UNIT-6

1. Data communications: Data communication is the process of transferring data from one place to
another or between two locations. It allows electronic and digital data to move between two networks, no

matter where the two are located geographically, what the data contains, or what format they are in. A

common example of data communication is connecting your laptop to a Wi-Fi network. This action

requires a wireless medium to send and receive data from remote servers. The type of data transmission

demonstrates the direction in which the data moves between the sender and receiver.

 Simplex data transmission: Data is sent from sender to receiver

 Half-duplex data transmission: Data can transmit both ways, but not simultaneously

 Full-duplex data transmission: Data can transmit both ways at the same time. Full-duplex data
transmission is the most common type found in computer networks.

 Some different types of computer networks include:

 Personal area network (PAN)

 Local area network (LAN)

 Campus area network (CAN)

 Metropolitan area network (MAN)

 Wide area network (WAN)

These computer networks indicate the geographic coverage. LAN, for example, refers to devices

connected in a physical location, such as an office or apartment building.

2. Components of data communication

A data communication system is comprised of the following:

Message: The data to be transmitted or communicated, which can include numbers, text, photos, sound,

or video.

 Sender: The computer or device (e.g., phone, tablet) that sends the message.

 Receiver: The computer or device that receives the message, which can be different from the

sender.

 Medium: The channel through which the message is carried from sender to receiver, such as twisted

pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber optic cable, or wireless.

  Protocol: The set of rules that govern the communication between computers. These rules are

followed by both the sender and receiver.

1. Communication process:
The process of communication consists of the following steps or stages:
(i) Message: This is the background step to the process of communication; which, by forming the
subject matter of communication necessitates the start of a communication process. The message might
be a factor an idea, or a request or a suggestion, or an order or a grievance.
(ii) Sender: The actual process of communication is initiated at the hands of the sender; who takes steps
to send the message to the recipient.
(iii) Encoding: Encoding means giving a form and meaning to the message through expressing it into –
words, symbol, gestures, graph, drawings etc.
(iv) Medium: It refers to the method or channel, through which the message is to be conveyed to the
recipient. For example, an oral communication might be made through a peon or over the telephone
etc.; while a written communication might be routed through a letter or a notice displayed on the notice
board etc.
(v) Recipient (or the Receiver): Technically, a communication is complete, only when it comes to the
knowledge of the intended person i.e. the recipient or the receiver.
(vi) Decoding: Decoding means the interpretation of the message by the recipient – with a view to
getting the meaning of the message, as per the intentions of the sender.
2. Data transmission rate
A data transmission rate tells you how much digital data will travel from one place to another—from a
hard drive to a USB flash drive, for example—in a specific period of time.

Rather confusingly, you’ll see it measured in:

 bits per second

 bytes per second

BITS BYTES

Used to Used to measure size (of a data file)

measure speed (of a
connection) Written with a capital B (e.g. 30 MBps, 5
GBps)
Written with a lower-
case b (e.g. 25 bps, Kilobyte (KB)—1,024 bytes
20 Mbps)
Megabyte (MB)—1,024 kilobytes
Kilobit (kb)—1,024
bits Gigabyte (GB)—1,024 megabytes

Megabit (Mb)—1,024 Terabyte (TB)—1,024 gigabytes

kilobits

Gigabit (Gb)—1,024
 megabits

Terabit (Tb)—1,024
gigabits

3. Modem and its working

A modem is a type of network device that modulates and demodulates analog carrier signals to encode
and decode digital information for processing. Modem is a hardware that transmits the data by
modulating carrier wave signals to encode the digital information. The receiver will demodulate the
digital signal for recreating the original digital information. Modems are classified according to the
maximum data (bit/s) that they can send in a given time period. These are the variable-rate due to
which they can be used over a medium that has less than ideal characteristics.

 How does a modem work?

A modem works in the following step-by-step process:
Data will be generated whenever data transmission is required. The computer system generates the data
in the digital form of 0s and 1s.
The second steps involves modulation which is a process of converting digital data signals of computer
into analog data signals that can travel on the internet. This digital data is encoded on a carrier wave
that can travel over an analog medium.
Modulated data is the result of modulation which will be transmitted over communication line to the
modem that is receiving the modulated data.
After this, the analog data signals from the internet are converted into digital data signals by the
modem that can be understood by computer systems. In this process, the digital data from carrier wave
is decoded.
This demodulated data is sent to the computer for further usage. While downloading the data received
from the internet, the modem receives an incoming analog signal and it demodulates this into digital
data which is passed to the computer.

 Characteristics of a Modem
 The following points highlight the characteristics of a modem:
 Modems are useful in converting digital signals into analog signals.
 They help in connecting the devices to the internet.
 Only a limited number of systems can be connected to the internet through a modem.
 Modems are prone to cyber-attacks which reduces the probability of secure transmission.
 The cost of a modem is dependent on the number of features it offers. More inclusion of features
will lead to an increase in the cost of modem.
 Modems slow down when it is connected to a hub.
 They are unable to track traffic between the LAN and the internet.
 Modems require RJ11 Jack to communicate with telephone lines and RJ45 for connection with
computers.
 Applications of Modems
 Initially, these devices were used for either sending faces or for connecting the user with the
internet. These days, modems have more than just two applications. These include the following:
 1. Data transfer: Dial modems provide secure connections for smoothly transferring the data.
These come along with the redial functionality in case a call is dropped.
 Reliable backup: Modems act as a backup in the absence of stable broadband or server connection.
With modems, data can be retrieved and servers can be configured even if the status of the
broadband connection is not known.
 Remote management: These networking devices can be installed at remote or sensitive locations.
Along with that, modems help in remotely controlling certain applications. This helps in a quick
resolution to issues that will otherwise require physical assessment.
Types of Modem
There are following different types of Modems:
1. Cable Modems
Cable modem is a type of modem that helps in establishing communication between computer and ISP
over landline connection. These modems allow the access to high-speed data with the help of a cable
TV (CATV) network. Such modems are external devices connected to your PC with the help of a
standard 10 BASE-T ethernet card and twisted pair wiring.
2. Telephone Modems
These types of modems are network devices that allow data communication between two computers
over voice-grade telephone lines. Telephone modems convert bits to analog signals for transmission
through physical channels. These also convert the analog signals in the local loops into bits that are
understandable by a computer.
3. Dial modems
These modems convert the data between analog form (used on the telephone lines) and digital form
(used on the computers). These networking devices plug into the computer at one end and a telephone
line at another end. These modems can transmit the data at a maximum rate of 56000 bits/sec.
Whenever you have connected to a network with the help of dial up modem, it relays distinctive
handshaking sounds between the remote modem and your device. This sound helps in verifying if the
connection is working.
4. Satellite Modems
This type of modem provides an internet connection with the help of satellite dishes. It transfers input
bits into output radio signals and then executes the vice versa. This modem is more reliable for
providing an internet network in comparison with other modems.
5. Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
DSL are types of modems used for transmission of the digital data over telephone lines. These modems
offer high-speed internet connection through telephone lines. Two types of DSL modem include
asymmetric and symmetric DSL that use existing telephone wiring within your home wiring. Due to
the use of existing wiring, these modems are cost-effective.

4. Types of network:

Basis LAN MAN WAN

 Several computers
LAN is a network that The WAN
can be connected
enables the communication network
to MAN in the
between many linked extends to a
same city or
devices. It is in charge of much greater
Meaning separately. It
establishing connections area. It can link
encompasses a
among neighborhood units, multiple
greater region,
including universities and countries
including minor
schools. together.
towns and cities.

MAN can be either A single

LAN is a private and public or private. company may
Network secured network. Hospitals, A lot of businesses not own WAN.
Authority schools, offices, etc., can and telephone It can be
own it. companies could private or
own them. public.

MAN provides a WAN provides

The Internet speed provided
Speed modest Internet a slow Internet
through LAN is fast.
connection speed. connection.

MAN's
WAN
LAN maintenance is very maintenance is
Maintenance maintenance is
easy. easier compared to
very difficult.
LAN.
 Congestion is
more in WAN
Congestion is less in the
Congestion It is more in MAN. when compared
LAN network.
to LAN and
MAN.

WAN
The bandwidth in LAN is In MAN,
Bandwidth bandwidth is
very high. bandwidth is less.
quite limited.

It isn't easy to It is
It is very easy to design a
Designing design a MAN complicated to
LAN network.
network. design WAN.

5. Types of network topology

There are 5 popular types of topology,

 Bus Topology
 Ring Topology
 Tree Topology
 Star Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Hybrid Topology
 Bus Topology : In a bus topology, every computer is connected to a common bus. The bus is a
single cable that carries data from one computer to another. If one computer wants to send data to
another computer, it sends the data on the bus. All computers on the bus can see the data, but only
the intended recipient will accept it.
Features of BUS Topology

1. It sends data only in one direction.

2. Every device is linked to a single cable.

Advantage of BUS Topology

1. Cost-effective.
2. Cable requirement is minimal as compared to other topologies.
3. Useful in small networks.
4. Easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand by connecting two cables.

The Disadvantage of BUS Topology

1. The whole network fails if cables fail.

2. The performance of the network decreases in case network traffic is heavy or nodes are more
or the cable has a limited length.
3. It works slower as compared to the ring topology.

 Ring Topology: In a ring topology, every node is connected to two other nodes, forming a loop.
Data flows from one node to the next in a continuous sequence. Ring topologies are often used in
fibre optic networks, where data can be transmitted at high speeds with minimal interference.

Features of RING Topology

1. The multiple numbers of repeaters are installed for Ring topology with a high number of
nodes, because if one node wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with
more nodes like 100 nodes, then the data will have to travel through 99 nodes to reach the
100th node. Hence repeaters are used in the network to prevent data loss.
2. The transmission is in one direction, but it is possible to implement bidirectional transmission
by having 2 connections between each Network Node, therefore also known as “Dual Ring
Topology”.
 3. In the case of Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are created, and data flow is in the
opposite direction. Hence, if the ring in one direction fails, the second ring can work as a
backup, to keep the network working.
4. Data is transmitted in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to go
through each node linked in the network, till the final node.

Advantage of RING Topology

1. Transmitting network is not affected by huge traffic or by the addition of more nodes, as only
the nodes having tokens(short message) are allowed to transmit data.
2. Low cost to install and expand.

The Disadvantage of RING Topology

1. Troubleshooting is not simple in a ring topology.

2. The addition or removal of the computers interferes with the other nodes and network activity.
3. The crashing of one node affects the whole network.
4. Initial installation cost is high therefore not applied at low-density traffic.

 Tree Topology: In a tree topology, there is a central root node from which all other nodes branch
out. This type of topology is often used in bus topology networks. Tree topology can be extended
to an arbitrary depth, but it is usually only extended to two or three levels for the sake of
simplicity.

Features of TREE Topology

1. Ideal if workstations are situated in groups.

2. Useful in Wide Area Network.

Advantage of TREE Topology

1. Extension of bus and star topologies.

2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.

The Disadvantage of TREE Topology

1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If additional nodes are introduced, maintenance is difficult.
4. If the central hub fails, the network fails.
 Star Topology: In a star topology, each device on the network is connected to a central hub. The
hub acts as a gateway, providing a single point of connection for all devices on the network. Star
typologies are commonly used in home and small office networks.

Features of STAR Topology

1. Each node has its unique connection to the hub.

2. Hub works as a repeater for data transmission.
3. Can be utilized with twisted pair, Optical Fibre, or coaxial cable.

Advantage of STAR Topology

1. Speedy performance with less number of nodes and low network traffic.
2. Hub can be easily upgraded without hassle.
3. Simpler to troubleshoot.
4. Simpler to set up and modify.
5. If there is a failure in one node then the failed node is only affected, and the rest of the nodes
can work without any issues.

The Disadvantage of STAR Topology

1. Expensive to install.
2. Expensive in usage.
3. If the hub crashes then the entire network is stopped because all linked nodes depend on the
hub.
4. Efficiency is dependent on the hub, that is it depends on its capacity.

 Mesh Topology: In computer networking, mesh topology is a type of network topology in which
each node (computer or other devices) is connected to every other node in the network. A mesh
topology is often used in large, complex networks because it is highly redundant and can
accommodate a large number of nodes. If one node fails, the others can still communicate with
each other.
There are two types of methods to transmit data via the Mesh topology, they are :

1. Routing
2. Flooding

MESH Topology: Routing

In routing, the linked computers have a routing logic, as per the network need. Like routing logic to
direct the data to transmit to the destination via the shortest distance.

MESH Topology: Routing

In flooding, the exact data is sent to all the network nodes, hence no routing logic is needed. The
network is robust, and data loss is very unlikely. But it results in unwanted load over the network.

Types of MESH Topology

1. Partial Mesh Topology: In this type of topology few of the systems are linked similarly to
mesh topology but few nodes are only linked to two or three devices.
2. Full Mesh Topology: Every node or device is linked to each other.

Features of MESH Topology

1. Fully lined.
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.

Advantage of MESH Topology

1. Each connection may carry its unique data load.

2. It is robust.
3. Fault can be diagnosed easily.
4. Facilitates security and privacy.

The Disadvantage of MESH Topology

1. Installation and configuration are not simple.

2. Cabling cost is higher.
3. Bulk wiring is needed.
 HYBRID Topology

It is two different kinds of topologies, which is a combination of two or more topologies. For example
if in an office in some department ring topology is used and in another department in the same place,
star topology is used, connecting these topologies will form a Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star
topology).

Features of HYBRID Topology

1. It is an encapsulation of two or topologies

2. Inherits the benefits and disadvantages of the topologies included.

Advantage of HYBRID Topology

1. Reliable because Error detecting and troubleshooting are easy.

2. Effective.
3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
4. Flexible.

Learn about the Types of Computers here.

The Disadvantage of HYBRID Topology

1. Complex in design.
2. Costly.