SICP = 511 psi
Example 21:

Remember that if pressure acting on gas reduces,

volume of the gas increases. In other words, gas
expands.
Pit gain = 2.7 bbl
If the gas is circulated up to the casing shoe (kick is now
at 3000 ft TVD), hydrostatic pressure above the gas is:
0.052 x 10 x 3000 = 1560 psi
Pressure at shoe
= 2071 psi Due to reduction in the hydrostatic above it, the gas
= 13.28 ppge expands.
Estimated that total pit gain including gas expansion at
this time is only 2.7 bbls.
In order to compensate the loss of hydrostatic due to gas
expansion choke pressure has to be increased to 511
psi. Remember it was 554 psi for the previous example.
TVD = 10000 ft
BHP = 5700 psi
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
SICP = 536
850 psi

Example 21:
When the gas reaches the surface there is no
hydrostatic pressure acting on it.
Only pressure on top of the gas is the choke
Pit
Pitgain
Gain==40
10bbl
bbls pressure.
Estimated that total pit gain including gas expansion
at this time is 10.3 bbls.
Pressure at shoe
= 2060 psi In order to compensate the loss of hydrostatic due
to gas expansion choke pressure has to be
Pmud = 3650 psi
increased to 536 psi

Remember: with the 5 bbl kick example the

balanced choke pressure at the end was 657 psi.

BHP==4500
BHP 5700psi
psi
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
SICP = 504 psi SICP = 511 psi SICP = 536
850 psi

Pit gain = 1 bbl Pit gain = 2.7 bbl Pit

Pitgain
Gain==40 bbl
10.3
bbls

Pressure at shoe Pressure at shoe Pressure at shoe

= 2063 psi = 2071 psi = 2060 psi
Pmud = 3650 psi

TVD = 10000 ft

BHP = 5700 psi BHP = 5700 psi BHP==4500

BHP 5700psi
psi
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

Example 22:
Now let’s repeat the previous example
with a larger volume of influx. Let’s say
20 bbl.
All other parameters are the same.

Pressure at shoe = 1560 psi

TVD = 10000 ft
Hydrostatic Pressure = 5200 psi
Formation Pressure = 5700 psi
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
SICP = 568 psi
Example 22:
Driller drills into the kick
Stops and checks for flow….
Flow check positive
Pit gain = 20 bbl
BOPs are closed, and now the well is
shut in.
20 bbl gas enters the wellbore before
Pressure at shoe shut in, therefore, pit gain at time of shut
= 2128 psi
in is 20 bbl.
= 13.65 ppge

* Recorded choke pressure (CP) is:

Hydrostatic Pressure = 5132 psi Pore pressure – Hydrostatic pressure
TVD = 10000 ft CP = 5700 – 5132 = 568 psi

BHP = 5700 psi

MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
SICP = 704 psi
Example 22:

Remember that if pressure acting on gas reduces,

volume of the gas increases. In other words, gas
expands.
Pit gain = 50 bbl
If the gas is circulated up the casing shoe (kick is now at
3000 ft TVD), hydrostatic pressure above the gas is:
0.052 x 10 x 3000 = 1560 psi
Pressure at shoe
= 2264 psi Due to reduction in the hydrostatic above it, the gas
= 14.51 ppge expands.
Estimated that total pit gain including gas expansion at
this time is 35 bbls.
In order to compensate the loss of hydrostatic due to gas
expansion choke pressure has to be increased to 704
psi. Remember it was 511 psi for the previous example.
TVD = 10000 ft
BHP = 5700 psi
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
SICP = 957
850 psi

Example 22:
When the gas reaches the surface there is no
hydrostatic pressure acting on it.
Only pressure on top of the gas is the choke
Pit
Pitgain
Gain==40 bblbbls pressure.
117
Estimated that total pit gain including gas expansion
at this time is 117 bbls.
Pressure at shoe
= 2060 psi In order to compensate the loss of hydrostatic due
to gas expansion choke pressure has to be
Pmud = 3650 psi
increased to 957 psi

Remember: with the 1 bbl kick example the

balanced choke pressure at the end was 536 psi.

BHP==4500
BHP 5700psi
psi
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
SICP = 568 psi SICP = 704 psi SICP = 957
850 psi

Pit gain = 20 bbl Pit gain = 50 bbl Pit

Pitgain
Gain==40
117bbl
bbls

Pressure at shoe Pressure at shoe Pressure at shoe

= 2128 psi = 2264 psi = 2060 psi
Pmud = 3650 psi

TVD = 10000 ft

BHP = 5700 psi BHP = 5700 psi BHP==4500

BHP 5700psi
psi
s29

MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

14. Gas behavior: expansion, migration

If two immiscible fluids such as oil and water are mixed together, as soon as the
mixing stops, the two immiscible fluids will separate and the lighter fluid (which is
oil in this case) will accumulate at the top.

If a gas kick is taken while drilling with a water based mud (WBM), and the well is
closed with the blow out preventers, gas will try to migrate upwards because of the
significant difference between gas density and the drilling fluid density.
(Remember: Gas solubility in water (WBM) is negligible.

If the gas is not allowed to expand, then it will try to carry its original pressure all
the way up to the surface (if the wellbore integrity permits).

Here is an example of gas migration after a gas kick of 5 bbls was taken, and the
well was shut in with the BOP.

Observe the gas migration and change in surface pressure, shoe pressure, and
bottom hole pressure if gas is not allowed to expand.
Slide 114

s29 The slide starts talking about immiscible fluids and jumps to gas migrating upwards the annulus. Do we want to say something about
the gas being soluble in oil?
sarita, 2/15/2007
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
SICP = 500 psi
Example:
For the sake of simplicity, let’s assume the
same well conditions here as well.
Driller drills into the kick
BOPs are closed, and now the well is shut
in.
5 bbl gas enters the wellbore, therefore, pit
MW = 10 ppg
gain at time of shut in is 5 bbls.
Recorded choke pressure (CP) is:
Hydrostatic Pressure = 5200 psi
Pore pressure – Hydrostatic pressure
CP = 5700 – 5200 = 500 psi
This time, due to mechanical problems,
gas cannot be circulated. Therefore it is
decided that, the well has to remain closed
TVD = 10000 ft until the problem is fixed
BHP = 5700 psi
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
SICP = 3100 psi
Example:
Remember, gas is lighter than mud, and it
will tend to migrate upwards.
In this case BOPs are closed, and gas is
Hydrostatic Pressure above the not allowed to expand.
gas = 2600 psi
As the gas bubble migrates upwards, it
carries its original pressure (5700 psi).
At halfway to the surface, hydrostatic
Pgas = Pshoe = 5700 psi above the gas is:
0.052 x 10 x 5000 = 2600 psi
Choke pressure will be:
5700 – 2600 = 3100 psi
Hydrostatic Pressure below the
gas = 2600 psi Bottomhole pressure is CP + Hydrostatic
BHP = 3100 + 5200 = 8300 psi
BHP = 8300 psi
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
SICP = 5700 psi Example:
As the gas arrives at the surface, there is
no more hydrostatic on top of it.
Now, choke pressure is equal to the
original reservoir pressure = 5700 psi
Hydrostatic Pressure above
casing shoe = 2600 psi Pressure at the casing shoe is the sum of
casing pressure and hydrostatic pressure
above the shoe:
Pshoe = 8300 psi Pshoe = 5700 + 2600 = 8300 psi
Bottomhole pressure is CP + Hydrostatic
BHP = 5700 + 5200 = 10700 psi

Hydrostatic Pressure below

Assumption:
casing shoe = 2600 psi
For this example it was assumed that
wellbore pressure never exceeded the
formation fracture pressure.
BHP = 10900 psi
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
SICP = 500 psi SICP = 3100 psi SICP = 5700 psi

Pgas = Pshoe = Pshoe = 8300 psi

5700 psi

BHP = 5700 psi BHP = 8300 psi BHP = 10700 psi

MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles

14. Gas behavior: expansion, migration

Summary
In this section we have learnt

- If we do not allow the gas inside the wellbore to expand as it migrates upwards,
the gas will arrive at the surface with the same formation pressure, increasing the
pressure in the open hole significantly
- While circulating a gas kick, surface pressure changes as the gas travels
upwards inside the wellbore, if we want to keep the bottomhole pressure constant
-The smaller the kick volume the smaller the surface pressures generated while
circulating the kick, and, therefore, smaller the pressures generated inside the
open hole section. This will have a significant impact in how casing depths are
chosen.
MODULE 2 Fundamental Principles
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