includes key for macroscopic recognition of rocks

The nature of rocks

1.1What is called rock?

The branch of knowledge that deals with systematic study
of rocks is petrology. It includes the description and identification of the
Rocks (petrography) and an explanation of their origins (petrogenesis).
A rock is made up of a mineral or the association of two.
or more minerals that maintain a certain uniformity of composition
and characteristics in the Earth's crust. Therefore, the association of
two or more minerals form a rock. However, they can occur
rocks made up essentially of a single mineral, as in
case of limestone and marble, both formed by the mineral calcite
calcium carbonate
Rocks are, then, the many substances of the Earth. They are
composed of the same particles, like all other materials
in the universe, but, in the rocks, the particles are so aggregated and
arranged that the units are very broad. Bodies of rocks
individuals commonly constitute hundreds or thousands of kilometers
cubic meters of the Earth's volume. Even so, the rocks differ
a lot from one place to another, due to the different processes
by which they are formed.
The rocks close to the surface have been studied for a long time.
time and its characteristics are well known. In general, rocks
are classified into three major groups, according to the main
process that gave rise to them. These three groups are igneous rocks,
sedimentary and metamorphic. Anyone who intends to start
in geology must be able to know the characteristics and inter-
relations existing between these three major groups of rocks.
Due to the diversity of rock types, the various ways
that they are formed and the huge variation in sizes of
units that they form (ranging from the size of batholiths to crystal units
submicroscopic), petrology uses some contrasting methods-
tantes de investigação. Esses métodos incluem técnicas de geologia
26 Rocks: easy study and classification manual

Talc. A mineral with a metallic (pearly greasy) luster;

blades, scales and filaments; white, green to pale yellow
-greenish; perfect cleavage, in one direction; greasy to the touch;
hardness; can be scratched with a fingernail; sectile. Talc is found in a way
more characteristics in metamorphic rocks, in which, in the form
granular crystalline, known as soapstone or steatite
tita, being able to constitute almost all crushed rock. Found
in schistose rocks, like otalchist.

Tremolite (asbestos). A mineral with a metallic (vitreous) luster.

aperlaceous); long prisms in the form of blades; white;
oblique cleavage in two directions; hardness 5 to 6. Found in
shales and metamorphic rocks in contact with limestones.

Tourmaline. A metallic (glassy to resinous) mineral that shines;

prismatic, generally with a rounded triangular section; color
varied, depending on the composition, commonly black; fracture
conchoidal; hardness 7,7. Found in granitic pegmatites and
in the surrounding enclosing rocks.

Zeolites (family of). They are hydrated silicates that show

intimate similarities in composition, in their associations and
nomenclature of occurrence. The main minerals of the family of
zeolites are: analcime, natrolite, heulandite and stilbite. They are
minerals of metallic luster (glassy to pearly); white
You are colorless, sometimes presenting as yellow, brown
and red; hardness 3.5 to 5.5. They are secondary minerals found
traces in cavities and veins in basic igneous rocks.

1.5recognizing rocks
The objective of the macroscopic recognition of rocks is to reach
name of the species by observing its visible characteristics,
regardless of the classification of the rock according to its origin.
Knowing how to recognize common rock-forming minerals is
essential for the study and the macroscopic examination of rocks. Analyze
large specimens of minerals and observe their characteristics is
 1The nature of rocks 27

one of the ways to achieve greater security in recognition

of the constituent minerals of rocks. In rocks, the minerals are,
usually small in size, which makes recognition difficult
cement. Therefore, it is necessary to observe them carefully and note everything
its visible characteristics. A pocket magnifying glass, with magnification
six to nine times, it is a good aid for observations, thus
like good lighting.
For the identification of a rock, in addition to its composition.
mineral, it is important to analyze its structure (massive or oriented),
its texture (grain analysis) and the hardness of its minerals.

1.5.1Structure
For the macroscopic recognition of rocks, it is necessary to know
recognize if the specimen to be analyzed has a structure
mass (unordered) or an oriented structure (Fig. 1.3).
The structure of a rock is the set of characteristics that express
discontinuity or variation in texture. In the rocks where there is no
there are privileged directions, their aspect is always the same. When
the rock presents itself with this attribute (lack of orientation), we say
that it is massive. The others are oriented, that is, they exhibit a
defined form or internal arrangement of its constituents and character
Ristic. Layered or striped structures are composed of
distinct rings identified by different colors and/or textures.
Stratification is one of the most common forms of structure of

Fig. 1.3Characteristic aspects of rocks with massive and oriented structure:

(A) massive structure and porphyritic granular texture in igneous rock; (B) structure
oriented and clastic texture (fragmentary) in sedimentary rock; and (C) structure
oriented and granoblastic texture in metamorphic rock
 Igneous or magmatic rocks

Igneous or magmatic rocks are those that are formed by

cooling and consolidation of magma. Fundamentally, they
they are characterized by the absence of fossils, and can be classified
according to its mineralogical composition, color, texture, grain size
the structure, among others.
The absence of fossils is insufficient to prove that the rock is
fiery, but helpful. This absence is caused by the high temperatures.
journeys in which these rocks are formed.
A identificação dos minerais constituintes da rocha é impor-
aunt; mainly, to know how to recognize the presence of quartz,
feldspar, micas, and ferromagnesian minerals. The presence of glass
it always indicates an igneous rock. The abundance of feldspar, from
that there are no typically sedimentary or metamorphic structures,
can also be considered diagnostic. Often, the crystals
show intertwining, as if they grew now cutting, now
being cut by their neighbors.
Igneous rocks are composed of essential minerals and
accessories. Essential minerals are the constituents of a rock
necessary for its definition. They do not need to correspond only
to its abundant constituents, such as quartz in granite; they can
to occur in small quantities, like olivine in olivine basalt.
Accessory minerals are of subsidiary importance in a rock,
that is, they are not necessary for their definition. They are present in
small quantities, such as Fe-Ti oxide in gabbro or biotite
in granite.
The mineral constituents of an igneous rock are indicative of
its color. It is said that an igneous rock is leucocratic when it is rich in
light minerals, such as feldspars, quartz, and muscovite; it is said to be
melanocratic rocks predominantly (more than 60%) contain dark minerals,
such as biotite, amphibole, pyroxene, and olivine. When the rock has
between 30% and 60% of dark minerals, it is dictated by democratic standards.
 Sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary rocks are those that form at the surface of the crust.
terrestrial by the action of water, wind, or ice, and whose material, generally,
is extracted from pre-existing rocks by mechanical processes or
chemicals. At no time during your training did they exist
especially high temperatures or pressures, and their components
Mineralogical compositions and physical appearances reflect this fact. Rocks
sedimentary are layered accumulations of sediments, which are
fragments of rocks or minerals from fine to coarse granulation,
precipitated chemical matter or animal-derived material or
vegetal. In the interstices of the sediments, a generally deposits a
cement, but some remain unconsolidated. The bedding
in sedimentary rocks it is usually parallel to the surface of the
Earth; whether the layers form steep angles with the surface or are
bent or broken, some kind of movement occurred
since they were deposited.
Visualizing the formation of sedimentary rocks is easier than that
of igneous and metamorphic rocks, because part of the process occurs in
around us, incessantly. Layers of sand and gravel, which
deposited on the beaches or in the rivers, they form sandstones and conglomerates.
Fundamentally, sedimentary rocks are characterized
by the presence of fossils, and can be classified according to their
texture, mineralogical composition, grain size and color.
The evidence of fossils is sufficient to prove sedimentary origins.
from a rock, since its presence is motivated by the way of
formation of these rocks.

3.1Origin
Sedimentary rocks are composed of material derived from the
disaggregation and decomposition, by weathering and erosion, of rocks
igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic older. The materials
sedimentary rocks belong to two categories:
 Metamorphic rocks

Metamorphic rocks are formed when the minerals in the rocks

pre-existing are changed, physically and/or chemically, under the influ-
the range of temperatures and/or pressures at which they are unstable. The
changes that the rocks and the minerals that make them up undergo are
called metamorphosis. These conditions of general change
Minds occur in certain geological environments below the
Earth's surface.
The transformation, or metamorphosis, is the result of a
change in the geological environment, in which the stability of the rocks may
to be maintained simply by a corresponding change in your
form. Metamorphosis is characterized by the development of
new textures or new minerals, or both. Such characteristics
they are so different from the previous ones that, most of the time, it is difficult
determine the nature of the original rock.
The new textures are produced by recrystallization, through
from which minerals grow in larger crystals and generally
lends the rock a laminated appearance, known as
foliation, which can be banded or wavy. The new minerals are
created by recombination of mineral components or reactions
with fluids that enter the rocks.
Metamorphosis can occur with greater or lesser intensity.
due to the temperatures and pressures to which the rock is subjected,
which, to some extent, is also a function of the depth at which the
phenomenon occurs.
If clay is deposited, it initially goes through the process
of diagenesis (lithification) and transforms into a claystone (rock
sedimentary). With the conditions of temperature and pressure increases-
thus, progressively the claystone will transform into a slate
(metamorphic rock) and then, in a phyllite (metamorphic rock).
The slate and the offspring have a quite fine grain and are formed
mainly by very small mica minerals, almost
78 Rocks: easy manual for study and classification

the facial gneiss, modernly designated as metatexite, which has already been
widely used for ornamental purposes in Colonial Brazil.
Osxistossão are metamorphic rocks that are distinguished from
thanks for the absence of coarse-grained bands and for the presence
from the disposition in layers, or schistosity, along which the rock
it can be broken more easily. There are varieties of shales.
and terms such as micaxist, biotitaxist, talcschist are used,
shale, chlorite schist, amphibolite schist, hornblende schist, staurolite
lithic granules (Fig. 4.5) etc. to distinguish them.

Frame 4.2Simplified classification of metamorphic rocks

Composition
Texture Diagnostic aspects Rock
mineralogical
Mineral grains
macroscopic
arranged in bands
Feldspar, quartz and
clear alternates and
other silicates, main-
dark. The parts Gneiss
mica and amphibole.
darkness can contain
hornblende, augite
garnet and biotite.
Mica and other silicates
laminated or elongated
(amphiboles, staurolites, Sticky texture, grains
Schist
cloritas), grenades and com coarse to fine.
Foliada small quantities
of quartz and feldspar.
Phyllitic texture, afaní-
Mica minerals are tica. Represents a
Filito
dominant. transition between the shale
and the slate.
Dense, micro grains
textures
Mica minerals Alarming. Variable color,
with quartz and others being the black and the
Slate
impurities. common gray-black.
It also occurs green,
dark red etc.
 4Metamorphic rocks 79

Frame 4.2Simplified classification of metamorphic rocks(cont.)

Composition
Texture Diagnostic aspects Rock
mineralogical
Feldspar and other silica- Fine granulation, colors
often granules clear, composition Granite
greats of Granada. granite.
Cristal clear. Hard (scratch
Quartz grains and the glass) and colors
Quartzite
{"white":"branca","pink":"rósea","brown":"castanha"}
quartz cement.
and red.
Crystalline. Colors and
granulation variables.
Calcite Marble
Effervesce with HCl
cold.
Crystal clear. Colors and
granulation variables. Dolomite
Massive Calcite and dolomite
It effervesces hot marble
with HCl.
Dense, dark color;
various shades of gray,
Clay Hornfel
greenish-gray to
black.
Black, shiny;
Carbon conchoidal fracture or Anthracite
meet.
Compact. Colors
ranging from green to Serpent-
Serpentine
yellowish-green. nito
Greasy to the touch.
Source: adapted from Pearl (1966).

Ofilito is a rock with an intermediate texture between schist and

slate, and tends to break into sheets whose surfaces show
tiny developments. The sardosi are rocks of granulation
extremely thin and have a remarkable property, known
as ardosian clivage, which allows them to unfold in
thin and long sheets (Fig. 4.6). This enables its use to eat-
special as a coating.
Ummarble is a metamorphic limestone, therefore composed.
essentially from the mineral calcite (Fig. 4.7). The dolomitic marble
80 Rocks: easy manual for study and classification

it is a metamorphic rock resulting from the metamorphism of a

dolomite or an impure limestone. When pure, marble is
white, but can present a wide range of colors as a result
of various impurities present.
Quartzite is a metamorphic rock that derives from metamorph
fossil of a sandstone, and is essentially composed of quartz.
Mica quartzite is a quartz-sericite schist.

Fig. 4.4O gnaisse is a rock Fig. 4.5 Granadaxisto is a rock

morph with oriented structure metamorphoses with oriented structure
Ta-da. There, the banded structure is tada (xistose structure) characterized
characterized by the alternation of by the parallel arrangement of lamellae of
light bands (quartzofeldspathic) and mica or another tabular mineral. The
dark (with biotite and amphibole) points that stand out in the image
they are made of the mineral garnet

Fig. 4.6A slate is a rock Fig. 4.7 The marble is a rock

metamorphoses with orient structure metamorphoses with non-structure
Ta-da. It has a finer granulation. oriented and with variable grain size.
it breaks into regular shapes It is essentially composed of calcite.
Ardosian cleavage CaCO3)
 Key for recognition of
common rocks

5.1What rock is this?

The aim is to provide general guidance on how to recognize
macroscopically a rock and the ways to frame it in a
determined group without worrying about the detailed description of
each species and with the processes of its genesis.
It is not, therefore, a matter of identification or characterization of
rocks, a subject of the competence of petrologists and that involves
knowledge of crystal optics.
The key presented here is of exclusively practical nature,
in order to meet the needs of beginners and to
use in the professional life of those who deal with geosciences. It is intended for
to guide in the study of rocks with the naked eye or with assistance
of a magnifying glass and the use of some issued tests, physical and
chemicals that lead to the recognition of the rock.
It is recommended for those who seek a higher income
in the use of this key, a prior knowledge of the main
rock-forming minerals and types of textures. One knows
cement of the main properties and/or physical characteristics of
minerals, such as luster, color, streak, hardness, and cleavage/fracture, will be
great utility.
In the macroscopic examination of a rock, it is necessary to observe
all the important characteristics that are visible and record them,
in order to arrive at a clear description of the rock, which allows
distinguish it from others.
One starts by observing if the rock structure is massive (not
oriented) - Group I - ororiented - Group II.
For both groups, some information is added.
complementary elements that help in identification and/or recognition
of these rocks. This information can guide about the type of
rock analyzed.