Module-2

Oscillators:
1. Positive Feedback
2. Condition for Oscillations
3. Ladder Network Oscillator
4. Wein Bridge Oscillator
5. Single-Stage Astable Oscillator
6. Crystal Controlled Oscillators (Only Concepts, Working, and Waveforms. No
Mathematical Derivations)
Operational Amplifiers:
1. Operational Amplifier Parameters
2. Operational Amplifier Characteristics
3. Operational Amplifier Configurations
4. Operational Amplifier Circuits
Oscillators:
An oscillator is a circuit which produces a continuous, repeated, alternating waveform without
any input. Oscillators basically convert unidirectional current flow from a DC source into an
alternating waveform which is of the desired frequency, as decided by its circuit components.

Oscillators - Positive feedback

An alternative form of feedback, where the output is fed back in such a way as to reinforce the
input (rather than to subtract from it), is known as positive feedback.

Figure. 1 shows the block diagram of an amplifier stage with positive feedback applied.

Note that the amplifier provides a phase shift of 180° and the feedback network provides a
further 180°. Thus the overall phase shift is 0°. The overall voltage gain, G, is given by:

By applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

where Av is the internal gain of the amplifier. Hence:

Now consider what will happen when the loop gain, βAv, approaches unity (i.e. when the loop
gain is just less than 1). The denominator (1 − βAv) will become close to zero. This will have
the effect of increasing the overall gain, i.e. the overall gain with positive feedback applied will
be greater than the gain without feedback.
It is worth illustrating this difficult concept using some practical figures. Assume that you have
an amplifier with a gain of 9 and one-tenth of the output is fed back to the input (i.e. β = 0.1). In
this case the loop gain (β × Av) is 0.9. With negative feedback applied the overall voltage gain
will be:

With positive feedback applied the overall voltage gain will be:

Now assume that you have an amplifier with a gain of 10 and, once again, one-tenth of the output
is fed back to the input (i.e. β = 0.1). In this example the loop gain (β × Av) is exactly 1. With
negative feedback applied the overall voltage gain will be:

With positive feedback applied the overall voltage gain will be:

This simple example shows that a loop gain of unity (or larger) will result in infinite gain and an
amplifier which is unstable. In fact, the amplifier will oscillate since any disturbance will be
amplified and result in an output.
Clearly, as far as an amplifier is concerned, positive feedback may have an undesirable effect –
instead of reducing the overall gain the effect is that of reinforcing any signal present and the
output can build up into continuous oscillation if the loop gain is 1 or greater. To put this another
way, oscillator circuits can simply be thought of as amplifiers that generate an output signal
without the need for an input!
Conditions for Oscillation (Barkhausen criterion):
The conditions for oscillation are:
(a) The feedback must be positive (i.e. the signal fed back must arrive back in-phase with the
signal at the input);
(b) The overall loop voltage gain must be greater than 1 (i.e. the amplifier’s gain must be
sufficient to overcome the losses associated with any frequency selective feedback network).
Hence, to create an oscillator we simply need an amplifier with sufficient gain to overcome
the losses of the network that provide positive feedback.
Ladder network oscillator:
A simple phase-shift oscillator based on a three- stage C–R ladder network is shown in
Fig. 2 TR1 operates as a conventional common-emitter amplifier stage with R1 and R2
providing base bias potential and R3 and C1 providing emitter stabilization. The total phase
shift provided by the C–R ladder network (connected between collector and base) is 180° at
the frequency of oscillation.

Figure 2 Sine wave oscillator based on a three stage C–R ladder network
The transistor provides the other 180° phase shift in order to realize an overall phase shift of
360° or 0°. The frequency of oscillation of the circuit shown in Fig. 2.1 is given by:

The loss associated with the ladder network is 29, thus the amplifier must provide a gain of at
least 29 in order for the circuit to oscillate. In practice this is easily achieved with a single
transistor.
Example 1
Determine the frequency of oscillation of a three- stage ladder network oscillator in which C
= 10 nF and R =10 kΩ.
Solution
We know that
Wien bridge oscillator:
An alternative approach to providing the phase shift required is the use of a Wien bridge
network (Fig. 3). Like the C–R ladder, this network provides a phase shift which varies with
frequency. The input signal is applied to A and B while the output is taken from C and
D. At one particular frequency, the phase shift produced by the network will be exactly zero
(i.e. the input and output signals will be in-phase). If we connect the network to an amplifier
producing 0° phase shift which has sufficient gain to overcome the losses of the Wien bridge,
oscillation will result. The minimum amplifier gain required to sustain oscillation is given by:

In most cases, C1 = C 2 and R1 = R2, hence the minimum amplifier gain will be 3.

Figure 3 A Wien bridge network

Figure 4 Sine wave oscillator based on a Wien bridge network

The frequency at which the phase shift will be zero is given by:

When R1 = R2 and C1 = C2 the frequency at which the phase shift will be zero will be given
by:

where R = R1 = R2 and C = C1 = C2.

Example 2
For a Wien bridge oscillator based on an operational amplifier, if C1 = C2 = 100 nF,
determine the output frequencies produced by this arrangement (a) when R1 = R2 = 1 kΩ and
(b) when R1 = R2 = 6 kΩ.
Solution
(a) When R1 = R2 = 1 kΩ

where R = R1 = R1 and C = C1 = C2.

Thus

(b) When R1 = R1 = 6 kΩ
Multivibrators:
There are many occasions when we require a square wave output from an oscillator rather than
a sine wave output. Multivibrators are a family of oscillator circuits that produce output
waveforms consisting of one or more rectangular pulses. The term ‘multivibrator’ simply
originates from the fact that this type of waveform is rich in harmonics (i.e. ‘multiple
vibrations’). Multivibrators use regenerative (i.e. positive) feedback; the active devices present
within the oscillator circuit being operated as switches, being alternately cut-off and driven into
saturation.
The principal types of multivibrator are:
(a) astable multivibrators that provide a continuous train of pulses (these are sometimes
also referred to as free-running multivibrators);
(b) monostable multivibrators that produce a single output pulse (they have one stable state
and are thus sometimes also referred to as ‘one-shot’);
(c) bistable multivibrators that have two stable states and require a trigger pulse or control
signal to change from one state to another.

Single-stage astable oscillator:

A simple form of astable oscillator that produces a square wave output can be built using just
one operational amplifier, as shown in Fig. 2.4. The circuit employs positive feedback with the
output fed back to the non-inverting input via the potential divider formed by R1 and R2.

Figure 5 Single-stage astable oscillator using an operational amplifier

This circuit can make a very simple square wave source with a frequency that can be made
adjustable by replacing R with a variable or preset resistor.
Assume that C is initially uncharged and the voltage at the inverting input is slightly less than
the voltage at the non-inverting input. The output voltage will rise rapidly to +V CC and the
voltage at the inverting input will begin to rise exponentially as capacitor C charges through
R. Eventually the voltage at the inverting input will have reached a value that causes the voltage
at the inverting input to exceed that present at the non-inverting input. At this point, the output
voltage will rapidly fall to -VCC. Capacitor C will then start to charge in the other direction and
the voltage at the inverting input will begin to fall exponentially.
Eventually, the voltage at the inverting input will have reached a value that causes the voltage
at the inverting input to be less than that present at the non-inverting input. At this point, the
output voltage will rise rapidly to +VCC once again and the cycle will continue indefinitely.
The upper threshold voltage (i.e. the maximum positive value for the voltage at the inverting
input) will be given by:

The lower threshold voltage (i.e. the maximum negative value for the voltage at the inverting
input) will be given by:

Finally, the time for one complete cycle of the output waveform produced by the astable
oscillator is given by:

Crystal controlled oscillators:

A requirement of some oscillators is that they accurately maintain an exact frequency of
oscillation. In such cases, a quartz crystal can be used as the frequency determining element.
The quartz crystal vibrates whenever a potential difference is applied across its faces (this
phenomenon is known as the piezoelectric effect). The frequency of oscillation is determined
by the crystal’s ‘cut’ and physical size.
Most quartz crystals can be expected to stabilize the frequency of oscillation of a circuit to
within a few parts in a million. Crystals can be manufactured for operation in fundamental
mode over a frequency range extending from 100 kHz to around 20 MHz and for overtone
operation from 20 MHz to well over 100 MHz.
Fig. 2.5 shows a simple crystal oscillator circuit in which the crystal provides feedback from
the drain to the source of a junction gate FET.

Figure 6 A simple JFET oscillator

Operational Amplifiers:
An operational amplifier is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with a
differential input and, usually, a single-ended output. Op amps are used widely in electronic
devices today, including a vast array of consumer, industrial, and scientific devices.

Operational amplifier parameters

Following are some of the terms and parameters that we apply to Op-amps.
Open-loop voltage gain:
The open-loop voltage gain of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of output voltage
to input voltage measured with no feedback applied. In practice, this value is exceptionally
high (typically greater than 100,000) but is liable to considerable variation from one device to
another.
Open-loop voltage gain may thus be thought of as the ‘internal’ voltage gain of the device,
thus:
where AV(OL) is the open-loop voltage gain, VOUT and VIN are the output and input voltages,
respectively, under open-loop conditions.
The open-loop voltage gain is often expressed in
decibels (dB) rather than as a ratio. In this case:

Most operational amplifiers have open-loop voltage gains of 90 dB or more.

Closed-loop voltage gain:
The closed-loop voltage gain of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of output voltage
to input voltage measured with a small proportion of the output fed-back to the input (i.e. with
feedback applied). Practical closed-loop voltage gains range from one to several thousand.
Closed-loop voltage gain is once again the ratio of output voltage to input voltage but with
negative feedback applied, hence:

where AV(CL) is the closed-loop voltage gain, VOUT and VIN are the output and input voltages,
respectively, under closed-loop conditions. The closed-loop voltage gain is normally very
much less than the open-loop voltage gain.
Example 1
An operational amplifier operating with negative feedback produces an output voltage of 2 V
when supplied with an input of 400 µV. Determine the value of closed-loop voltage gain.
Solution
Now:

Thus
Expressed in decibels (rather than as a ratio) this is:

Input resistance:
The input resistance of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of input voltage to input
current expressed in ohms. Generally it is assume that the input of an operational amplifier is
purely resistive, though this is not the case at high frequencies where shunt capacitive reactance
may become significant. In practice values range from about 2 MΩ for common bipolar types
to over 1012 Ω for FET and CMOS devices.
Input resistance is the ratio of input voltage to input current:

where RIN is the input resistance (in ohms), VIN is the input voltage (in volts) and IIN is the input
current (in amps).

Example 2
An operational amplifier has an input resistance of 2 MΩ. Determine the input current when
an input voltage of 5 mV is present.
Solution
Now:

Thus

Output resistance:
The output resistance of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of open-circuit output
voltage to short-circuit output current expressed in ohms. Typical values of output resistance
range from less than 10Ω to around 100Ω, depending upon the configuration and amount of
feedback employed.
Output resistance is the ratio of open-circuit output voltage to short-circuit output current,
hence:

where ROUT is the output resistance (in ohms), VOUT(OC) is the open-circuit output voltage (in
volts) and IOUT(SC) is the short-circuit output current (in amps).
Input offset voltage:
An ideal operational amplifier would provide zero output voltage when 0 V difference is
applied to its inputs. In practice, due to imperfect internal balance, there may be some small
voltage present at the output. The voltage that must be applied differentially to the operational
amplifier input in order to make the output voltage exactly zero is known as the input offset
voltage.
Input offset voltage may be minimized by applying relatively large amounts of negative
feedback or by using the offset null facility provided by a number of operational amplifier
devices. Typical values of input offset voltage range from 1 mV to 15 mV.
Full-power bandwidth:
The full-power bandwidth for an operational amplifier is equivalent to the frequency at which
the maximum undistorted peak output voltage swing falls to 0.707 of its low-frequency (d.c.)
value (the sinusoidal input voltage remaining constant). Typical full-power bandwidths range
from 10 kHz to over 1 MHz for some high-speed devices.
Slew rate:
Slew rate is the rate of change of output voltage with time, when a rectangular step input voltage
is applied (as shown in Fig. 8.4). The slew rate of an operational amplifier is the rate of change
of output voltage with time in response to a perfect step-function input. Hence:

where ∆VOUT is the change in output voltage (in volts) and ∆t is the corresponding interval of
time (in seconds). Slew rate is measured in V/s (or V/µs) and typical values range from 0.2
V/µs to over 20 V/µs.
 Figure 1 Slew rate for an operational amplifier

Operational amplifier characteristics

The desirable characteristics for an ‘ideal’ operational amplifier are:
(a) The open-loop voltage gain should be very high (ideally infinite).
(b) The input resistance should be very high (ideally infinite).
(c) The output resistance should be very low (ideally zero).
(d) Full-power bandwidth should be as wide as possible.
(e) Slew rate should be as large as possible.
(f) Input offset should be as small as possible.
Table 1 Comparison of operational amplifier parameters for ‘ideal’ and ‘real’ devices

Example 3
A perfect rectangular pulse is applied to the input of an operational amplifier. If it takes 4 µs
for the output voltage to change from –5 V to +5 V, determine the slew rate of the device.
Solution
The slew rate can be determined from:

Example 4
A wideband operational amplifier has a slew rate of 15 V/µs. If the amplifier is used in a circuit
with a voltage gain of 20 and a perfect step input of 100 mV is applied to its input, determine
the time taken for the output to change level.
Solution
The output voltage change will be 20 × 100 = 2,000 mV (or 2 V).
Re-arranging the formula for slew rate gives:

Operational amplifier configurations

The three basic configurations for operational voltage amplifiers, together with the expressions
for their voltage gain, are shown in Fig. 2.
All of the amplifier circuits described previously have used direct coupling and thus have
frequency response characteristics that extend to d.c. This, of course, is undesirable for many
applications, particularly where a wanted a.c. signal may be superimposed on an unwanted
d.c. voltage level or when the bandwidth of the amplifier greatly exceeds that of the signal that
it is required to amplify. In such cases, capacitors of appropriate value may be inserted in series
with the input resistor, RIN, and in parallel with the feedback resistor, RF, as shown in Fig. 3.
The value of the input and feedback capacitors, CIN and CF respectively, are chosen so as to
roll off the frequency response of the amplifier at the desired lower and upper cut-off
frequencies, respectively.
The effect of these two capacitors on an operational amplifier’s frequency response is shown
in Fig. 4. By selecting appropriate values of capacitor, the frequency response of an inverting
operational voltage amplifier may be very easily tailored to suit a particular set of requirements.
 Figure 2 The three basic confi gurations for operational voltage amplifiers Table
Table 2 Characteristics of Op-amp circuits shown in Fig. 2

The lower cut-off frequency is determined by the value of the input capacitance, CIN, and
input resistance, RIN.
The lower cut-off frequency is given by:
 The upper cut-off frequency will be determined by the feedback capacitance, CF, and
feedback resistance, RF, such that:

Figure 3 Adding capacitors to modify the frequency response of an inverting operational amplifier

Figure 4 Effect of adding capacitors, CIN and CF, to modify the frequency response of an operational amplifier
Example 5: An inverting operational amplifier is to operate according to the following
specification:
Voltage gain = 100
Input resistance (at mid-band) = 10 kΩ
Lower cut-off frequency = 250 Hz
Upper cut-off frequency = 15 kHz
Devise a circuit to satisfy the above specification using an operational amplifier.
Solution: To make things a little easier, we can break the problem down into manageable parts. We
shall base our circuit on a single operational amplifier configured as an inverting amplifier with
capacitors to define the upper and lower cut-off frequencies, as shown in Figure. 6.
The nominal input resistance is the same as the value for RIN. Thus:
RIN = 10 kΩ
To determine the value of RF we can make use of the formula for mid-band voltage gain:

thus R2 = Av × R1 = 100 × 10 kΩ = 100 kΩ

To determine the value of CIN we will use the formula for the low-frequency cut-off:

Finally, to determine the value of CF we will use the formula for high-frequency cut-off:

For most applications the nearest preferred values (68 nF for CIN and 100 pF for CF) would be
perfectly adequate. The complete circuit of the operational amplifier stage is shown in Figure. 7.
Figure 5: See Example 5. This operational amplifier has a mid-band voltage gain of 10 over the
frequency range 250Hz to 15KHz.

Operational amplifier circuits:

As well as their application as a general-purpose amplifying device, operational amplifiers have
a number of other uses, including voltage followers, differentiators, integrators, comparators
and summing amplifiers.
Voltage followers:
A voltage follower using an operational amplifier is shown in Fig. 6. This circuit is essentially
an inverting amplifier in which 100% of the output is fed back to the input. The result is an
amplifier that has a voltage gain of 1 (i.e. unity), a very high input resistance and a very high
output resistance. This stage is often referred to as a buffer and is used for matching a high-
impedance circuit to a low-impedance circuit.
Typical input and output waveforms for a voltage follower are shown in Fig. 7. The input and
output waveforms are both in-phase (they rise and fall together) and they are identical in
amplitude.

Figure 6 A voltage follower

 Figure 7 Typical input and output waveforms for a voltage follower

Differentiators
A differentiator using an operational amplifier is shown in Fig. 2.12. A differentiator produces
an output voltage that is equivalent to the rate of change of its input. This simply means that if
the input voltage remains constant (i.e. if it isn’t changing) the output is zero. The faster the
input voltage changes the greater will the output be. In mathematics this is equivalent to the
differential function.
Typical input and output waveforms for a differentiator are shown in Fig. 2.13. Notice how the
square wave input is converted to a train of short duration pulses at the output. Note also that
the output waveform is inverted because the signal has been applied to the inverting input of
the operational amplifier.

Figure 8 A differentiator

Figure 9 Typical input and output waveforms for a differentiator

Integrators
An integrator using an operational amplifier is shown in Fig.10. This circuit provides the
opposite function to that of a differentiator in that its output is equivalent to the area under the
graph of the input function rather than its rate of change. If the input voltage remains constant
(and is other than 0 V) the output voltage will ramp up or down according to the polarity of the
input. The longer the input voltage remains at a particular value the larger the value of output
voltage (of either polarity) will be produced.
Typical input and output waveforms for an integrator are shown in Fig.11. Notice how the
square wave input is converted to a wave that has a triangular shape. Once again, note that the
output waveform is inverted.

Figure 10 An integrator

Figure 11 Typical input and output waveforms for an integrator

Comparators
A comparator using an operational amplifier is shown in Fig. 12. Since no negative feedback
has been applied, this circuit uses the maximum gain of the operational amplifier. The output
voltage produced by the operational amplifier will thus rise to the maximum possible value
(equal to the positive supply rail voltage) whenever the voltage present at the non-inverting
input exceeds that present at the inverting input. Conversely, the output voltage produced by
the operational amplifier will fall to the minimum possible value (equal to the negative supply
rail voltage) whenever the voltage present at the inverting input exceeds that present at the non-
inverting input.
Typical input and output waveforms for a comparator are shown in Fig. 13. Notice how the
output is either +15 V or –15 V depending on the relative polarity of the two inputs. A typical
application for a comparator is that of comparing a signal voltage with a reference voltage. The
output will go high (or low) in order to signal the result of the comparison.

Figure 12 A comparator

Figure 13 Typical input and output waveforms for a comparator.

Summing amplifiers
A summing amplifier using an operational amplifier is shown in Fig. 14. This circuit produces
an output that is the sum of its two input voltages. However, since the operational amplifier is
connected in inverting mode, the output voltage is given by:

where V1 and V2 are the input voltages (note that all of the resistors used in the circuit have
the same value).
Typical input and output waveforms for a summing amplifier are shown in Fig. 8.19.
A typical application is that of ‘mixing’ two input signals to produce an output voltage that is
the sum of the two.

Figure 14 A summing amplifier

Figure 15 Typical input and output waveforms for a summing amplifier