2.

Designing psychological research

(500)
[Link] the criteria of a good research design. (2022-23)
(By sir)
Psychological research design-
Research Design is the plan and structure of investigation, conceived so as to obtain
answers to research questions.
It refers to the overall strategy and analytical approach that you have chosen in order to
integrate, in a coherent and logical way the different components of the study, thus ensuring
that the research problem will be thoroughly investigated.
It constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and interpretation of information
and data. (Note that the research problem determines the type of design you choose, not the
other way around.)
The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables you to
effectively address the research problem logically and as unambiguously as possible.

Criteria of a good research design-

Every form of formal research has the following distinct features:
• It originates with the question or problem
• It requires clear articulation of a goal
• it requires a specific plan for proceeding
• It usually divides the principle problem into more manageable sub problems
• It is guided by the specific research problem question or hypothesis
• It except certain critical assumptions
• It requires the collection and interpretation of data to resolve the problem that initiated the
research
• It is by its nature cyclical

– Good research is defined by the following characteristics:-

-It is feasible
-It is novel
-It is ethical
-It is relevant and
-It is interesting

The feasibility of a research enterprise is determined by several factors including its scope;
its cost in both time and money; the amounts of subject and sample required to be handled
within the given time-frame and financial resources; the technical expertise required of the
research team for the design and execution of the research. (For example, measuring of
variable, management and analysis of data, etc, and the scope of the research)

The length and complexity of describing the research design in your paper can vary
considerably but any well-developed description will achieve the following:-
1. Identify the research problem clearly and justify its selection particularly in relation to any
valid alternative designs that could have been used,
2. Review and synthesise previously published literature associated with the research
problem,
3. Clearly and explicitly specify hypothesis ( i.e. research question) central to the problem,
4. Effectively describe the information and/or data which will be necessary for an adequate
testing of the hypothesis and explain how such information and/or data will be obtained and,
5. Describe the methods of analysis to be applied to the data in determining whether or not
the hypotheses are true or false.

(on google)
[Link] purpose of the research, or the problem involved, should be clearly defined and
sharply delineated in terms as unambiguous as possible.
[Link] research procedures used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research.
[Link] procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are
as objective as possible.
[Link] researcher should report, with complete frankness, flaws in the procedural design and
estimate their effect upon the findings.
[Link] of the data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance; and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate.
[Link] should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to
those for which the data provides an adequate basis.
[Link] confidence in the research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a
good reputation in research, and is a person of integrity.

[Link] do you understand by the design of psychological research? Discuss the

steps in designing good research.(2019,17)

Step 1: Identify the problem

Finding an issue or formulating a research question is the first step.

A well-defined research problem will guide the researcher through all stages of the research
process, from setting objectives to choosing a technique. There are a number of approaches
to get insight into a topic and gain a better understanding of it. Such as:
-A preliminary survey
-Case studies
-Interviews with a small group of people
-Observational survey

(Sir) The following is a list of what could constitute a real research problem (Rienecker and
Jørgense, 2015):
•A gap in the field’s knowledge
•Something the field has not or should not have finished researching
•An unexplained observation, an observation that sticks out
•Something that has not yet been categorised, analysed (with these particular methods/
theories; this systematism; this degree of detail or from this particular angle)
•Something that does not seem right
•Contrasts that can still be discussed
•Something that is currently being debated in the field
•Something that can and should be argued for (or against, i.e. all representatives of the field
are not already familiar with or agree with the argumentation)
•Something that is in conflict with the general view
•Something that must be (re)evaluated, changed, transformed, constructed or needs
newdesigns.

Step 2: Evaluate the literature

A thorough examination of the relevant studies is essential to the research process. It
enables the researcher to identify the precise aspects of the problem. Once a problem has
been found, the investigator or researcher needs to find out more about it.

This stage gives a problem-zone background. It teaches the investigator about previous
research, how they were conducted, and its conclusions. The researcher can build
consistency between his work and others through a literature review. Such a review exposes
the researcher to a more significant body of knowledge and helps him follow the research
process efficiently.

Step 3: Create hypothesis

Formulating an original hypothesis is the next logical step after narrowing down the research
topic and defining it. A belief solves logical relationships between variables. In order to
establish a hypothesis, a researcher must have a certain amount of expertise in the field.

It is important for researchers to keep in mind while formulating a hypothesis that it must be
based on the research topic. Researchers are able to concentrate their efforts and stay
committed to their objectives when they develop theories to guide their work.

Step 4: The research design

Research design is the plan for achieving objectives and answering research questions. It
outlines how to get the relevant information. Its goal is to design research to test hypotheses,
address the research questions, and provide decision-making insights.

The research design aims to minimise the time, money, and effort required to acquire
meaningful evidence. This plan fits into four categories:
-Exploration and Surveys
-Experiment
-Data Analysis
-Observation

Step 5: Describe population

Research projects usually look at a specific group of people, facilities, or how technology is
used in the business. In research, the term population refers to this study group. The
research topic and purpose help determine the study group.

Suppose a researcher wishes to investigate a certain group of people in the community. In

that case, the research could target a specific age group, males or females, a geographic
location, or an ethnic group. A final step in a study’s design is to specify its sample or
population so that the results may be generalized.

Step 6: Data collection

Data collection is important in obtaining the knowledge or information required to answer the
research issue. Every research collected data, either from the literature or the people being
studied. Data must be collected from the two categories of researchers. These sources may
provide primary data.
-Experiment
-Questionnaire
-Observation
-Interview

Secondary data categories are:

-Literature survey
-Official, unofficial reports
-An approach based on library resources

Step 7: Data analysis

During research design, the researcher plans data analysis. After collecting data, the
researcher analyzes it. The data is examined based on the approach in this step. The
research findings are reviewed and reported.

Data analysis involves a number of closely related stages, such as setting up categories,
applying these categories to raw data through coding and tabulation, and then drawing
statistical conclusions. The researcher can examine the acquired data using a variety of
statistical methods.

Step 8: The report writing

Step 8: The Report-writing
After completing these steps, the researcher must prepare a report detailing his findings.
The report must be carefully composed with the following in mind:

~The Layout: On the first page, the title, date, acknowledgments, and preface should be
on the report. A table of contents should be followed by a list of tables, graphs, and charts if
any.

•Introduction: It should state the research’s purpose and methods. This section should
include the study’s scope and limits.
~Summary of Findings: A non-technical summary of findings and recommendations will
follow the introduction. The findings should be summarised if they’re lengthy.

•Principal Report: The main body of the report should make sense and be broken up into
sections that are easy to understand.

•Conclusion: The researcher should restate his findings at the end of the main text. It’s the
final result.

(200)
[Link] the criteria of good research design.(2016)
[Link] the steps in designing research giving suitable examples(2013)
(50)
[Link] design(2022-23, 14)

[Link] and survey Research

(500)
[Link] is Non-probability sampling? Describe different types of non- probability
sampling.(2022-23, 16)

(Sir) Non-probability sampling is any sampling method where some elements of the
population have no chance of selection (these are sometimes referred to as 'out of
coverage'/'undercovered'), or where the probability of selection cannot be accurately
determined. It involves the selection of elements based on assumptions regarding the
population of interest, which forms the criteria for selection. Hence, because the selection of
elements is nonrandom, nonprobability sampling does not allow the estimation of sampling
errors.
Non-probability sampling is also known by different names such as deliberate
sampling, purposive sampling and judgement sampling.

[Because selection is non-random, nonprobability sampling does not allow the estimation of
sampling errors, and may be subjected to a sampling bias. Therefore, information from a
sample cannot be generalised back to the population.]

Example: We visit every household in a given street, and interview the first person to answer
the door. In any household with more than one occupant, this is a nonprobability sample,
because some people are more likely to answer the door (e.g. an unemployed person who
spends most of their time at home is more likely to answer than an employed housemate
who might be at work when the interviewer calls) and it's not practical to calculate these
probabilities.

Types of non-probability sampling techniques include: convenience sampling, quota

sampling, and purposive sampling.

[Link] sampling

•Accidental sampling (sometimes known as grab, haphazard, convenience or opportunity

sampling) is a type of nonprobability sampling which involves the sample being drawn from
that part of the population which is close to hand. That is, a population is selected because it
is readily available and convenient.

•It may be through meeting the person or including a person in the sample when one meets
them or chosen by finding them through technological means such as the internet or through
phone.
•The researcher using such a sample cannot scientifically make generalisations about the
total population from this sample because it would not be representative enough.

•For example, if the interviewer were to conduct such a survey at a shopping centre early in
the morning on a given day, the people that they could interview would be limited to those
given there at that given time, which would not represent the views of other members of
society in such an area, if the survey were to be conducted at different times of day and
several times per week.

•This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing.

•In social science research, snowball sampling is a similar technique, where existing study
subjects are used to recruit more subjects into the sample.

[Link] sampling

•In quota sampling, the population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-groups, just
as in stratified sampling.

•Then judgement is used to select the subjects or units from each segment based on a
specified proportion.

• For example, an interviewer may be told to sample 200 females and 300 males between
the age of 45 and 60.

•It is this second step which makes the technique one of non-probability sampling.
In quota sampling the selection of the sample is non-random.

•For example, interviewers might be tempted to interview those who look most helpful. The
problem is that these samples may be biased because not everyone gets a chance of
selection. This random element is its greatest weakness and quota versus probability has
been a matter of controversy for several years.

[Link] sampling

Judgmental sampling or purposive sampling is where the researcher chooses the sample
based on who they think would be appropriate for the study. This is used primarily when
there is a limited number of people that have expertise in the area being researched, or
when the interest of the research is in a specific field or a small group.
Different types of purposive sampling include: Deviant case, Case study, Ad hoc quotas.

Extra
Panel sampling (sir)

•Panel sampling is the method of first selecting a group of participants through a random
sampling method and then asking that group for (potentially the same) information several
times over a period of time.
•Therefore, each participant is interviewed at two or more time points; each period of data
collection is called a "wave".

•This longitudinal sampling-method allows estimates of changes in the population, for

example with regard to chronic illness to job stress to weekly food expenditures.

•Panel sampling can also be used to inform researchers about within-person health changes
due to age or to help explain changes in continuous dependent variables such as spousal
interaction.

•There have been several proposed methods of analysing panel data, including MANOVA,
growth curves, and structural equation modelling with lagged effects.

Read also:-
[Expert sampling, Self-selection (volunteer) sampling- not taught by sir]

2. What is sampling? Describe various methods of drawing Non-probability samples.

(2018)

Sampling
A sample is a “smaller (but hopefully representative) collection of units from a population
used to determine truths about that population” (Field, 2005) (sir)
Sampling is the process of selecting for study a limited number of units from a larger set.
The term most often refers to the selection of respondents, observations, or cases for
inclusion in experiments, surveys, interviews, or other research.
3. What is probability sampling? Describe merits and demerits of probability
sampling.(2017)

Probability sampling, also known as ‘random sampling’ or ‘chance sampling’, is a sampling

method in which every unit in the population has a chance (greater than zero) of being
selected in the sample, and this probability can be accurately determined.
It is, so to say, a lottery method in which individual units are picked up from the whole
group not deliberately but by some mechanical process. Here it is blind chance alone that
determines whether one item or the other is selected.

Random sampling ensures the law of Statistical Regularity which states that if on an average
the sample chosen is a random one, the sample will have the same composition and
characteristics as the universe. This is the reason why random sampling is considered as
the best technique of selecting a representative sample.

When every element in the population does have the same probability of selection, this is
known as an 'equal probability of selection' (EPS) design. Such designs are also referred to
as 'self-weighting' because all sampled units are given the same weight.

Probability sampling includes: Simple Random Sampling, Systematic Sampling, Stratified

Sampling, Probability Proportional to Size Sampling, and Cluster or Multistage Sampling.

Types of sampling methods, their merits and demerits:

[Link] random sampling

•Applicable when population is small, homogenous and readily available.

•In a simple random sample (SRS) of a given size, all subsets of a sampling frame have an
equal probability of being selected. Each element of the frame thus has an equal probability
of selection: the frame is not subdivided or partitioned.

•It provides for the greatest number of possible samples. This is done by assigning a number
to each unit in the sampling frame

•A table of random number or lottery system is used to determine which units are to be
selected

•Estimates are easy to calculate.

•Simple random sampling is always an EPS design, but not all EPS designs are simple
random sampling.

•Furthermore, any given pair of elements has the same chance of selection as any other
such pair (and similarly for triples, and so on). This minimises bias and simplifies analysis of
results.

Disadvantages

•If the sampling frame is large, this method is impracticable.

•Minority subgroups of interest in population may not be present in sample in sufficient

numbers for study.

[Also, simple random sampling can be cumbersome and tedious when sampling from a large
target population. In some cases, investigators are interested in research questions specific
to subgroups of the population. ]

•Simple random sampling can be vulnerable to sampling error because the randomness of
the selection may result in a sample that does not reflect the makeup of the population.

[Link] Sampling
•When the population embraces a number of distinct categories, the frame can be organized
by these categories into separate "strata." Each stratum is then sampled as an independent
sub-population, out of which individual elements can be randomly selected.

•Every unit in a stratum has the same chance of being selected.

•Using some sampling fraction for all strats ensures proportionate representation in the
sample.

•Adequate representation of minority subgroups of interest can be ensured by stratification

and varying sampling fraction between strata as required.

•Finally, since each stratum is treated as an independent population, different sampling

approaches can be applied to different strata

Drawbacks

•First, the sampling frame of the entire population has to be prepared separately for each
stratum.

•Second, when examining multiple criteria, stratifying variables may be related to some, but
not to others, further complicating the design, and potentially reducing the utility of the strata.

•Finally, in some cases (such as designs with a large number of strata, or those with a
specified minimum sample size per group), stratified sampling can potentially require a
larger sample than would other methods

[Link] sampling

•Cluster sampling is an example of ‘two stage sampling.

1st stage a sample of areas is choses;
2nd stage a sample of respondents within those areas is selected
•Population is divided into clusters of homogeneous units, usually based on geographical
contiguity.

•Sampling units are groups rather than individuals

•A sample of such clusters is then selected

•All units from the selected clusters are studied.

Advantages

•Cuts down on the cost of preparing a sampling frame

•This can reduce travel and other administrative costs.

Disadvantages

•Sampling error is higher for a simple random sample of the same.

•Often used to evaluate vaccination coverage in EPI.

Merits (as a whole) of probability sampling

1. Cost and time effective

This method saves money and time and allows for the selection of a bigger sample by first
assigning numbers to the tests and then selecting random data from the larger sample.

2. It is easy and uncomplicated.

Probability sampling is a simple method of sampling since it doesn't need a difficult
procedure. It is rapid and efficient. Thus, the time saved may be applied to data analysis and
conclusion-making.

3. It is not technical
Due to its simplicity, this sampling technique doesn't require any technical expertise. It is not
very long and doesn't call for complex knowledge.

4. Lack of bias
probability sampling should eliminate any signs of bias. Each member of the vast population
group has the same likelihood of being picked since the people who form the subgroup of
the bigger number are selected at random. Most of the time, this results in a balanced
subset with the best chance of accurately reflecting the wider group in its entirety.

5. Lower level of judgement

The procedure of probability sampling is made more efficient and reliable by the random
trend used when allocating the number to a population item.

Demerits of probability sampling

1. Chances of just choosing a certain class of samples
If a researcher is hired to gather information on any family-related statistics, there is a good
likelihood that he or she will start counting from the oldest to the youngest member and the
numbers will only be rising or falling. Only the oldest or most recent generations will be used
as samples in this situation.

2. Superfluous and tedious work

There is a potential that the surveyor may become bored because of the repetitive tasks
required to allocate the numbers and collect the data, which will lower the system's
efficiency.

3. Lack of use of new information

It ignores any further information that the population may have.

[Extra- systematic sampling, Probability-proportional-to-size sampling] Extra

4. What do you understand by survey research? Discuss different types of surveys.

(2015)
Survey research is defined as "the collection of information from a sample of individuals
through their responses to questions" (Check & Schutt, 2012)
This type of research allows for a variety of methods to recruit participants, collect data, and
utilise various methods of instrumentation. Survey research can use quantitative research
strategies (e.g., using questionnaires with numerically rated items), qualitative research
strategies (e.g., using open-ended questions), or both strategies (i.e., mixed methods). As it
is often used to describe and explore human behaviour, surveys are therefore frequently
used in social and psychological research (Singleton & Straits, 2009).
Types of survey (sir)
There are different types of survey study designs depending on the intended purpose and
approach taken. Within a given type of survey design, there are different design options with
respect to the time period, respondent group, variable choice, data collection and analytical
method [Link] Surveys, [Link] Surveys [Link]/ Causal
Surveys
[Link] the importance of sampling for survey research. Compare different types
of sampling methods for psychological research (2014)

(200)
[Link] is random sampling? Give examples, describe probability sampling methods
used in survey research. (2013)

(50)
[Link] error (2019, 17, 15, 13)

In statistics, sampling errors are incurred when the statistical characteristics of a population
are estimated from a subset, or sample, of that population. Since the sample does not
include all members of the population, statistics of the sample (often known as estimators),
such as means and quartiles, generally differ from the statistics of the entire population
(known as parameters). The difference between the sample statistic and population
parameter is considered the sampling [Link] example, if one measures the height of a
thousand individuals from a population of one million, the average height of the thousand is
typically not the same as the average height of all one million people in the country.

Sampling errors and biases are induced by the sample design. They include:
Selection bias: When the true selection probabilities differ from those assumed in calculating
the results.
Random sampling error: Random variation in the results due to the elements in the sample
being selected at random.

2. Survey research (2019)

3. Random sample (2018)
4. Sample (2016)
5. Probability sampling (2014)

[Link] of Psychological measures- Questionnaire and Tests

(200)
[Link] do you mean by item analysis? Describe the statistical steps involved in item
analysis. (2022-23)

Item analysis refers to the process of statistically analyzing assessment data to evaluate the
quality and performance of your test items. /
Item analysis is a process which examines student responses to individual test items
(questions) in order to assess the quality of those items and of the test as a whole.
Item analysis is especially valuable in improving items which will be used again in later
tests, but it can also be used to eliminate ambiguous or misleading items in a single test
administration.

[Item analysis uses statistics and expert judgement to evaluate testsbased on the quality of
individual items, item sets, and entire sets of items, as well as the relationship of each item
to other items.
It “investigates the performance of items considered individuallyeither in relation to some
external criterion or in relation to the
remaining items on the test” (Thompson & Levitov, 1985, p. 163).It uses this information to
improve item and test quality.]

Steps involved in item analysis

•Distractor analysis
Distractor analysis refers to the process of evaluating the performance of incorrect answers
vs the correct answer for multiple choice items on a test.

There are three main aspects:

1)Option frequencies/proportions
2)Option point-biserial
3)Quantile plot

•Item difficulty (sir)

P= No. Correctly answering the item

Number taking the test

Percentage of test takers who respond correctly

What if P= .00
What if P= 1.00

>An item with a p value of 0 or 1.0 does not contribute to measuring individual differences
and this is certain to be useless
>When comparing 2 test scores, we are interested in who had the higher score or the
differences in scores
>p value of 5 have most variation so seek items in this range and remove those with extreme
values
>can also be examined to determine proportion answering in a particular way for items that
don't have a "correct” answer

What is the best p-value?

~most optimal p-value=.50 maximum ~maximum discrimination between good and poor
performers

Should we only choose items of .50?

~Not necessarily...

~When wanting to screen the very top group of applicants (i.e., admission to university or
medical school).
Cutoffs may be much higher

~Other institutions want a minimum level (i.e., minimum reading level)

Cutoffs may be much lower

example:
100 people take a test
15 got question 1 right

What is the p-value?

Is this an easy or hard item?

example:
100 people take a test
70 got question 1 right
What is the p-value?
Is this an easy or hard item?

General Rules of Item Difficulty…

p low (<.20) difficult test items

p moderate (.20-.80) moderately difficult

p high (>.80) easy item

•Item Discrimination (sir)

The extent to which an item differentiates people on the behavior that the test is designed to
assess.

The computed difference between the percentage of high achievers and the percentage of
low achievers who got the item right.

Compares the performance of upper group (with high test scores) and lower group (low test
scores) on each item--% of test takers in each group who were correct

~Discrimination index (D)

Divide sample into TOP half and BOTTOM half (or TOP and BOTTOM third) Compute
Discrimination Index (D)

D = P Top group - P Bottom group

D=U-L

U= # the upper group correct response

Total # in upper group

L= #in the lower group correct response Total # in lower group

The higher the value of D, the more adequately the item discriminates (The highest value is
1.0)

•seek items with high positive numbers (those who do well on the test tend to get the item
correct)

•negative numbers (lower scorers on test more likely to get item correct) and 1 positive
numbers (about the same proportion of low and high scorers get the item correct) don't
discriminate well and are discarded

~Item total correlation

>Correlation between each item (a correct response usually receives a score of 1 and an
incorrect score of zero) and the total test score

>To which degree do item and test measures the same thing?

Positive -item discriminates between high and low scores

Near 0-item does not discriminate between high & low

Negative-scores on item and scores on test disagree

Item-total correlations are directly related to reliability.

Why?

Because the more each item correlates with the test as a whole, the higher all items
correlate with each other

(-higher alpha, internal consistency)

•Quantitative item analysis : Inter- item correlation (sir)

>Inter-item correlation matrix displays the correlation of each item with every other item.
>Provides important information for increasing the test's internal consistency.
>Each item should be highly correlated with every other item measuring the same
construct and not correlated with items measuring a different construct.
>Items that are not highly correlated with other items measuring the same construct can and
should be dropped to increase internal consistency

Possible causes for low inter-item correlation:

a)Item badly written (revise)

b)Item measures other attribute than rest of the test (discard)

c)Item correlated with some items, but not with others: test measures attributes (subtests or
subscales)

[Link] item response theory. What is its importance for test construction (2019)
(Sir)
•The item response theory (IRT), also known as the latent response theory refers to a family
of mathematical models that attempt to explain the relationship between latent traits
(unobservable characteristic or attribute) and their manifestations (i.e. observed outcomes,
responses or performance).
•The item response theory (IRT) also known as latent trait theory, is used for the
development, evaluation and administration of standardized measurements; it is widely used
in the areas of psychology and education.
•The two most important advantages provided by an IRT application during the development
and analyses of these scales are probably item and ability parameter invariance and test
information functions.
[Many psychological tests used to assess personality, intelligence, attitudes etc. might also
benefit from these IRT advantages.]
•Disadvantages of IRT are strict assumptions, large sample size (minimum 200; 1000 for
complex models)
•Advantages the more sophisticated information IRT provides allows a researcher to improve
the reliability of an assessment.

IRT takes into account the number of questions answered correctly and the difficulty of the
question. The SAT and GRE used this Item Response theory for their tests.

Conclusion
Lastly, IRT is not a panacea and does not correct problems of misleading items or failure to
meet content specifications. It also does not substitute classical methods that were influential
and are still important. However, IRT is a worthwhile tool that can and should be used to
increase the quality of psychological tests and consequently psychological assessment.

3. Why is item writing important for the development of a questionnaire? Discuss the
criteria for item selection and the role of statistics in this. (2019)

An important part of survey research involves the creation of good items.

Care needs to be taken to ensure the items align with the research purpose and questions.

Item writing is crucial for the development of scales in psychology research due to several
reasons. Firstly, well-crafted items ensure that the scale accurately measures the construct
of interest. Each item should be designed to tap into specific aspects of the construct,
providing comprehensive coverage. This enhances the scale's validity, ensuring it measures
what it intends to measure.

Secondly, item writing influences the reliability of the scale. Consistency in item wording,
response options, and formatting helps reduce measurement error, leading to more reliable
results. Additionally, carefully constructed items minimize response bias and ensure that
respondents interpret and respond to them in a consistent manner.

Moreover, item writing allows researchers to tailor scales to specific populations or contexts.
Language, cultural nuances, and relevance can vary across groups, so items need to be
written with sensitivity to these factors to ensure accurate measurement across diverse
samples.

Overall, item writing is essential for developing robust scales in psychology research as it
directly impacts validity, reliability, and applicability across different populations, thus
enhancing the quality and utility of the research findings.

Criteria for item selection and role of statistics in this

4. Describe the purpose and steps of item analysis in test construction (2018)

(Sir) Purpose -
•Evaluates the quality of each item.
•Rational: the quality of items determine the quality of test (i.e, reliability and validity)
•Many suggest ways of improving the measurement of a test
•Can help with understanding why certain tests predict some criteria but not others.

Types of item analysis

3 major types:
1)Assess quality of the distractors
2)Assess difficulty of the items
3)

5. Describe the important guidelines in writing good items. (2018)

(Padhte waqt kr lenge)

6. What are the major criteria of item selection? (2017)

7. Describe the various types of scales. (2017)

Scales of measurement can be considered in

terms of their mathematical properties. The most widely used classification of measurement
scales
are: (a) nominal scale; (b) ordinal scale; (c) interval scale; and (d) ratio scale.

(a)Nominal Scales-
The rules used to assign numerals to objects define the kind of scale and the level of
measurement. The numbers assigned to objects are numerical without
having a number meaning; they cannot be ordered or added.
(sir)
•There must be distinct classes but these classes have no quantitative properties. Therefore,
no comparison can be made
in terms of one category being higher than the other.
•For example - there are two classes for the variable gender -- males and females. There are
no quantitative properties for this variable or these classes and, therefore, gender is a
nominal variable.
•Other Examples:
country of origin ,biological sex (male or female), animal or non-animal, married vs. single
•Sometimes numbers are used to designate
category membership
Example:
Country of Origin
1 = United States 3 = Canada 2 = Mexico 4 = Other
• However, in this case, it is important to keep in mind that the numbers do not have intrinsic
meaning.
(b)Ordinal scales
Ordinal measurement requires that the objects of a set can be rank ordered on an
operationally defined characteristic or property. The so-called transitivity postulate
must be satisfied: If* is greater than b, and b is greater than c, then a is greater than c
(sir)
•There are distinct classes but these classes
have a natural ordering or ranking. The differences can be ordered on the basis of
magnitude.
•For example - final position of athletes in a marathon race is an ordinal variable. The
athletes finish first, second, third, fourth, and so on. The difference between first and second
is not necessarily equivalent to the difference between second and third, or between third
and fourth.
•Does not assume that the intervals between numbers are equal

(c)Interval scales
(sir)
•It is possible to compare differences in magnitude, but importantly the zero point does not
have a natural meaning. It captures
the properties of nominal and ordinal scales -- used by most psychological tests.
•Designates an equal-interval ordering - The distance between, for example, a 1 and a 2 is
the same as the distance between a 4 and a 5
•Example - Celsius temperature is an interval variable. It is meaningful to say that 25
degrees Celsius is 3 degrees hotter than 22 degrees Celsius, and that 17 degrees Celsius is
the same amount hotter (3 degrees) than 14 degrees Celsius. Notice, however, that 0
degrees Celsius does not have a natural meaning. That is, 0 degrees Celsius does not mean
absence.

(d)Ratio scales
(sir)
•It captures the properties of the other types of scales, but also contains a true zero, which
represents the absence of the quality
being measured.
•For example - heart beats per minute has a very natural zero point. Zero means no heart
beats. Weight (in grams) is also a ratio variable. Again, the zero value is meaningful, zero
grams means the absence of weight.
•Example: the number of intimate relationships a person has had.
0 quite literally means none
a person who has had 4 relationships has had twice as many as someone who has had 2
 ● Each of these scales have different properties (i.e., difference, magnitude, equal
intervals, or a true zero point) and allows for different interpretations.
● The scales are listed in hierarchical order. Nominal scales have the fewest
measurement properties and ratio having the most properties including the properties
of all the scales beneath it on the hierarchy.
● The goal is to be able to identify the type of measurement scale, and to understand
proper use and interpretation of the scale.

8. Briefly describe different levels of measurement giving suitable examples (2015)

9. What is meant by response bias? Discuss ways to reduce this bias (2015)

Response bias in surveys is a phenomenon where survey participants, knowingly or

unknowingly, provide answers that do not genuinely mirror their true sentiments or
perceptions.
These biases are prevalent in research involving participant self-report, such as structured
interviews or [Link] biases can have a large impact on the validity of
questionnaires or surveys.
The bias can arise from various factors, such as: Social desirability, Acquiescence,
Confirmation bias etc.

Here are some methods researchers can use to reduce response bias:

1. Understand your demographic

Understanding demographics minimizes bias by tailoring surveys to participants'
characteristics, ensuring relevance and clarity. This fosters accurate and honest responses.

2. Avoid question-wording bias

Question-wording bias occurs when the wording of a question is unintentionally or
intentionally biased, leading to inaccurate or unreliable responses. Here are some ways in
which avoiding question-wording bias can help decrease response bias:
•Use clear and simple language.
•Avoid biased or leading language.
•Avoid double-barreled questions.
•Use a small sample of participants.

3. Diversify questions
Broadening questions can reduce response bias. This approach can help capture a wider
range of perspectives and experiences, reducing the risk of bias resulting from relying on a
narrow set of questions or perspectives.

4. Allow participants to say "no”

Letting participants say "no" can help reduce response bias by allowing them to opt out of
questions they feel uncomfortable answering, don't have an opinion about, or don’t
understand.

5. Effective administration
Researchers must remain neutral, avoiding actions that may influence responses or
compromise survey integrity.
To achieve this:
•Standardize survey procedures
•Train survey administrators
•Ensure confidentiality in participant's responses
•Use clear, unbiased questions
•Monitor participant’s response rates

6. Avoid emotionally charged terms

Avoid emotionally charged terms in surveys to prevent bias. Words like "fair" and "immoral"
can sway responses. Using neutral language increases data reliability and reflects
participants' perspectives accurately.

10. What is the purpose of item analysis in test construction? Discuss the criteria of
item selection using item analysis. Give examples also.(2014)

(50)
[Link] bias (2022-23,17, 16)
[Link] analysis (2019,17)

[Link] as research method

(500)
[Link] observation as a tool for data collection. Differentiate between field
observation and participant observation. (2022-23, 13)

The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research
design/plan chalked out. The observation method is the most commonly used method
specially in studies relating to behavioural sciences.
It is way of gathering data by watching behaviour, events, or noting physical characteristics
in their natural setting. Overt behaviour is the manifestation of the covert on internal
conditions within the individual. The overt behaviour observed may be reflected in a form of
bodily changes, gestures, facial appearances, speech and other actions.

Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the researcher,
when it serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is
subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability. Under the observation method,
the information is sought by way of the investigator's own direct observation without asking
from the respondent. For instance, in a study relating to consumer behaviour, the
investigator instead of asking the brand of wrist watch used by the respondent, may himself
look at the watch. The main advantage of this method is that subjective bias is eliminated, if
observation is done accurately. Secondly, the information obtained under this method relates
to what is currently happening; it is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future
intentions or attitudes. Thirdly, this method is independent of respondents’ willingness to
respond and as such is relatively less demanding of active cooperation on the part of
respondents as happens to be the case in the interview or the questionnaire method. This
method is
particularly suitable in studies which deal with subjects (i.e., respondents) who are not
capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or the other.

Chat gpt

Field observation and participant observation are two distinct research methods used in
social sciences, particularly in anthropology and sociology.

Field Observation:
Field observation involves the researcher observing a setting, group, or community without
actively participating in the activities. The researcher remains an outsider, collecting data by
observing and documenting behaviors, interactions, and events. This method allows for a
more objective perspective, as the researcher does not influence the environment.

Participant Observation:
On the other hand, participant observation requires the researcher to immerse themselves in
the group or community being studied. The researcher actively participates in the activities,
forming relationships with the participants. This method provides a more in-depth
understanding of the social context, as the researcher gains insights from firsthand
experiences and interactions. However, it may introduce bias as the researcher becomes
part of the observed group.

Differences:

Involvement: In field observation, the researcher remains an observer, while in participant

observation, the researcher actively participates in the activities of the group being studied.

Objectivity vs. Subjectivity: Field observation tends to be more objective, as the researcher
maintains a certain level of distance. Participant observation involves subjectivity, as the
researcher's personal experiences become integral to the understanding of the context.

Data Collection: Field observation relies on external observations and documentation, while
participant observation includes the researcher's direct involvement and personal
experiences as part of the data.

Ethical Considerations: Participant observation raises ethical considerations regarding the

researcher's influence on the group being studied. In some cases, becoming too involved
may impact the natural behavior of the participants.

Both methods have their strengths and limitations, and the choice between them depends on
the research goals, ethical considerations, and the depth of understanding required in a
particular study.

2. Observation is a suitable method for data collection under certain conditions.

Outline the disadvantages of observation. (2016)
the disadvantages of observation
• Susceptible to observer bias.
• Susceptible to the “hawthorne effect,” that is, people usually perform better when they
know they are being observed, although indirect observation may decrease this problem.
• Can be expensive and time-consuming compared to other data collection methods.
• Does not increase your understanding of why people behave as they do.

(200)
1.[Briefly describe observation as a tool of data collection.(2017). Explain the
difference between field observation and participant observation.] (2019)

2. What do you understand by participant observation? Discuss how participant

observation can be made effective (2014)

(50)
[Link] observation (2018, 14)
Controlled observation is a research method where researchers watch participants in a
contained environment, such as a laboratory.
The researcher sets specific conditions, variables, and procedures to systematically observe
and measure behaviour, allowing for greater control and comparison of different conditions
or groups.

The advantages of controlled observation include:

•You can make an observation schedule for your sampling, and have other market
researchers use the same codes if they replicate the study. This helps test for reliability.
•The coded data is easy to analyze and quantify.
•Controlled studies aren’t as time-consuming.

Limitations of a controlled observation include:

•It may be challenging to determine the validity of the study if participants know they are
being watched.

2. Participant observation (2017)

Extra: •Steps of observation

•Types of observation

[Link] issues in Psychological research.

(500)
[Link] ethical issues in Psychological research. (2019)

Shrader-Frechette states that research ethics specifies the behaviour researchers ought to
show during the entire process of their
investigation.
Ethics refers to the correct rules of conduct necessary when carrying out research. They are
a key part of psychological investigation, as researchers have the responsibility to ensure
that their practice is morally correct.
There are a number of important issues that researchers should be mindful of when
undertaking investigations, with regards to the selection and subsequent treatment of their
participants:

Informed Consent
The researchers need to obtain informed consent from the participants, which informs them
about the process of the study, the potential harms, and how the participants will benefit from
the study. The outline of the study is given to the participants before the conduction of the
study. Adults above the age of 18 can consent themselves, while when a study is conducted
on children, consent is obtained from their parents or legal guardians. The informed consent
must be accompanied by an information sheet comprising all the details of the study that the
participants need to know.

Debrief
After the conduction of the study, the process and the outcomes should be discussed with
the participants. The participants must be given a fair idea of the study and what the
researcher aimed to investigate. If the purpose of the study was not revealed initially to
obtain accurate results, and the participant was deceived, the researcher needs to explain
why it was done. Debriefing needs to be as detailed as possible. Debriefing allows the
participants to leave with the same mind frame they entered the study.
Knowledge of results: Disclosing the result of the test/ our findings.

Confidentiality
Once the researchers gain the data from participants, it should only be used for research
purposes. Researchers should only force participants to reveal their names if they feel like
doing so and ensure the participants that their information and responses will not be
revealed to any third party.
The release of results should only be made to qualified research persons with client’s
consent.

Right to withdraw
As part of their briefing prior to giving consent to partake, participants must be informed that
they can leave the study at any point if they wish, and are under no obligation to disclose a
reason why if they do.

Protection of Participants
Researchers must ensure that the participants do not face distress during the study. The
participants must be protected from potential physical and mental harm. The researcher
must take special care of vulnerable groups like the elderly, children, and the
differently-abled.

Deception
This is the process wherein the participants are misled or given false information by the
researcher. The researchers should ensure that in case they cannot reveal the true objective
of the experiment and deception is necessary to obtain accurate results, they should not
hide its true nature from the participants and give them the reasons for deception post the
conduction of the study.

Scientific misconduct
The action of someone who engages in research fraud, plagiarism, or other unethical
conduct, that significantly deviates from the accepted practices for conducting and reporting
research established by the scientific community.

Research fraud
A type of unethical behaviour in which a researcher fakes or creates false data or falsely
reports the research procedure

Principle of voluntary consent

An ethical principle that people should never participate in research unless they explicitly
and freely agree to participate.

Institutional review board (IRB)

A committee in the U.S. colleges, hospitals and research institutes required by federal law to
ensure that research involving humans is conducted in a responsible, ethical manner,
examines study details before the research begins.

2. Discuss some important ethical issues in Psychological research. Discuss how

these issues have been resolved by American Psychological association (2014)
The American Psychological Association (APA) publishes the Ethical Principles of
Psychologists and Code of Conduct1 which outlines aspirational principles as well as
enforceable standards that psychologists should use when making decisions.

Resolving ethical issues

This standard of the APA ethics code provides information about what psychologists should
do to resolve ethical situations they may encounter in their work. This includes advice for
what researchers should do when their work is misrepresented and when to report ethical
violations.

1. Misuse of Psychologists' Work

If psychologists learn of misuse or misrepresentation of their work, they take reasonable
steps to correct or minimise the misuse or misrepresentation.

2. Conflicts Between Ethics and Law, Regulations, or Other Governing Legal Authority
If psychologists’ ethical responsibilities conflict with law, regulations, or other governing legal
authority, psychologists clarify the nature of the conflict, make known their commitment to
the Ethics Code, and take reasonable steps to resolve the conflict consistent with the
General Principles and Ethical Standards of the Ethics Code. Under no circumstances may
this standard be used to justify or defend violating human rights.

3. Conflicts Between Ethics and Organisational Demands

If the demands of an organisation with which psychologists are affiliated or for whom they
are working are in conflict with this Ethics Code, psychologists clarify the nature of the
conflict, make known their commitment to the Ethics Code, and take reasonable steps to
resolve the conflict consistent with the General Principles and Ethical Standards of the
Ethics Code. Under no circumstances may this standard be used to justify or defend
violating human rights.

4. Informal Resolution of Ethical Violations

When psychologists believe that there may have been an ethical violation by another
psychologist, they attempt to resolve the issue by bringing it to the attention of that
individual, if an informal resolution appears appropriate and the intervention does not violate
any confidentiality rights that may be involved.
5. Reporting Ethical Violations
If an apparent ethical violation has substantially harmed or is likely to substantially harm a
person or organization and is not appropriate for informal resolution under Standard 4.
Informal Resolution of Ethical Violations , or is not resolved properly in that fashion,
psychologists take further action appropriate to the situation. Such action might include
referral to state or national committees on professional ethics, to state licensing boards, or to
the appropriate institutional authorities. This standard does not apply when an intervention
would violate confidentiality rights or when psychologists have been retained to review the
work of another psychologist whose professional conduct is in question.

6. Cooperating with Ethics Committees

Psychologists cooperate in ethics investigations, proceedings, and resulting requirements of
the APA or any affiliated state psychological association to which they belong. In doing so,
they address any confidentiality issues. Failure to cooperate is itself an ethics violation.
However, making a request for deferment of adjudication of an ethics complaint pending the
outcome of litigation does not alone constitute noncooperation.

7. Improper Complaints
Psychologists do not file or encourage the filing of ethics complaints that are made with
reckless disregard for or willful ignorance of facts that would disprove the allegation.

8. Unfair Discrimination Against Complainants and Respondents

Psychologists do not deny persons employment, advancement, admissions to academic or
other programs, tenure, or promotion, based solely upon their having made or their being the
subject of an ethics complaint. This does not preclude taking action based upon the outcome
of such proceedings or considering other appropriate information.

(200)
[Link] describe various ethical issues in Psychological research. (2022-23,18)

[Link] is informed consent and debriefing of respondents? (2016)

(50)
[Link] (2022-23,19
2. Informed consent (2017, 14)