The geosphere or geosphere is the internal and solid part of the earth that is formed

by three concentric layers called crust, mantle, and core. Without the geosphere, beings
humans could not live on the planet, as there would be no solid ground. In the
In the geosphere of the Earth, there are rocks, minerals, magma, sand, and the.
mountains.
This layer interacts with the other layers of the Earth system, including the atmosphere,
hydrosphere and the biosphere, and is in a state of constant movement; the rocks
sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic rocks within the Earth's geosphere undergo a
continuous recycling.

Origin of the geosphere

It is said that the Earth was formed about 4.6 billion years ago from the collision of
the meteoric debris that created the solar system. Due to the constant collisions
during its formation, the planet's initial temperature was extremely high, it was
molten material.
But during the next phase of Earth's formation, cooling occurred, and with
he, the differentiation of the layers of the Earth. The dense materials sank into the
center, forming a nucleus rich in iron and nickel. The lighter magma rose to the
surface, forming the thickest layer of the earth known as the mantle.
Eventually, the outermost magma cooled to form the thin layer that we call
earth's crust.

Characteristics of the geosphere

The geosphere extends from the earth's surface to the center of the earth,
reaching an approximate thickness of 6370 km from the surface.
It is known that for the most part, the geosphere is composed of 35% iron, 25%

1
 of oxygen and 18% of silicon.
At greater depths in the geosphere, greater with its density, temperature and
pressure.
This layer is constantly changing due to geological processes that
they originate as much from external as from internal.

There are eight major tectonic plates that make up the Earth's geosphere.
They move constantly, although very slowly, only a few.
centimeters per year.
The tectonic plates float on layers of molten rocks called
asthenosphere.
The movement of the continents is known as 'continental drift'.
Processes occur continuously in the geosphere. A good example is the cycle of
rocks, what happens when the rock melts, solidifies, erodes,
it is deposited, buried, and finally received to start the cycle again.

Composition and structure of the geosphere

The composition of the geosphere is mainly based on rocks and minerals, including
both molten rocks and heavy metals.
It is said that approximately 98.7% of the Earth's crust consists of only 8
elements:
●Oxigeno (46.6%)
●Silicio (27.72%)
●Aluminio (8.13%)
Iron (5.00%)
Football (3.63%)
●Sodio (2.83%)
Potassium (2.70%)
●Magnesio (2.09%)
These elements form the building blocks of most materials

2
inorganics that we find in our daily lives, such as glass, concrete and the
steel.
Just below the crust is the mantle. It is believed that the mantle is composed
mainly of peridotite, a type of rock made up of iron, magnesium, silicon and
oxygen.
The core is mainly composed of iron, with a small amount of nickel.
Liquid iron in the outer core is particularly important, as it constitutes the
primary source of the Earth's magnetic field.
Most of the direct knowledge about the Earth's interior comes from the 10
superior km. The knowledge of the remaining 6300 km is primarily based on
indirect evidence from laboratory studies and computer models.

3
The Earth's crust is a great unknown due to the difficulties involved in its study.
However, the data provided by simological studies have contributed significantly
important to the understanding of the internal structure of the earth. Through the analysis of the
Propagation of seismic waves builds profiles that provide the geology
tectonic structures.

The crust is the outer solid layer of a rocky planet, dwarf planet, or satellite.
natural. It is usually distinguished from the underlying mantle by its chemical composition; without

embargo, in the case of frozen satellites, they can be distinguished according to their phase (solid crust

in front of liquid mantle).

The crusts of the earth, the moon, mercury, venus, mars, and other planetary bodies are
They were formed through igneous processes and then modified by erosion, craters by
impacts, volcanisms and sedimentations.

Most terrestrial planets have fairly uniform crusts. The Earth, without
embargo, it has two distinct types: continental crust and oceanic crust. These two types
they have different chemical compositions and physical properties, and were formed through
different geological processes.
The Earth's crust is the outermost layer of the Earth, part of the lithosphere, which has
a variable thickness between five kilometers deep in the oceans and up to 40
average depth in continental mountain ranges. The Earth's crust is
composed of siliceous rocks, distinguished by three main layers:

Sedimentary cover
It is formed by sedimentary rocks that are located on the continents and over the

4
continental platforms. This layer is formed by folded rocks that are part of
of the current and ancient mountain ranges of the continents and of the base of the platform
continental, and by recent sediments that are fundamentally deposited on the
continental shelf and the seabed close to the continent.

Granite cover
It is composed of rocks similar to granite. It forms the fundamental mass of the areas.
emerged continents. Between this layer and the next, the discontinuity is noticeable.
Conrad, also called 'lithosphere channel', which marks the boundaries of the granitic layer.
and the lower basaltic layer. Both the sedimentary layer and the grammar are layers
discontinuous and are found as floating in isostatic equilibrium on the layer
basilica, like an iceberg on water.

Basalt cover
It is made up of rocks similar to basalt. It is a continuous layer around the earth,
unlike the two previous ones. The Mohorovičić discontinuity separates the layer
basilica of the mantle.

Structure
The crust is a thin layer on the Earth's surface, which represents less than 1%
of the volume of the earth. It is the upper component of the lithosphere: a division of the
layers of the earth that include the crust and the upper part of the mantle. The lithosphere is
breaks into tectonic plates that move, allowing heat to escape from the interior
from the earth to space.

The crust is located at the top of the mantle, a configuration that is stable.
because the upper mantle is made of peridotites and, therefore, is significantly
denser than the crust and the mantle is conventionally placed at the discontinuity of

5
 Moho, a limit defined by its contrast in seismic velocity.

Composition
The continental crust has an average composition similar to that of andesite.
the most abundant minerals in the continental crust of the earth are feldspars that
They constitute approximately 41% of the crust by weight, followed by quartz at 12%
and the pyroxenes at 11%. The basaltic oceanic crust is highly enriched in comparison
with the underlying mantle.

Oxide %
o
SiO 60.
6
Al O 15.
9
Calcium6.4
Oxide
MgO4.7
At O 3.1
Iron(II) 6.7
oxide
KO 1.8
TiO 0.7
PO 0.1
Although the continental crust accounts for only about 0.6% by weight of the silicate
in the earth, it contains 20% to 70% of the incompatible elements.

Elemento %
s
O 45.

6
 6
If 27.
7
Al 8.1
Fe 5.0
Ca 3.6
Na 2.8
K 2.6
Mg 1.5

All other components, except water, are only present in very small amounts.
small and add up to less than 1 %. The average density estimates for the
The upper crust varies between 2.69 and 2.74 g/cm, and for the lower crust, it is between 3.0 and 3.25.

g/cm.

The mantle is an internal layer of terrestrial planets or some other bodies.

rocky planets, like those found between the core, the innermost layer, and the
crust, the outermost one. It is mainly composed of silicates. For it to form
a mantle, the planetary body must be large enough to have gone through the
planetary differentiation process in terms of density. The terrestrial planets (the
Earth, Venus, Mars, and Mercury), the Earth’s moon, two of Jupiter’s satellites (Io and

7
Europa and the asteroid Vesta each have a rocky mantle.

The mantle is the layer of the Earth that is located between the crust and the core.
It constitutes approximately 84% of the volume of the planet). The Earth's mantle
extends from about 33 km deep (or around 8 km in the oceanic zone)
up to 2900 km (transition to the core). The difference in the mantle began about
3.8 billion years, when the gravitational segregation of the components of
protoplanet Earth produced the current stratification. The pressure at the bottom of the
the mantle is around 140 GPa (about 1,400,000 atmospheres). It is divided into two parts: mantle

inner, solid, elastic; and outer mantle, fluid, viscous.

Physical characteristics
In addition to the differences in composition, the mantle also presents some
very different physical characteristics from those of the crust (and the core). In the points
The following is a characterization of the main physical parameters of the mantle.

Material status
The material that makes up the mantle can be in a solid state or as a
viscous paste, as a result of high pressures. However, contrary to what
As one can imagine, the trends in the high-pressure area is that the rocks would
keep solid, as they take up less physical space than the resulting liquids from
fusion. In addition to that, the constitution of the materials of each layer of the mantle

determines the local physical state. Thus, the interior of the earth, including the inner core,
tends to be solid because, despite the extremely high temperatures, it is subjected to pressures
such high elevations that the atoms, when compressed, force the repulsion forces
between the atoms are overcome by external pressure. As a result, despite the
temperature, the substance remains solid.

Temperature
8
The temperatures of the mantle vary between 600 °C (873 K) in the contact zone with the
crust, up to 3500 °C (3773 K) in the area of contact with the core,
approximately. This increase in temperature reflects at the same time the greater difficulty of the

deep layers in losing heat by conduction to the surface and the greatest capacity
endogenous to produce heat in depth (due to the increase in disintegration
radioactive and due to friction with moving fluid materials in the outer core).

Viscosity
The viscosity in the upper mantle (the asthenosphere) varies between 10 and 10 Pa*s, depending on

from the depth. Therefore, the upper mantle moves very slowly,
behaving simultaneously as a solid and as a high-viscosity liquid.
This explains the very slow movement of tectonic plates and isostatic movements.
of the sinking and rebounding of tectonic plates when their
weight (for example, with the formation of ice mass and its subsequent melting).

Dencidad
The density in this region increases linearly from 3.4 to 4.6 (in the upper mantle) and from
4.6 to 5.5 (in the lower mantle). In the upper mantle, the presence of the asthenosphere marks
partial fusion sound. Apparently, there is no change occurring in the lower mantle.
important phase, that small gradients in the propagation speed of the
seismic waves at 1230 km and 1540 km depth. In this way, it is believed that the
the increase in the speed of seismic waves should occur primarily as
result of the compaction of a material with uniform composition.

Several models have been proposed suggesting that the lower mantle contains more iron.
than the upper mantle. In this case, they can be filed down if we consider the existence of
independent convection cells in the mantle.

Subdivision of the mantle

9
However, there are no marked differences or obvious continuities within the mantle.
but gradients that reflect the increase in pressure and temperature are common
divide the mantle into two layers:

Theupper mantle (from the Mohorovičić discontinuity at 665 km deep

it is at the end and measures 630 km.
Thelower mantle (from 3548 km depth to the end and measures 2883 km).

Upper mantle
The upper mantle (or outer mantle) begins at the Mohorovičić discontinuity, which
it is at an average depth of 6 km beneath the oceanic crust and at an average depth
at 35.5 km beneath the continental crust, although it can reach that depth in the latter.
higher than 400 km in the subduction zones.

The velocities of the seismic waves measured in this layer are typically from 8.0 to 8.2.
km/s, which are greater than those recorded in the lower crust (6.5 to 7.8 km/s).
Geophysical data show that between 50 and 200 km (or more in subduction areas)
with depth there is a decrease in the speed of P waves (longitudinal)
a strong attenuation of S waves (transverse), hence this region is known
as a low-speed zone.

Evidence based on geophysical, geological, and petrological data, and the comparison with
extraterrestrial bodies indicate that the composition of the upper mantle is peridotitic. The
Peridotites are a family of ultra-basic rocks, mostly composed of olivine.
magnetite (approximately 80%) and pyroxene (approximately 20%). Although they are rare on the surface,

Peridotites outcrop in some oceanic islands, in layers uplifted by orogenesis and

in rare kimberlites.

Experiences of peridotite fusion show that their partial melting can give rise to the
oceanic basalts in the pressure and temperature conditions existing in the mantle
superior. This process likely occurs in the low-speed area, which explains

10
the reduction of seismic velocities due to the partial melting of materials.

The studies conducted on ophiolites and in the oceanic lithosphere demonstrate that the formation
from the oceanic crust (with its scarce 5 km average thickness) are made from the
superficial portion of the upper mantle. The degree of partial melting must reach 25.
%, which impoverishes this area in low melting point components. There are
indirect evidence that the mantle becomes less depleted in silicate with the
increase in depth.

The garnet-lherzolite type peridotites (60% olivine, 30% orthopyroxenes and clinopyroxenes, and 10%
spinels, garnets, and plagioclases) likely represent the peridotites of the mantle
primitive, which upon undergoing partial fusion, give rise to basaltic magmas, leaving behind residues

harzburgites (80% olivine, 20% orthopyroxenes) and dunites (olivine). Taking into account the
pressure and temperature relationships, the conclusion is that at shallower depths the
mineralogy is dominated by the plagioclase-lherzolite complex (which is found
frequently in ophiolites) and that, with the increase in pressure, will come to dominate the

spinela-lherzolite complex (which sometimes forms nodules in alkaline basalts). In

higher pressures, the most stable mineralogy is that of the garnet-lherzolite complex (which
forms nodules in kimberlites).

Inner mantle
The lower mantle begins about 665 km deep and extends to the
Gutenberg discontinuity, located 3548 km deep, in the transition to
nucleus. The lower mantle is separated from the asthenosphere by the Repetti discontinuity,
being essentially a solid area with very low plasticity.

The density in this region increases linearly from 4.6 to 5.5. Apparently, in the mantle.
Inferior, there is no significant phase change, although small ones do occur.
gradients in the velocity of seismic wave propagation at 1230 km and 1540 km
in depth. In this way, it is believed that the increase in the speed of the waves

11
seismic events should occur mainly as a result of the compaction of a material
of composition report. Several models have been proposed suggesting that the mantle
The lower mantle contains more iron than the upper mantle.

The temperature varies from 1000 °C to 3000 °C, increasing with depth and heat.
produced by radioactive decay and by conduction from the outer core
(where the heat production due to friction experienced by the flows generated by the
geomagnetism is great.

12
The outer core of the Earth is a liquid layer composed of iron and nickel, situated
between the mantle and the inner core. Its upper limit is the Gutenberg discontinuity,
located about 2885 km deep, while its lower limit is the
Lehmann discontinuity, located about 5155 km; it has a thickness of about 2270
km. Its temperature varies from 4400 °C in its upper region to 6100 °C in
its lower area.

Caracteristicas
It is believed that the outer core is in a liquid state, as S seismic waves do not
they pass through it and the P suddenly decrease their speed. It is made of iron
mixing with nickel and few traces of lighter elements. Most of the
Scientists believe that convection in the outer core, combined with the rotation of the
Earth (Coriolis effect), cause the Earth's magnetic field through a process
explained by the dynamo hypothesis.

It is a conductor of electricity, in which convection current is produced. This layer

conductive combines with the rotation of the earth to create a dynamo
that maintains a system of electric currents known as magnetic field
terrestrial. It is also responsible for the subtle alterations in the rotation of the earth.
This layer is not as dense as pure molten iron, which indicates the presence of
lighter elements. Scientists suspect that approximately 10% of the layer
it is made up of oxygen and/or sulfur because these elements are abundant in it
cosmos and dissolve easily in the molten iron of the earth.

The outer core is about 2200 km (1367 miles) thick and is made up of

13
mainly of liquid iron and nickel. Its temperature varies between 4500 ° and 5500 °C
(8.132 ° y 9932 ° fahrenheit).

The liquid metal of the outer core has a very low viscosity, which means that it is
easily deformable and malleable. Here, a violent convection takes place, as the
The changing metal of the outer core creates and sustains the Earth's magnetic field.

Depth or height
Its radius measures 2250 km

Description
It is believed that the outer core is liquid. Most scientists believe that the
convection of the outer core, combined with the rotation of that core caused by the
The rotation of the Earth (Coriolis effect) causes the Earth's magnetic field through a
process explained by the dynamo hypothesis.

Composition
It is composed of iron mixed with nickel and a few traces of lighter elements.

14
The inner core of the earth is a hot and dense ball, composed mainly of
iron. It has an approximate radius of 1220 km (758 miles) and its temperature reaches
5200 ° Celsius (9392 ° Fahrenheit). The pressure at the center of the planet is almost 3.6 million.
of the atmosphere (ATM).

The inner core is a solid sphere with a radius of 1370 km located at the center of the Earth.
It is composed of an alloy of iron and nickel. It was discovered in 1936 by Inge.
Lehmann; its upper limit, which separates it from the outer core, is located at 5155 km from

depth and receives the name of Lehman discontinuity. Its density is almost 14.
g/cm.

The solid inner core is 'too hot' to sustain a magnetic field.

permanent (see Curie temperature) but probably acts as a stabilizer
from the magnetic field generated by the liquid outer core.

Some scientists think it could be in the form of a single crystal of iron.

Recent speculations estimate that the innermost part of the core is enriched by
very heavy elements, with atomic numbers above 55, which would include gold,
mercury, uranium. Thanks to the meteorite rain with metals from 3.9 billion
Years, our planet should currently have enough gold in its core as
to cover the globe with a 4-meter thick layer.

Recent evidence suggests that the Earth's inner core might rotate slightly.
faster than the rest of the planet. In August 2005, a group of geophysicists stated in
the Science magazine which, according to its calculations, the Earth's inner core rotates at
west to east approximately one degree per year faster than the rotation of
the surface; thus, the core makes an extra rotation approximately every 400 years.

The inner core is the deepest layer of the Earth. It is an enormous ball of

15
solid iron (a little larger than Pluto) surrounded by an external core in state
liquid. The scientific community had made many estimates about when it
form this inner core (like a fork between 500 and 2000 million years).
Now, a study conducted by scientists from the University of Liverpool
(United Kingdom) has determined that the core was formed between 1,000-1,500 million years ago.

years, which means that the earth lived for about 3000 years without this solid sphere.

The temperature of the inner core

It is well above the melting point of iron; however, unlike the core
externally, the inner core is not liquid; the intense pressure prevents the iron from melting.
The pressure and density are so high that the iron atoms simply cannot
to turn into a liquid state.

This core is separated from the rest of the Earth by the liquid outer core, and how
their result, it rotates a little differently from the rest of the planet. It has been discovered that it rotates

towards the east, just like the surface, a bit faster, making a rotation
additional every 1000 years.

16
In the earth sciences, the hydrosphere or hydrosphere (from the prefix hydro-, this from the prefix
Greek (hydro), "water", is the material system constituted by the water that is found
on the surface of the solid earth, and also part of what is found beneath it
surface, in the Earth's crust.

The hydrosphere includes oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, groundwater, ice, and snow.
Earth is the only planet in the solar system where it is present permanently.
liquid water, which covers approximately two-thirds of the Earth's surface,
with an average depth of 3.5 km, which accounts for 97% of the total water of
planet. Freshwater represents 3% of the total and from this amount, approximately 98.2% is
frozen, which is why only 0.08% of all the water on the planet is accessible. The water
migrate from some deposits to others through a combination of state change processes and
of transport that together configure processes of state change and of
transport that together configure the hydrological cycle or water cycle. The presence of
Water on the Earth's surface is the result of the degassing of the mantle, which is
composed of rocks that hold a certain amount of volatile substances, of the
that water is the most important.

What is hydrosphere?

The hydrosphere or hydrosphere encompasses all the water on our planet; it includes water
of the surface, the one that is underground and the one that circulates in the air as vapor of
water.

The hydrosphere of a planet can be liquid, in the form of vapor or ice. On Earth, the
liquid water is found on the surface forming oceans, lakes, and rivers, but also
it exists underground as groundwater, wells, and aquifers.

Characteristics and properties of the hydrosphere

The ocean waters and the water trapped in the pores of sedimentary rocks in the
The crust makes up the largest part of the Earth's hydrosphere.

The total mass of water in the oceans is equivalent to approximately 5% of the mass of the
Earth's crust as a whole.

17
Currently, more than 2% of the Earth's water is in the form of ice.

Approximately 107,000 cubic kilometers (almost 25,800 cubic miles) of rain falls on land.
every year. Due to precipitation and evaporation, the total water in the atmosphere is recycled.
completely every 9.6 days.

What is the hydrosphere composed of?

The hydrosphere is composed of:

Salt water: Most of the water on Earth is salt water, and the vast majority of this
salt water is found in the oceans.

Freshwater: Freshwater is much less abundant than saltwater and is found

distributed among different lakes.

18
The atmosphere consists of 5 main layers based on their temperature and composition.
chemistry, density and movement, but also has other regions with characteristics
special. This indicates that the atmosphere is not just a mixture of gases
suspended in the halo of the planet, but rather it is a complex structure whose
Constitution varies according to the layer.

Troposphere.-In the lowest layer and extends from the Earth's surface to a height
an average of 12 km, about 17 km in the equatorial region and nearly 9 km at the poles.

Stratosphere.-Separated from the troposphere by the tropopause, this layer is found that
It contains 19% of the atmospheric gases, but a very small amount of water vapor.

Mesosphere.-It is located above the stratosphere up to a height of 80-85 km in the

middle latitudes, where the mesopause is located. This constitutes the limit between the
mesosphere and thermosphere.

Thermosphere.- From the upper limit of the mesopause, the thermosphere extends,
known as the superior atmosphere.

Exosphere.-It is the last layer, the most external until it connects with the solar wind.
It encompasses the area from the top of the thermosphere to about 10,000 km in height.
until getting lost in the emptiness of interplanetary space.

19
Steve Jobs dies a billionaire, with a fortune of $7 billion, at the age of 56
years of pancreatic cancer, and these are some of his last words ... 💯

In the eyes of others, my life is the essence of success, but apart from work, I have
a small joy. And in the end, wealth is just a fact of life to which I am
used to.

At this moment, lying in bed, sick and recalling my entire life, I realize
It matters that all my recognition and wealth have no meaning in front of the
imminent death. You can hire someone to drive a car for
usted, gane dinero por usted, pero no puede alquilar a alguien para que le cargue la
disease due to you. One can find material things, but there is one thing that cannot be found.

himself can find when himself lose LIFE

Treat yourself well and value others. As we grow older, we become wiser, and
slowly we realize that whether a watch has a value of $30 or $300, we
they show the same time. Whether we carry a wallet worth $30 or $300, the
the value of money in wallets is the same. Whether we drive a car with a
value of $150,000 or a car worth $30,000: the road and the distance are
the same, we arrive at the same destination. If we drink a bottle worth $300 or a
wine worth $10, the 'hangover' will be the same. If the house we live in is worth 300
, or 3000 square meters, solitude is the same.

Your true inner happiness does not come from the material things of this world.
whether you fly in first class or in economy class, if the plane crashes, you crash with
he

20
So, I hope you understand that when you have friends or someone to talk to, it is
a true happiness! ✅

Five facts undeniable

Don't raise your children to be rich. Raise them to be happy.

when they grow up, they will know the value of things, not the price.

Eat your food like medicine, otherwise you will have to eat medicine like food.
food.

3❤️The one who loves you will never leave you, even if they have 100 reasons to give up. He / She

always will find a reason for to cling

There is a big difference between being human y be human.

If you want to go fast, go alone! But if you want to go far, go together.

Y in conclusion ...

The six better doctors del world

1 the light delete sun

Rest
3 Exercise
Diet
trust in yes same
friends

21
Keep them at all stages of life and enjoy a healthy life.

At any stage of life we may find ourselves in now, over time,

we will face the day in what down the curtain.

Treasure the love for your family, love for your spouse, love for your friends ...

Treat yourself good. Appreciate a the others.

Love the people that God sent you, one day you will need them back.

Something worth sharing! ‼

22
23