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ENGG2500 Fluid Mechanics
Pipe friction measurement
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Objectives
Extending on from what you learned in class about real fluids and energy losses in smooth and
roughened pipes, in this small-scale lab experiment you will be analyzing how different pipe
diameters, different pipe roughness and different flow regimes can affect pressure and energy loss
in a system and how these fundamental concepts can be used to measure the flow rate in a pipe
system. The understanding of fundamental pipe flow concepts is important for the efficient
engineering design of pipes in the real world.
Experimental setup
Flow and losses in a wide variety of pipes and fittings can be measured in this experiment. As can
be seen in Figures 1 and 2, numbered pressure tappings are fitted at all the important points, for
measurement of the pressure change along each pipe section or pipe component. Each pressure
tapping includes a special self-sealing connector.
To measure the pressure change across each pipe section or components, a free standing 3 way
Manometer unit is supplied. To measure the higher differential pressure across the valves and
strainer, a differential pressure gauge is included. Suitable lengths of connecting pipes are
supplied with the apparatus (see Table 1).
Very low flow rates can be measured accurately using a 1000 mL measuring cylinder in
conjunction with a stopwatch, when used in conjunction with the hydraulic bench supply.
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Figure 1: Layout of the measuring device for pipe friction. Take close note to the numbers which
relate to the specific pipes you will be testing (refer to Table 1).
Figure 2: Pictures of the pipe board (left) and manometer board (right) you will use in the class.
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Table 1: Details and dimensions of the pipes used in this experiment. Refer to Figure 1 for the
locations of tappings.
Tapping
Distance between
Item Details numbers (see
tappings
Figure 1)
Smooth pipe 26.2 mm diameter bore 10, 11 912 mm
Smooth pipe 13.6 mm diameter bore 13, 14 912 mm
Smooth pipe 4 mm diameter bore 34, 35 350 mm
17mm diameter bore
Rough pipe 30, 31 200 mm
14mm effective diameter
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Theory
Pressure loss in a pipe
When water flows through long, straight pipelines, it is observed that there is a loss of pressure
along the pipeline. These pressure losses arise from shear stresses at the pipe walls (where the
velocity is zero) and internal shear stresses within the flow. Both are linked with viscosity of the
fluid.
As fluid flows through a straight pipe, energy is dissipated due to turbulence and friction. This
energy can be measured by the head loss for a length of pipe. Extensive research has shown that
the head loss, hL, can be represented by the Darcy friction factor f:
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Δ PL L V avg [1]
h L= =f
ρg D 2g
where L is the length of the pipe, V avg is the mean flow velocity, and D is the internal diameter of
the pipe.
Based on the measured flow rate Q and the calculated pipe cross-section area A , the mean flow
velocity V avg can be calculated:
Q [2]
V avg =
A
The pressure losses between two sections of a pipe can be measured with manometers, which
provides the head difference (head loss) hL in metres.
Flow regime and Reynolds number
Early experiments of flow in straight, cylindrical pipes found different flow regimes depending upon
the flow velocity as well as the pipe size and fluid viscosity. For very low velocities, a laminar flow
is observed where the flow moves in tubes or layers and the velocity profile is parabolic.
At higher velocities, the flow becomes chaotic with eddies being shed from the pipe walls and is
termed turbulent flow. The turbulent velocity profile is characterized by a steeper velocity gradient
close to the pipe wall and a more equally distributed velocity in the pipe centre resembling a
logarithmic profile. This is caused by turbulent eddies which mix the momentum across the pipe
and therefore makes the velocity profile more uniform.
In between the laminar and turbulent flow is a so-called transitional flow regime which is unstable
and cannot be separated into laminar or turbulent flows.
The creation and spreading of turbulence are stability problems. In laminar flows any disturbances
are damped out by the viscous forces, but in a turbulent flow, the viscous forces are not able to
damp out the flow disturbances which spread rapidly throughout the entire flow field. It was found
that a dimensionless number called the Reynolds number could be used to predict the flow
resistance in long straight pipes. The Reynolds number is the ratio of inertial forces to viscous
forces. Mathematically, the Reynolds number for a circular pipe is given by:
V avg D [3]
ℜ=
ν
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where ℜ is the Reynolds number, V avg is the mean velocity in the pipe, D is the pipe diameter, and
ν is the kinematic viscosity ( ν = 1 ×10−6 m2/s for H2O < at 20°C).
The Reynolds number can be used to classify the flow regime in the pipes:
For ℜ < 2000, the flow is laminar.
For ℜ > 4000, the flow is turbulent.
For 2000 < ℜ < 4000, the flow is transitional.
Moody diagram and the relationship between Reynolds number, friction factor and surface
roughness
In laminar flows (i.e., ℜ < 2000) the velocity profile is parabolic, and the streamlines are parallel. In
the flow with a non-zero velocity gradient, the shear stress at any point within the pipe is related to
the wall shear stress and the shear stresses decrease linearly from its maximum at the wall to zero
in the centre of the pipe. Using Newton’s law of viscosity, combining with Hagen-Poiseuille and the
Darcy Weisbach equations, a theoretical solution relating the head loss in a pipe to the flow
velocity to friction factors for laminar flow under pressure in pipes can be derived:
64 [4]
f= ℜ
For turbulent flows ( ℜ > 4000) the shear stress is dominated by interaction between the mean flow
and turbulent mixing within the pipe. No theoretical solution exists to predict the friction factors in
turbulent flows. The friction factors depend upon the flow Reynolds number and the roughness of
the pipe. The roughness of the pipe’s walls is expressed as the relative roughness (ϵ / D ) where ϵ
is the Nikuradse roughness height (mm). As explained in the lectures, the Nikuradse roughness
height ϵ and the equivalent sand roughness height k s (mm) are both used interchangeably.
Nikuradse conducted numerous experiments on flow though pipes. These data were used by
Colebrook to present a general equation for the roughness of commercial pipes as:
1
√f
=−2 log 10( ϵ
+
2.51
3.7 D ℜ √ f ) [5]
The Moody chart is given in Figure 3 which shows the relationship between the Darcy friction
factor and Reynolds number for a range of relative pipe roughness.
The theoretical relationship for laminar flows is illustrated by a single straight line on the left
section of the Moody diagram for ℜ < 2000. The relationship is independent of the roughness of
the pipe. The general equation for turbulent flows is also illustrated in the Moody diagram for ℜ >
4000 showing the dependence of the friction factor on both Reynolds number and relative
roughness. Depending upon the relative roughness of the pipe, the turbulent flows may be
classified as smooth turbulent or fully rough, turbulent flows. For smooth pipes, the lowest
envelope curve indicates the case where the effect of the wall roughness on the friction factor is
negligible.
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In between the laminar and the turbulent flow regimes, a transitional flow regime exists (2000 < ℜ
< 4000) for which no clear relationship between friction factors, Reynolds numbers and roughness
exists. The transition flows are unstable, i.e., the flow fluctuates between being laminar and
turbulent. Despite many experimental and theoretical studies, the friction factors are not clearly
predictable in this flow region (Figure 3).
Figure 3 Moody Chart.
Smooth pipes
For smooth pipes and ℜ > 4000, the flow is considered a smooth turbulent flow. In such flows, the
surface roughness is submerged within the viscous sublayer and head losses and the Darcy
friction factor are independent of the roughness height. For flows in smooth pipes, the Darcy
friction factor can also be calculated by the empirical Blasius equation as:
0.316 [6]
f= 1 /4
Re
Roughened pipes
For roughened pipes, the roughness elements may be sufficiently large so that they protrude the
flows. In such cases, the Darcy friction factor may only depend upon the roughness ϵ and is
independent of the Reynolds number (and viscosity of the flow). The roughened pipe in the
present study can be considered as rough. It is shown in Figure 4. The pipe is coated internally
with sand that has an average grain size of 0.5 mm. The effective pipe diameter is 14.0 mm. For
the calculation of the relative roughness, the effective diameter needs to be considered. The
relative roughness for the roughened pipe is therefore grain size divided by effective pipe
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diameter. Noe that you should also use a diameter of 14.0 mm to calculate the flow velocity and
Reynolds number.
Figure 4 Roughened pipe.
The Moody graph is given in Figure 3 which shows the relationship between the Darcy friction
factor and Reynolds number for pipe roughness.
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Procedure
There are four workstations in which three smooth pipes and one roughened pipe with different
bores have been set up. You will rotate through all of them. Ensure the correct valves are used
and the circuits are connected.
1. Find the correct pipe by checking which pipe is connected with manometer. Distinguish
upstream and downstream.
2. Fully close all valves on the circuits.
3. Turn on the water supply from the Hydraulic Workbench.
4. Slowly open the desired circuit outlet valve, until steady flow comes out from outlet.
5. Bleed the pipes, if necessary, as described below (it is recommended to call demonstrators for
help).
6. Wait the fluid level in manometer reach steady. Record the readings on the Manometer.
7. Record the volume of water entering the volumetric tank of the Hydraulic Workbench, and the
corresponding time.
8. Use the Gate valve to change the flow rate in five suitable steps to give a good spread of
results (5 sets).
9. Turn off the circuit outlet valve and Hydraulic Workbench valve.
10. Repeat Steps 1 to 10 for the other smooth pipes with 4 mm and 26.2 mm bores, and the
roughened pipe.
Bleeding connection pipes and manometer
Ensure that all outlet valves are closed, the Hydraulic Workbench is on, and the Hydraulic
Workbench valve is fully open.
1. Select suitable lengths of connecting tube and place one end in a bucket
2. Connect the other ends to the desired tapping points
3. Wait until all the air has been forced out of the connecting pipes, and quickly connect the free
ends of the pipes from out of the bucket to the pair of tappings on the Manometers
4. Open the valve in the cap at the manifold (at the top of the Manometer) and allow the
Manometer to fill up. Use a beaker or small container to collect any water that escapes
5. Close the valve when the Manometer tubes are full of water and there are no more air bubbles
in the connecting tubes and Manometer.
6. Fully open the outlet valve on the circuit being used and let the flow settle
7. Close the Hydraulic Bench control valve
8. Open the valve cap on the Manometer manifold again and allow the pressure to equalize in the
tubes. The Manometer levels should be equal. If not, then check for air bubbles or leaks and
repeat Steps d to h again, ensuring that all outlet valves are closed, and the Hydraulic
Workbench valve is fully open.
9. Close the valve cap
10. Fully open the Hydraulic Bench control valve
11. Return to Step 6 of Procedure
The self-sealing tappings at the base of the Manometers will help to keep the tubes full of water
between experiments if care is taken when using the connecting tubes.
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Smooth pipe Diameter = (mm) Length = (mm) Area = (mm2)
Volume Time Manometer Readings Q V avg Re f Blasius
Upstream Downstream Δh f
(L) (s) (mm) (mm) (m) (m3/s) (m/s) - - -
Smooth pipe Diameter = (mm) Length = (mm) Area = (mm2)
Volume Time Manometer Readings Q V avg Re f Blasius
Upstream Downstream Δh f
(L) (s) (mm) (mm) (m) (m3/s) (m/s) - - -
1
0
Smooth pipe Diameter = (mm) Length = (mm) Area = (mm2)
Volume Time Manometer Readings Q V avg Re f Blasius
Upstream Downstream Δh f
(L) (s) (mm) (mm) (m) (m3/s) (m/s) - - -
Roughened pipe Diameter = (mm) Length = (mm) Area = (mm2)
Volume Time Manometer Readings Q V avg Re f Blasius
Upstream Downstream Δh f
(L) (s) (mm) (mm) (m) (m3/s) (m/s) - - -
1
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Calculations and discussion
1. For each set of readings, calculate the Darcy friction factor ( f and Blasius f ) according to
equations [1] and [6], and Reynolds number ( ℜ) according to equations [3]. Complete
the tables (write down the calculation process).
Smooth pipes
2. Do the values of the calculated friction factors suggest that the smooth pipes are
perfectly smooth? What effect does the pipe diameter have on the apparent
smoothness (i.e., friction factor)?
3. Using the Moody graph, estimate the surface roughness of the smooth pipes used in
the experiment (hint: plot the calculated Reynolds number and corresponding friction
factor on Moody chart to find relative roughness).
Roughened pipes
4. Estimate the value of friction factor from the Moody graph for the roughened pipe (hint:
plot the calculated Reynold number and the given relative roughness on Moody chart to
find friction factor).
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Post-lab exercise
1. Calculate the critical volumetric flow rate (m 3/s) in each smooth pipe to be used in the
experiment which the flow may be expected to be laminar. Critical volumetric flow rate
refers to the value that the flow will not be laminar if the flow rate exceeds this value.
Assume the working fluid is water at 20°C.
2. Find friction factors for these two cases on Moody chart:
(a). Circular glass pipe with diameter 0.058 m. The flow inside of the pipe has Reynolds
number 16000.
(b). Circular glass pipe with diameter 0.058 m. The flow inside of the pipe has Reynolds
number 1600.
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The copyright for this material rests with The University of New South Wales. This material
must not be copied without permission of the subject authority.