1.

Origin and domestication of sheep

Generally, history of the domesticated sheep traces back to between 11000 and 9000 BC,
and the domestication of the wild mouflon in ancient Mesopotamia. Sheep are thought to be
one of the first animals domesticated by humans, and there is evidence of sheep farming in
Iranian statuary dating to that time period. These sheep were primarily raised for meat, milk,
and skins Woolly sheep began to be developed around 6000 BC in Iran, and cultures such as
the Persians became dependent on sheep's wool for trading. They were then imported to
Africa and Europe via trading. The Romans took their sheep with them to England and
established a large wool industry in the country. Shortly thereafter Spain and England
became the top two sheep-rearing countries. Spain developed the merino sheep, known for
its highly prized wool. Herds of these sheep were controlled by the wealthy and allowed to
migrate throughout the country; the sheep had the freedom to graze where they pleased and
peasantry who interfered with the sheep could be brought to private tribunals.

In Asia
 In Asia the domestication date is estimated to fall between nine and eleven thousand
years ago in Mesopotamia. Their wild relatives have several characteristics, such as
a relative lack of aggression, a manageable size, early sexual maturity, a social
nature, and high reproduction rates, which made them particularly suitable for
domestication.
 Today, Ovis aries is an entirely Feral sheep do exist, but exclusively in areas devoid
of large predators (usually islands) and not on the scale of feral horses, goats, pigs,
or dogs, although some feral populations have remained isolated long enough to be
recognized as distinct breeds.

Modern
 In India, there are efforts to 'grade up', or improve the quality of, the native desi
sheep breed, by crossing it with Merino and other high-quality wool sheep. This is
being done in an effort to produce a desi sheep that produces high-quality wool and
mutton.

In Africa
 Sheep entered the African continent not long after their domestication in western
Asia. A minority of historians once posited a contentious African theory of origin
for Ovis aries
 This theory is based primarily on rock art interpretations, and osteological evidence
from Barbary sheep.
 The first sheep entered North Africa via Sinai, and were present in ancient Egyptian
society between eight and seven thousand years ago. Sheep have always been part of
subsistence farming in Africa, but today the only country that keeps significant
numbers of commercial sheep is South Africa, with 28.8 million head.
In Ethiopia, there are several varieties of sheep landrace. Attempts have been made to
classify the sheep based on factors such as tail shape and wool type.

In Europe

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  Sheep husbandry spread quickly in Europe. Excavations show that in about 6000
BC, during the Neolithic period of prehistory, the Castelnovien people, living
around Châteauneufles- Martigues near present day Marseille in the south of France,
were among the first in Europe to keep domestic sheep.
 Practically from its inception, ancient Greek civilization relied on sheep as primary
livestock, and were even said to name individual animals. Scandinavian sheep of a
type seen today with short tails and multi-colored fleece were also present early on.
Later, the Roman Empire kept sheep on a wide scale, and the Romans were an
important agent in the spread of sheep rising through much of Europe.

In the Americas
 No ovine species native to the Americas has ever been domesticated, despite being
closer genetically to domestic sheep than many Asian and European species.
 The first domestic sheep in North American most likely of the Churra breed arrived
with Christopher Columbus' second voyage in 1493.

2. Importance’s and production advantages of sheep

Significance (Advantages) of raising Sheep/ Goats

The total number of sheep and goats in Ethiopia is estimated to be nearly 48 million. Sheep
and goats are widely adapted to different climates and are found in all production systems.
They also have lower feed requirements compared to cattle because of their small body size.
This allows easy integration of small ruminants into different farming systems. Human
population growth in Ethiopia is forcing the conversion of many former grazing areas into
croplands needed for increased food production. Raising large ruminants is becoming
increasingly difficult as a result of the ensuing lack of grazing areas. Land holdings in densely
populated areas are below 0.5 ha. In such places, the importance of sheep and goats in
fulfilling the role once played by cattle for meat, milk and manure production is being
increasingly recognized. The increased demand for sheep and goat meat has also increased
their importance in lowland pastoral areas as a source of cash income, food security, etc.

Special features of sheep and goats.

Feeding behavior

Sheep and goats have different but complementary feeding habits. Sheep are grazers and
amenable to herding, hence a species of choice in mixed cropping areas where cereal
production dominates. On the other hand, goats are browsers and highly selective feeders – a
strategy that enables them to thrive and produce even when feed resources, except bushes and
shrubs, appear to be non-existent. Thus, the presence of goats in mixed species grazing
systems can lead to a more efficient use of the natural resource base and add flexibility to the
management of livestock. This characteristic is especially desirable in fragile environments.

Size
Being small-sized animals, sheep and goats require a small initial investment. Their small
size, together with early maturity, makes them suitable for meeting subsistence needs for
meat and milk.

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 Fat deposition
Sheep and goats vary in fat deposition, presumably due to different adaptation strategies.
Compared to goats, sheep lay down more subcutaneous and intramuscular fat from surplus
energy. Goats tend to lay down more internal fat, which is not associated with the carcass.
Where carcass fat is a delicacy and fetches a higher price, sheep make an important
contribution to the household economy.

Survival rate during drought

Sheep and goats have higher survival rates under drought conditions compared to cattle.
Moreover, because of their reproductive rates, flock numbers can be restored more rapidly.
With regard to goats, water economy is also an important biological feature. It is common for
goats to be watered every four days and still provide a reasonable amount of production.

High offtake
Due to their short reproductive cycles (short lambing/kidding interval) and high incidence of
multiple births (particularly for some breeds such as the Horro), there is potential for a higher
annual offtake of sheep and goats than seen with cattle. This allows farmers/producers a quick
interval of selling part of their flock and generating cash income. Sheep and goats are among
the major economically important livestock in Ethiopia. There are about 23.62 million sheep
and 23.33 million goats (IBC, 2004) in the country, playing an important role in the livelihood
of resource-poor farmers. They provide their owners with a vast range of products and services
such as meat, milk, skin, hair, horns, bones, manure and urine for cash, security, gifts,
religious rituals, medicine, etc. Sheep and goats are relatively cheap and are often the first
asset acquired, through purchase or customary means, by a young family or by a poor family
recovering from a disaster such as drought or war. Sheep and goats, once acquired, become a
valuable asset providing security to the family as well as milk and dairy
products. In the subsistence sector, farmers and pastoralists depend on small ruminants for
much of their livelihood, often to a greater extent than on cattle, because sheep and goats are
generally owned by the poorer sectors of the community. Any intervention that improves the
productivity of sheep and goats is important in creating wealth and improving the standard of
living of resource-poor farmers. The short generation interval of sheep and goats coupled with
high frequency of multiple births allow for rapid increases in animal numbers. This builds
financial capital and allows the sale of surplus animals for cash that can be used for other
agricultural enterprises, school fees, medical bills, etc.

Very often, there are no banking facilities in rural areas and an easy way to store cash for future
needs is through the purchase of sheep and goats. In fact, in some areas, small ruminants have
been described as the ‘village bank’. It has to be noted that this is beyond the cash value of the
animal. Small ruminants represent only 7% of the average total capital invested in livestock in
the mixed crop-livestock production system, but they account on average for 40% of the cash
income and 19% of the total value of subsistence food derived from all livestock production.

Sheep and goats contribute a quarter of the domestic meat consumption; about half of the
domestic wool requirements; about 40% of fresh skins and 92% of the value of semi-processed
skin and hide export trade. It is estimated that 1,078,000 sheep and 1,128,000 goats are used in
Ethiopia for domestic consumption annually. There is also a growing export market for sheep
and goat meat in the Middle Eastern Gulf States and some African countries. At optimum
offtake rates, Ethiopia can export 700,000 sheep and 2 million goats annually, and at the same

3
time supply 1,078,000 sheep and 1,128,000 goats for the domestic market. The current annual
offtake rate of sheep and goats is, however, only 33 and 35%, respectively. The average
carcass weight of Ethiopian sheep and goats is 10 kg, which is the second lowest in sub-
Saharan Africa. The increased domestic and international demand for Ethiopian sheep and
goats has established them as important sources of inland revenue as well as foreign currency.
This increased demand also creates an opportunity to substantially improve food security of
the population and alleviate poverty.

Economic functions are:

 Meat
 Milk
 Skins
 Wool and manure

Socio-cultural and other functions

 Slaughtered at ceremonies/feasts
 Payment of social dues
 Rump and tail fat used as a cooking fat
 Ram fighting (Indonesia)
 Experimental animals

Advantages in management and production

 Resistance to drought and diseases
 Short reproduction interval (faster flock build up)
 Low unit costs
 Handling and husbandry
 Rapid maturity
 High reproductive capacities (short gestation and lactation, multiple births)
 Feeding behaviour (complementary to larger ruminants)
 Heterogeneity of their genetic resources
 Better adapted to arid and semi-arid tropics with marginal and sub-marginal lands,
otherwise unfit for crops, due to their superior water & feed (esp. protein) economy
 Since sheep eat more different type of plants than any other kind of livestock, they can
turn waste into profit and at the same time improve the appearance of many farms (i.e.
excellent weed destroyer).
 Most suitable of the small ruminants to utilize the sparse vegetation in dry land areas
through rangeland management and developed (reseeded) pasture

3. Number and distribution of sheep

Worldwide upward trends in sheep and goat numbers are increasing but progress is at a rate
of only about one percent per year. The hopeful sign is that the rate of increase is higher in
the late 70's than earlier. Sheep and goat numbers have increased from 1 billion sheep and
0.4billion goats to 1.1billion sheep and 0.5billion goats in about 20 years. Further increases
are not only likely but probable. Generally over the world there are untapped forage
resources either natural or by-products and wastes which could support much larger
populations of sheep and goats. This is especially true of most developed and of some
developing countries. These resources are fully used only in desert areas and probably in
the USSR and in China. It has estimated that in the United States there are 300 million

4
acres of practically unused potential pasture land which would support about one sheep to
the acre as it is land several per acre if improved.

Table 1: Numbers of goats and sheep in different parts of the world, ratio of goat to sheep
per each and their percentages out of the world total number (FAOSTAT, 2008)
Contents Number(Million) Ratio % of World total
Goats Sheep Goats Sheep Goats Sheep
Asia 514.4 452.3 1 0.9 59.7 42
Africa 291.1 287.6 1 1 33..8 26.7
Northern America 3.0 6.9 1 2.3 .4 .6
Central America 9.0 8.1 1 .9 1 .8
Cariban 3.9 3.1 1 .8 .5 .3
South America 21.4 73.1 1 3.4 2.5 6.8
Europe 18.0 133.9 7.4 2.1 12.4
0.9 113.1 1 119.2 0.1 10.5
World 861.9 1078.2 1 1.25

The rate of increase in numbers could be much greater. In the United States over the last
century when sheep numbers have increased the rate has been about 5 percent per year and
goat numbers have increased as rapidly as 10 percent per year. A slow steady increase in
numbers of animals, through more producers using more resources is preferable to a more
rapid but temporary increase. Three to five percent per year would not seem too rapid
providing each new producer starts with a small number. Numbers have increased more
rapidly in developing than in developed countries although developed countries are now
showing increases. The decline in North America is entirely due to predator losses which
have increased due to Government restrictions on control. Africa and Asia have shown
larger and more consistent increases in the last 20 years than the remainder of the world.
More rapid increases in numbers of sheep and goats are feasible and probably desirable
over most of the world.

The world total numbers of goats and sheep were 861.9 and 1078.2 million, respectively,
i.e. there is about one goat to approximately 1.25 sheep in the world (FAOSTAT, 2008).
There are tremendous variations among the different parts of the world regarding the
number of goats, its ratio to sheep and their percentages. The largest number of goats is
observed in Asia, followed by Africa, representing about 59.7% and 33.8%, summing up to
93.5% out of the total number of the world, respectively. The lowest number of goats is
found in Oceania, accounting for 0.1% out of the world total number. The ratio of goat to
sheep ranged between one goat to 0.8 sheep in the Caribbean to one goat to 119.2 sheep in
Oceania. The ratios of goat to sheep in Africa, Central America and Asia are approximately
equal, indicating the considerable importance of goat populations in these parts of the
world, especially to the poor and landless peasants.

4. Types of sheep production systems

System depends highly on environmental conditions (humid tropics smallholders, arid
tropics migratory)

The number of sheep that can live on an area of land is known as the carrying capacity.
Carrying capacity increases with rainfall because the amount of fodder available depends on

5
the rainfall. This does not mean that there are large numbers of sheep in areas with high
rainfall because here it is possible to grow crops for at least part of the year, and other animal
production systems may be more profitable than sheep production. In areas with a dry season
the vegetation grows mostly during and shortly after the rains. During the dry season the
feeding value of the vegetation falls. Its digestibility, energy content, protein content and
mineral content all become very low. Soon after the beginning of the rains, the grass grows
rapidly and it has a high feeding value.

Migratory systems in the dry areas

Flocks which move to different areas at specific times of the year are said to be migratory.
Migratory flocks are found around the Sahara in Africa, in the horn of east Africa, in the
drier parts of Kenya and Tanzania, in Botswana and Namibia, in the Middle East and in Thar
Desert of India and Pakistan. People who keep flocks and herds in dry areas are known as
pastoralists.

Migration is not an aimless wandering, but movement along established routes. Most
migratory societies have traditional land-use rights. Migratory flocks do not observe political
boundaries, and may move from one country to another. In the tropics migratory systems are
usually between very dry areas and wetter areas. The word migration is also used for flocks
which move up and down mountains in response to temperature, as is seen in the Himalayas
and the Alps. The reasons why lowland tropical flocks migrate are to get reasonable quality
food and water throughout the year, and to avoid flooding in wet areas. In the dry season,
flocks graze in areas of higher rainfall, or in river valleys or around lakes where there is
green vegetation and when water is available for drinking.

Migratory flocks may graze on fields, which have been cultivated during the wet season.
Sheep eat the aftermaths of crops and in return give manure that is needed for the next year ’s
crop. When the rains come migratory flocks move out to make use of seasonal vegetation in
very dry areas. Traditionally flocks move on foot, travelling 10 to 20 km each day, but in the
Middle East transport on lorries between the wet and dry season grazing areas is increasing.
Migratory sheep are usually found together with goats, cattle and camels. Each species has
its own requirements. For instance, sheep tend to eat short grass, whereas cattle eat long
grass and goats eat shrubs. Grazing of small ruminant is usually for 10-12 hours daily. They
may not be taken to water every day, so that on days when they are not watered they can
graze far away from watering points to better pasture. Nomads travel with their animals.
Some of their responses to catastrophe are:
 Herd diversification; different species with different grazing habits
 Loaning animals and sharing herds
 Movement of herds

There are two main types of migratory system: nomadism and transhumance. Nomads are
people who have no permanent home but move from place to place with their herds and
flocks. Transhumance are people who have a permanent home to which they return each
year, but some of the members of the society take the flocks and herds away from the
permanent settlement for a large proportion of the year. Sometimes young animals and does
in lactation are kept in the sedentary village and the males and dry females are kept in camps
several kilometres away. Flock size in nomadic and transhumant migratory systems are
typically between 50 and 200.

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 Small holder’s flocks
In areas with enough rainfall to grow crops, flocks of sheep are often a small but important
part of the farming system. Typically the number of sheep on each farm is less than ten, so
that this type of system is known as smallholder production. A variety of types of daily
management are found:

Free grazing
Flocks graze freely, thus the labour input is very low. The sheep are let out of their
enclosure in the morning and shut in again at night. Disadvantage of unsupervised grazing is
that the sheep are likely to eat vegetation they are not supposed to, such as vegetables in the
neigbours’ garden. Losses from theft and predators may also be high.

Shepherding:
This requires the highest labour and this can be a serious problem where labour is also
needed for cultivation, weeding and harvesting, as well as normal household jobs such as
carrying water and grinding grain. One way to reduce the labour input is to amalgate flocks
for grazing. Either members of each sheep-owning family take it in turns to look after the
combined flock for a day, or someone is paid to look after the flock along with other flocks.
Because sheep like to stay together, they are relatively easy to shepherd, and old people or
children can do shepherding. Now that more children go to school, there is less labour
available for shepherding. Some flocks are shepherded only in the afternoon, after the
children come back from school.

Tethering:
Requires relatively little labour, but sheep should be tethered on areas of good quality
fodder and should be moved two or three times each day so they can eat enough vegetation.

Stall-feeding
It is traditional in some intensively cultivated areas. A sheep requires between 5 and 10kg of
fodder every day, depending on the size of the sheep and the type of fodder. The time taken
to collect and carry this fodder is considerable, and it is easy for stall-fed sheep to be
underfed.

Interaction with cropping systems

In smallholder systems sheep are usually to graze during the dry season in fields after the
crop have been harvested. Sheep consume the aftermaths, and their dung and urine fertilize
the field. Sheep are confined at night to prevent losses from predators and theft. Night
confinement also allows collection of manure. During the rainy season sheep must be
prevented from eating crops growing in the fields. They cannot be allowed to graze freely
unless the fields are fenced, and this is very unusual. With careful tethering or shepherding
in the rainy season sheep can graze fodder growing on wasteland and field boundaries,
which would otherwise be wasted. In Ethiopia especially Tigray, in high concentration of
animals during shortage of grazing land it is compensated by use of residues and aftermath
grazing.

Sheep production under tree crops

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Sheep are reared under many tree crops (oil palms, cocoa, coconuts, cashews, rubber, coffee,
etc.). Sheep eat the weeds under the trees and so reduce the labour required for weed and
brush control. Sheep are preferred to goats in plantations because goats chew the bark of the
trees and to cattle because they cannot reach as high with their mouths and cause less
damage to the soil. Weed is in this way controlled and sheep can benefit from the shade
offered by the trees. However, it has often problems with internal parasites because of damp
shady climate under the trees.

Ranching
It can be rotational grazing and creep grazing (young animals first). In ranching systems
there is scope for controlling the grazing of the flock. In particular, grazing can be restricted
to certain parts of the ranch so that other parts are ungrazed for a while. This is known as
rotational grazing. Also lambs can be given access to better pasture than that allowed to
older sheep. This is known as creep grazing.

5. Constraints to sheep production

Feed deficits
Inadequate and poor quality feed resources (especially during the dry season) is the most
serious constraint to sheep production under the mobile and the sedentary systems in
response to the increase in livestock population. With the encroachment of cropping in the
grazing areas and disappearance of dry season grazing reserves, sheep production has
become very dependent on the availability of crop residues and by-products and purchased
feed specially during mating and early pregnancy (June - September). In most countries it
has become necessary to all producers (large or smallholder) to access supplemental feeds
(barley, wheat bran, straw and crop residues) or to abandon sheep production. For example,
the smallholders in Northern Africa, Sudan and Yemen are forced to purchase up to 50% -
70% of the feed needed. The small herders in Algeria and Jordan face difficulties of raising
sheep if the cereal crop fails due to drought. In many countries small sheep production
enterprises are maintained by remittance from family members who migrate to work in the
urban areas or in the wealthier neighboring countries.

Shortage of drinking water

Shortage of drinking water is a major constraint to sheep production in the mobile system. In
many countries, lack of community control over the drinking points limits the access of
water to the fewer and capable large stock owners. Herders in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia,
Yemen and Sudan cannot move their animals to areas of abundant vegetation because of
lack of drinking water, and are forced to keep their animals on poor pastures around
watering points or to sell some of their animals to buy feed. Such difficulties are not
encountered by large sheep owners capable of trucking water to better pastures in remote
areas.

Poor management and husbandry

Poor management and husbandry is common in both production systems and is a result of
several factors. Sheep produced under mobility are less fertile, less prolific and are
constrained by higher lamb mortality compared to sheep raised under the agro-pastoral or the
semi-intensive systems. For example, sheep producers in both the mobile and sedentary
systems of eastern Morocco and north-eastern Syria used very poor management practices
which contributed to inbreeding, poor health status, low fertility rate and low meat

8
production under the two predominantly low input/low output systems, weaning and
breeding are left to natural processes and milk is shared between the new born and family
members starting from the first week after lambing.

Poor animal health

Generally poor access to veterinary service, high cost of drugs and vaccines, lack of skills,
knowledge or interest in disease surveillance and reporting, and the absence of trained
auxiliaries limit production in both systems. However, disease constraints are more
pronounced under the sedentary systems (semi-intensive, semi-extensive or the fully
sedentary -lamb fattening) because of the magnitude of the economic losses. The mobile
sheep breeds are hardier and well adapted as compared to the sedentary sheep, particularly
the cross-bred stock which are more expensive and less resistant to infection. Also mobility
and frequent change of bedding grounds protect the flocks from parasites and tick infections.
However, health problems specially those related to recurring epidemics (e.g. of Petite des
Pestes Ruminant - PPR, sheep pox, CCPP, Malta fever, ovine brucillosis, ovine TB) cause
great losses to sheep raised under both systems. For example, the recent outbreaks of sheep
pox (North Africa), Brucellosis and PPR (in the Middle East and North Africa) reflect poor
monitoring of cross-border animal movement and lack of coordination of control measures.

Poor interaction between researchers, farmers, extension workers and policy

makers
Poor interaction between researchers, farmers, extension workers and policy makers is a
major obstacle to improved sheep productivity in the region. Most of the research results are
not suitable for adoption by the sheep producers because the experiment was designed and
developed under the controlled environments of the experimental stations, and because the
problems researched do not reflect those facing the small sheep herders. In addition, lack of
economic incentives caused by unfavorable price policies, poor marketing infrastructure and
lack of financial resources are some of the major obstacles to improved sheep production
under both systems. Normally farmers do not accept innovations which require additional
activities beyond household labour capacity or beyond their financial resources.

Unfavorable policies and legislations

The policies and legislation governing the relationship between the state, public and private
sectors and the sheep producers is unfavorable in many countries. Years of central planning
and neglect to the traditional systems caused the disintegration of the social fabric and the
credibility of the tribal and clan oriented governance which dominated the region for
thousands of years. The oil producing countries and others established policies which
transferred the traditional ownership of the rangelands to the state. Even in countries such as
Saudi Arabia where subsidies are given in-kind and cash to encourage the tribes to continue
livestock production in the Badia, the commercialized sheep producers no longer pursue the
tradition of judicial range management. As a consequence large areas have been severely
degraded, some beyond foreseeable reverse. Attempts to solve the technical problems
(improved management, breed, delivery of health service) without consulting and seeking
the interest of the communities caused more damage than repair.

9
 Sheep breeds and Classification
Sheep belong to the sub-family Caprinae. The genus Ovis includes all sheep. The
process of domestication brought about a number of morphological and physiological
modifications in sheep. For example, the tail was lengthened and in some cases became
a place of excess fat storage, mane tended to disappear, wool replaced hair in colder
climates, wattles or tassel became evident, and greater dependence was placed on water.
Sheep more than any other class of domestic animals are sensitive to changes in
environmental conditions. Because of the great variety of breeds sheep can still be kept
under various conditions.
Systems of classification
Domestic sheep vary in size, shape of the body, nature of coat cover, productive ability,
reproductive capacity, adaptability, size and shape of horns, tail, ears and profile, as
well as many trademark or special breed characteristics, and they defy complete
categorizations
Different classification systems are used for temperate breeds, but cannot always be
applied to tropical sheep which are usually much less clearly defined.
A. Tail type
 Long-tailed
 Short tailed
 Fat tailed
 Fat rumped
All wild species had short thin tails and the different types have arisen since
domestication.
Long-thin-tailed sheep
Include most European, American, Australia, New Zealand and East and South African
breeds. Most sheep of this type are wooled, therefore cutting of the tails is generally
practices. It has reported above 300 distinct breeds of this sort and more numerous than
any other type.

Groups of non-European long-thin-tailed, coarse wooled sheep are found in Northern

Africa, in parts of Arabia, Yemen and in the western Punjab of India. Apart from
wooled varieties, long-thin-tailed hair sheep predominate in sub-Saharan Africa, in parts
of Brazil and some Caribbean islands.
Short-thin-tailed sheep
The small rain forest sheep common to the humid tropics of Africa are essentially short-
thin-tailed, and carry a hair coat. Short-thin-tailed sheep are usually quite hardy but are
of a primitive sort. They tend to be small and are of only nominal importance on a
world-wide basis; often replaced by more productive breeds or crossbred.
Fat tailed sheep
Many of the sheep found in North and East Africa and on the island of Madagascar are
fat-tailed. With exception of those in tropical areas of East Africa, Madagascar and
Indonesia, fat-tailed sheep are basically coarse- or carpet-wooled. The tail usually has
an S-shaped or sigmoid flexure and is buried in a great mass of fat except for the tip,
which most often hangs free. The tail serves as fat store and contributes to the ability of
such sheep to withstand extremely high ambient temperatures.
Fat-rumped sheep

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 From Somali fat-rumped sheep have spread all along the east coast of the continent to
South Africa. The Asiatic varieties are coarse-wooled, while those in Africa are usually
short-haired.
The fat on the rump is usually in the form of 2 cushions divided by a medium cleft on
the buttocks. Apparently both these and the fat-tailed types evolved in desert areas of
the Orient and possess many similar physiological and functional straits. The tail of
most fat-rumped sheep is quite short and this suggests different genetic origins for the
two types.
Long-thick-tailed sheep
These are not clearly defined and presumably resulted from crossing between the fat-
tailed and long-thin-tailed stocks. Indigenous long-thick-tailed sheep occur among a
number of the tribal breeds of desert sheep in northern Sudan and in flocks of various
countries of eastern and southern Africa. The kangaroo-shaped tail serves to store
excess fat and often trails on the ground. The sheep tends to be coarse-wooled in most
areas, but are haired in the tropics.
Root-tailed-sheep
These seem to result from crossing between fat-rumped and short-thin-tailed stocks.
B. Coat cover
A classification based on coat cover or type of fleece produced is most useful when
described o comparing sheep. All domestic sheep can be divided into three main groups:
wool, hair and fur.
Wool sheep
1. Those yielding clothing fibres, mainly the long-thin-tailed varieties of European
breeding
2. Those producing coarser wools suited to carpet or floor-covering manufacture, mainly
the fat tailed/fat-rumped breeds of the temperate and sub-tropical climate zones.
Hair and hair wool sheep
These are primarily found in the Tropics. The coat-cover has almost no commercial
value, although the skins have greater use and value than in the case of wooled sorts.
Fur-bearing sheep
These produce coarse wool suitable for carpet making, but are noted for the pelt of the
new-born lambs, which is prized for producing coats and head-wear.
C. Function or primary use
This classification can be made on the basis of chief function or body type although
sheep are naturally multi-purpose animals.
Important Exotic Sheep Breeds
There are many types of sheep in the world kept for a variety of purposes. Only some of
the important breeds that can play a role in the development of Ethiopian breed
productivity are selectively described.
Awassi sheep
Awassi sheep are widely distributed in the Middle East with a range covering Israel,
southwest Iran, southern Iraq, Syria and northeast Arabia. These are fat-tailed sheep
known mainly for their meat and coarse wool along with dairy potential. The average,
traditionally maintained mature ewe weight is between 40 and 50 kg. Rams have large
horns and ewes are polled.
Corriedale sheep
The Corriedale breed originated in New Zealand and is a cross between Lincoln and
Merino with a later addition of the Leicester breed into the crossing. The intent was to

11
develop a dual purpose breed that could produce medium wool as well as a good quality
carcass.

Dorper sheep
The Dorper is a meat breed developed in South Africa. It is a crossbred between the
Dorset Horn and Blackhead Persian breeds. Dorper sheep are also widely distributed in
some African countries such as Botswana, Zimbabwe, Zambia and Kenya.

Dorper sheep can also be found in North America and other countries around the world.
The body of Dorper sheep, except the belly and the face, is covered with a mixture of
hair and some coarse wool. Dorpers have a black head and neck with a white body, but
there are also solid white Dorper sheep.

Both rams and ewes are polled. Dorper sheep are relatively big and ewes under a
favourable environment weigh about 60 kg. Dorper sheep are fast-growing with good
conformation for meat production. The breed is well adapted to dry environments and is
well-suited to a wide range of production systems.
Hampshire sheep
The Hampshire breed was established in 1815 in the United Kingdom. Hampshire sheep
are famous for early maturity and carcass quality. A fully grown ram weighs about 90
kg and a ewe, 63 kg. Under good management, lambs will gain 0.45 kg daily from birth
to four months, reaching a weight of about 40 kg at four months. They are also known
to produce good wool with an average staple length of 9 cm. The breed is widely used
for crossbreeding throughout the world to produce top quality lambs for meat
production.
Breeds in Africa
It is very difficult to use the term breed in tropical sheep. They often exhibit almost as
much variation within as between breeds. Because of the large amount of breeds, only
some African breeds will be mentioned here.

The distribution of the various indigenous breed types in Africa conforms closely to the
ecological and ethnic boundaries. We can divide Africa into 4 zones: North Africa,
including Egypt; sub-Saharan Africa; supra-humid Africa corresponding roughly with
the main tsetse fly and rain forest Guinea zone; and eastern and southern Africa.
Table2: Classification of sheep in North-east/East and southern Africa
Fait-tailed (including some long-thick-tailed types)
Abyssinian (Ethiopia) Akele Guzai
Tucur
Mens
Arusi-Bale
Rashaidi
Somali Arab Samburu
Masai Nandi
North-east Uganda
East African Blackhead Tanzanian
East African Long-tailed Rwanda-Burundi
Rhodesian Zambia

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 Zimbabwe
Malawi
Tswana Swazi
Mondombes Zulu
Nguni Landim
Bapedi
Africander Namaqua
Ronderib
Madagascar transvaal
Damara
Fat-rumped (including some root-tailed types)
Blackheaded Somali Adali
Toposa
Kenya
Blackheaded Persian Dorper
Blackheaded Persian Van Rooy
Blackheaded Persian derivatives Bezudenhout Africander
Wiltiper
Source: Devendra, 1986

Ethiopian Sheep Breeds and Their Characteristics

Attempts have been made since 1975 to identify and characterize Ethiopia’s sheep
breeds or types. Unsuccessful attempts have been made to establish elite flocks of
identified sheep such as Afar, Blackhead Ogaden (Blackhead Somali), Horro and Menz
in research centers and government farms and etc.
Abyssinian
These sheep predominate in Ethiopia. The habitat is diverse but includes all of the
highland areas of the country. They can be considered fat-tailed, and are distinguished
from the fat-tailed animals of North Africa and Western Asia mainly is the colour and
the scantier and hairier nature of the fleece. They are of medium size, (female 74 cm;
45-52 kg). The basic coat is hairy with mixed wool fibres over the back, shoulders,
rump and thighs. The underside is covered by short, stiff hair; elsewhere, it is longer
and may form a decided ruff or mane. The females are usually polled, but the horn
condition of rams is variable. The ears are of medium length and usually carried
horizontally. The facial profile is straight to slightly convex. The neck is thin, the chest
narrow, the back straight or sloping up to the rump. The legs are long. The tail of
medium length with a typical S-shaped flexure, buried in fat with the tip curved upward.
The chief products are meat and skins. Milk yield is low, only enough for the lamb, with
any surplus consumed fresh or made into clarified butter.

Afar sheep
The Afar sheep formerly referred to as Adal sheep in literature, is a fat-tailed sheep. It is
a small-sized breed with mature weight ranging 30–35 kilograms (kg). The natural
habitat of the breed is the Middle Awash Valley in eastern Ethiopia, extending as far as
Dire Dawa in the east and the town of Bati in the north. The Afar sheep are hardy and

13
tolerate periods of drought relatively well as the breed evolved under harsh
environmental conditions.

The Afar sheep have small ears and usually have a dewlap and thick layers of fat on the
brisket. The fat tail has a wide base and reaches below the hocks (animals’ lower legs
joints). Hair is short and coarse, the predominant color being solid blond with other
colors ranging from shaded white to light brown. There are a few exceptions of animals
with spotted color patterns and/or dark brown hair.

The average observed wither height for adult rams is 66 centimeters (cm) while that for
adult ewes is 61 cm. Afar sheep weigh about 2.5 kg, 13 kg and 25.8 kg at birth, weaning
(90 days), and one year of age, respectively. Ewe mature weight is about 31.6 kg. Twin
births are not common.
Horro sheep
The natural habitats of Horro sheep are the western and south western parts of the
country. The Horro sheep is widely distributed in areas covering western Shoa to East
and West Wollega, Illubabor and Jimma zones of Oromia Region.

The predominant color of Horro sheep is a solid tan (light brown). Other colors
observed are creamy white, dark brown, and sometimes black and spotted. The body is
covered with short, shiny hair. The face profile is straight with a somewhat convex
appearance in males. Both rams and ewes are hornless.
Arsi-Bale sheep
Arsi-Bale sheep are fat-tailed and covered with coarse wool (wavy wool). They are
widely distributed in the highlands of eastern and south-central Ethiopia, in Arsi, Bale,
Hararghe and East Shoa zones of Oromia Region and in many parts of the southern
region. Arsi-Bale lambs weigh 2.7 kg and 14.2 kg at birth and at 120 days (weaning),
respectively.
Menz sheep
The natural habitat of Menz sheep is North Shoa and parts of Wollo Zone of the
Amhara Region.

Menz sheep are the most prominent coarse wool bearing sheep in Ethiopia. The body is
compact and mostly covered with coarse hair with a wooly undercoat. The people in the
area use the coarse wool to make a cloak, locally called “Bernos,” and rugs. The coat
color is black or dark brown, perhaps with white spots on the head, neck and legs. Other
colors such as light brown, roan and white also exist.

The head has a straight profile and is free of any wool cover. Rams mostly have twisted
horns while ewes are usually hornless. Menz sheep have small ears with a downward-
forward inclination. This breed has no dewlap and wattles (skin hanging from animals’
throat) are very rare. The tail is short and fat and has a broad base, ending halfway to the
hocks with a slight twist at the end. Menz sheep are not known to be a docile breed. The
mean height at the shoulders is 64 cm and 58 cm for adult rams and ewes, respectively.
Menz sheep weigh about 2.3, 11 and 26–30 kg at birth, weaning (90 days) and one year
of age, respectively. Ewe mature weight is estimated to be about 35 kg. Twin births are
common, sometimes up to 60%.
Washera (Dangla) sheep

14
The Washera (Dangla) sheep is found predominantly in West and East Gojam zones of
the Amhara Region extending to the south of Lake Tana. Washera sheep weigh about
2.8, 13.8 and 22.7 kg at birth, weaning and six months of age, respectively. The growth
rate after weaning is comparable and even better than some other indigenous breeds.
This indicates the potential of this breed for commercial mutton production for the local
and export markets. Washera sheep have high twinning rate.
Blackheaded Somali
This breed group, also known as the Ogaden and Berbera Blackhead, is the
characteristic sheep of all the Somali area. The horn of Africa is their main habitat. The
wither height of the Somali Blackhead ranges from 60-68 cm and liveweight 30-45 kg.
The coat cover consist of short stiff hairs. The colour is extremely uniform; black head,
white body and legs. The black area varies from the head proper to the neck and
sometimes shoulders. Horns are absent in both sexes. Ears are small and sometimes
atrophic. The neck carries an extensive folded dewlap and numerous fatty deposits. The
facial profile is slightly convex. There is a large deposit of fat on the rump and at the
base of the tail; the tail tip is thin and often hangs downward to about the hocks. Well
suited to arid conditions. Chiefly exploited for meat and skins

Reproduction and breeding management

Reproduction
Simply defined, reproduction is giving birth to offspring. The survival of a species
largely depends on its ability to reproduce its own kind. Reproduction is a series of
events (gamete production, fertilization, gestation, reproductive behavior, lambing etc.)
that terminates when a young is born. Hence, reproduction is a vital function of all
living organisms and it is a complex process.

Female reproduction
The reproductive tract of ewes and does is similar. The female reproductive tract
consists of the vulva labia, vagina (copulatory organ), cervix, and body of the uterus,
uterine horns, oviduct (also called Fallopian tube) and the ovary.
Ovaries: The ovaries contain the ova (eggs), and secrete female reproductive hormones
(progesterone and estrogens).
Oviduct: The oviduct opens like a funnel (the infundibulum) near the ovary. The
Infundibulum receives ova released from the ovary and transports them to the site of
fertilization in the oviduct. The oviduct is involved in sperm transport to the site of
fertilization, provides a proper environment for ova and sperm fertilization, and
transports the subsequent embryo to the uterus.
Uterus: The uterus consists of two separate horns (coruna). In animals with multiple
births, each horn can contain one or more fetuses. The uterus provides a proper
environment for embryo development, supports development of the fetus (supplying
nutrients, removing waste, and protecting the fetus), and transports the fetus out of the
maternal body during birth.
Cervix: The cervix is the gateway to the uterus and is a muscular canal consisting of
several folds of tissue referred to as “rings.” The cervix has relatively little smooth
musculature. It participates in sperm transport, and during pregnancy, blocks bacterial
invasion. The mucus produced during pregnancy (also during the luteal phase) forms a
plug that makes the opening through the cervix impermeable for micro-organisms and
spermatozoa.

15
Vagina: This is the exterior portion of the female reproductive tract and is the site of
semen deposition during natural mating.
Vulva: barrier for preventing external contamination of the female reproductive tract.

Figure1: Structure of the female reproductive tract.

Male reproduction
The male reproductive system consists of testicles, which produce sperm and sex
hormones, a duct system for sperm transport, accessory sex glands, and the penis, or
male organ of copulation, which deposits semen in the female.
Testes: The testes are paired organs which descend from the abdominal cavity during
fetal development to lie in the scrotum. They produce the male gametes (spermatozoa)
and secrete the male sex hormone, testosterone. Testosterone is essential for the
development of male characteristics, maintaining normal sexual behaviour and sperm
production.
Scrotum: The scrotum is a muscular sac containing the testes. It supports and protects
the testes and also plays a major role in temperature regulation. It maintains the
temperature 3 to 5oC below body temperature for optimal function.
Single versus split scrotum: This could be breed-specific as in Somali goats. Some
breeders consider the split scrotum as an undesirable trait and select against it.
However, the important thing is to check if equal-sized testicles are present and sperm
production is normal.
Epididymis: The epididymis is located in the testes and is a long and convoluted tube in
which sperm cells produced by the testicles are stored and mature to a stage capable of
fertilization. This change occurs as sperm cells move from the head to the body of the
epididymis with mature sperm being stored in the tail of the epididymis.
Vas deferens: The vas deferens is the duct that rises from the tail of the epididymis into
the abdomen, where it joins the urethra at the neck of the bladder. It is often referred to
as the ‘spermatic cord.’ Removal of a section of the vas deferens in each testis is known
as a vasectomy, preventing passage of sperm from the epididymis.
Accessory sex glands: The accessory sex glands include the bulbo-urethral, prostate,
and seminal vesicle glands and the ampulla. Accessory glands secrete additional fluids,
which when combined with the sperm and other secretions from the epididymis, form
the semen. Some of the secretions contain nutrients like fructose while others produce

16
 alkali secretion to raise the pH of the ejaculate. These secretions are added quickly and
forcibly during the mating to propel sperm into the urethra.
Urethra-- urethra is the common passage for the excretion of urine and semen. It
extends through the pelvis and the penis and ends at the tip of the glans penis as the
external urethral orifice. In the urethra, spermatozoa mix with the seminal plasma of the
accessory sex fluids at the time of ejaculation.
Penis: This is the final part of the male reproductive tract and its function is to deposit
semen into the vaginal tract of the female. At the end of the penis is a narrow tube
called the urethral process (or ‘worm') that sprays the semen in and around the cervix of
the ewe/doe. The preputial sheath protects the penis, except during mating.

Figure2: The structure of the male reproductive tract

Detection of heat
The detection of estrus is very important when artificial insemination is conducted and
when mating is controlled, i.e., sires do not run with females. For this reason it is
important to know the signs of estrus. Ewe comes into oestrus on average every 17
days, although there are large differences in tropical breeds. The signs are not obvious
unless a ram is present:
 Vulva is swollen and more red than usual
 Discharge of mucus, but difficult to see in ewe with tail or a thick fleece
Anoestrus
Non-pregnant ewes which do not show oestrus cycles are in anoestrus. The two main
reasons of this being: Poor nutrition and photoperiod.

Seasonal variation due to food availability is seen most clearly in arid and semi-arid
climates. The proportion of anoestrus ewes is highest at the end of the dry season when
body weight and condition are low. It is possible to counteract this cause of anoestrus
by supplementary feeding.

In temperate regions most oestrus activity and the highest conception rates are seen in
the autumn when day-length is decreasing. Little or no estrous activity in the spring.

17
Anoestrus caused by photoperiod can sometimes be counteracted by introducing rams
(used in South Africa). In parts of the humid tropics where the level of feeding is almost
constant throughout the year, ewes do not show seasonal patterns of oestrus.

Puberty in the ewe

Age of puberty depends primarily on the growth of the lamb and this depends on
feeding level. Well-fed lambs may reach puberty at nine months; poor nutrition may
postpone this to 20 months.
Puberty in the ram
Age at puberty can ranges from about four months in intensive systems to about two
years in extensive systems. Semen produced by a lamb at puberty is usually of low
quality and ram is neither experienced enough nor large enough to mate successfully.
Pregnancy Detection
During establishment of farm whether bred animals is pregnant or not is important to
the commercial producer. The most accurate tests are those that measure or detect
something that is only produced by a viable fetus and that is always present when the
pregnant animal has reached a certain stage.
Methods of pregnancy diagnosis include:
Non-return to estrus: Frequent checking of animals after the normal estrus cycle (17
days for sheep for visual signs of estrus is the simplest method. Animals not returning to
estrus after the normal period are considered to be pregnant.
Progesterone test: Where facilities are available, progesterone assay in milk (in dairy
breeds) or in blood samples is a common test.
Ultrasonography: Ultrasonographic examination can be done as early as 28–30 days
using intra-rectal examination.
Hormones controlling reproduction in the ram
Testosterone is the principal male sex hormone. The testicles are the primary site of
testosterone production. Throughout life, testosterone has in important role in male
development and health, which begins before birth and extends through senescence. The
skin, musculoskeletal system, genitourinary system, cardiovascular system and nervous
system are all directly influenced by testosterone. Deficiencies and excesses of this vital
hormone can cause significant health concerns.

The first important role of testosterone in the life of a male occurs just weeks after
conception. At approximately the seventh to eighth week after conception, the male
testicles become recognizable and begin producing testosterone. Under the influence of
the testosterone produced by the developing baby, the male external genitals form.
Failure of the testes to produce testosterone during this critical phase of fetal
development leads to the formation of female genitals. Another disorder, androgen
insensitivity syndrome, prevents the developing male from responding to the presence
of testosterone. Due to the lack of response to testosterone, these infants are genetically
male but are born with female genitals.
Mating
Mating behaviour:
Ewe: shakes her tail, urinates, looks back over her shoulder, nuzzles the ram’s scrotum
and stands for mating.
Ram: sniffs vulva, curls his lip, nudges and paws the ewe, mounts several times,
initially without serious intent of ejaculating and finally mounts and ejaculates.

18
 Length of the oestrus cycle is 15-19 days. Ewes are generally not receptive to the ram
while pregnant but will come in heat 2-3 weeks after lambing and can be bred if desired.
The actual duration of oestrus is about 18-24 hours and the time of ovulation some 25 to
30 hours after the onset of heat. Hence, the best time for service is late in the heat period
to assure the best chance of conception. In theory a ram can mate with about 200 ewes.
Normally ratios of around 1:40 are used. Fewer rams if year round breeding is used.
Detection of oestrus in the ewe is not easy.
The fat tail of a ewe makes mating difficult or even impossible. Experienced rams first
push the tail aside before the penis penetrates the vagina. Young inexperienced rams
and rams which have previously mated only with thin-tailed ewes may not succeed. In
this case the shepherd can assist by holding the ewe’s tail to one side.
Mating systems
Several systems are available for the mating (tupping) of male and female sheep.
Natural mating
Assortive mating
In this system animals may be mated on the basis of like pedigrees, or as individual by
virtue of similar phenotypes. With breeding relatives there is a danger of deleterious
traits that are revealed, but also desired effects may be increased.
Random mating
In this mating system the ram is all the time with the flock. Thus it is well suited to a
seasonal reproductive ewe breeds in some areas. High annual conception, evenly
distributed throughout the year, great number of ewes per ram (50-80).
Controlled mating
In this system a group of ewes (5-30) is left with one ram for a predetermined period
(40-45 days).
Artificial insemination
Seldom used in developing countries, because of costs and technical know-how.
Breeding capacity is expressed as a percentage of the number of breeding ewes in the
flock during the breeding season or seasons for 1 year.
Ewes that have been flushed and gain in weight just before breeding will usually shed
more ova, and thus deliver more lambs.
Artificial insemination and synchronization of estrous in Sheep
Artificial insemination (AI) is a technique in which semen is collected from a ram or
and put into the reproductive tract of a ewe. The standard procedure of inseminating
involves lifting up of their rear quarters with their front legs remaining on the ground.
With the aid of speculum and pen light the cervical opening or ‘os’ is located and, under
visual control, an insemination pipette is passed into or through the cervix for semen
deposition. If difficulty is encountered in passing through the cervix, semen has to be
deposited intra-cervically or caudal to the cervical os.
Use of AI has the following advantages:
 High potential for genetic improvement.
 When introducing a new breed from foreign countries, it is often easier and cheaper to
import frozen semen than to import live animals.
 The risk of introducing a new disease is much lower if semen is imported.
 Genetics (semen) from superior animals in other regions or countries can be used.
Estrus synchronization

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 Estrus cycle control in sheep is useful for synchronizing estrus in groups of animals to
be bred or inseminated at a particular time or inducing out of season estrus where there
is a distinct seasonality of breeding.
Why do we need to synchronize estrus?
Estrus in sheep and goats can be synchronized for one or more of the following reasons:
 To facilitate the practice of artificial insemination, either for genetic improvement or to
reduce the number of rams/bucks needed to be kept.
 To match the period of lambing with feed availability such that lambs are born during
the period of the year when feed is available.
 Used as an initial step for super-ovulating ewes/does and subsequent embryo transfer.
 Induction of estrus in ewes/does with silent estrus to shorten the lambing interval.
Estrus synchronization techniques
a. The male effect
The male can be used to stimulate estrus activity of females that have been previously
isolated from males for a period of 3–4 weeks. After the period of separation, the male
animal is suddenly introduced to the group of females. In response to introduction of the
male, ewes secrete increasing amounts of LH and FSH, which result in ovulation after
2 or 3 days of male introduction(in some ewes response may be slower, i.e., 4 to 7
days).
The following factors affect response to male introduction:
 Within breeds, rams with greater sexual activity induce responses in more ewes
 Rams that were given libido tests and ranked as highly sexual induce estrus more
effectively than males with low libido test scores.
 Ewes that are on a high plane of nutrition will respond better than those nutritionally
stressed.
The longer lambs have been weaned from ewes/does, the better the response of the
ewes/does.
b. Use hormones
Breeding
Breeding is a branch of animal science that addresses the evaluation of the genetic
value of domestic livestock. A breed is a group of domestic animals with a
homogeneous appearance, behavior, and other characteristics that distinguish it from
other animals.
Pure-breeding
Pure-breeding is the mating of rams and ewes of the same breed or type. A purebred
flock can be managed as a single flock because all ewes and rams are of the same breed.
The goal of purebred sheep production is to provide superior genetics (seedstock) to the
commercial sheep industry. Seedstock are marketed as rams and replacement ewes to
other seedstock producers or to commercial sheep operations.

Out-breeding
Within pure-breeding, there are several types of mating systems. Out-breeding is the
mating of animals of the same breed but which have no closer relationship than at least
4 to 6 generations. Outbreeding is the recommended breeding practice for most
purebred sheep breeders.

Inbreeding
Inbreeding is a system of breeding in which closely related animals are mated. This

20
includes sire to daughter, son to dam, and brother to sister. Technically, inbreeding is
defined as the mating of animals more closely related than the average relationship
within the breed or population concerned. The primary genetic consequence of
inbreeding is to increase the frequency of pairing of similar genes.

In general, inbreeding results in an overall lowering in performance: vigor, disease

resistance, reproductive efficiency, and survivability. It also increases the frequency of
abnormalities. For example, the spread of spider lamb disease in black-faced sheep is
believed to be the consequence of inbreeding.

Line breeding

Line breeding is a system of breeding in which the degree of relationship is less intense
than in inbreeding and is usually directed towards keeping the offspring related to some
highly prized ancestor. The degree of relationship is not closer than half-brother half-
sister matings or cousin matings, etc. Line breeding is a mild form of inbreeding.

Crossbreeding
Crossbreeding is the mating of rams and ewes of different breed compositions or types.
However, it does not denote indiscriminate mixing of breeds, but rather is a systematic
utilization of different breed resources to produce crossbred progeny of a specific type.
Crossbreeding is used extensively in the commercial sheep industry and the majority of
slaughter lambs are crossbred.

Crossbreeding offers two distinct advantages: 1) heterosis; and 2) breed

complementarity. Heterosis or hybrid vigor is the superiority of the crossbred offspring.
Mathematically, heterosis is the difference in performance between the crossbred and
the average performance of its purebred parents.

There are effects of heterosis in the crossbred offspring, crossbred dam, and crossbred
ram. In general, crossbred individuals tend to be more vigorous, more fertile and grow
faster than purebreds.

The efficiency of this cross would be much greater than the reciprocal mating of Suffolk
ewes to Polypay rams. The latter cross would produce genetically equivalent market
lambs (half Suffolk and half Polypay), but fewer lambs would be sold and production
costs greatly increased due to higher feed requirements of heavy Suffolk ewes compared
to Polypay ewes.

Crossbreeding Systems
There are several systematic crossbreeding systems. Terminal crossing makes maximum
use of both heterosis and breed complementarity. It may utilize two, three, or four
breeds, and can be as simple as crossing two pure breeds.
Terminal crossing
In terminal crossing, all of the crossbred offspring are sold and replacement ewe lambs
must be purchased or produced in the flock by mating a proportion of the flock to rams
of the same breed. In a three or four breed terminal crossbreeding system, crossbred
ewes and crossbred rams can be utilized in the system to maximize heterosis.

21
Rotational crossing
Rotational crossing will also maintain high levels of heterosis. Rotational crossing
involves alternating the use of rams of two, three, or more breeds. Ewes are mated to
rams of the breed which they are least related. It works best when breeds which function
acceptably as both ram and ewe breeds, are utilized.
Grading up
Grading up denotes the repeated crossing of ewes and their female progeny to rams of a
single breed, with the ultimate objective of creating a flock that is indistinguishable
from purebred flocks of the ram breed. It is used when only rams of the breed of interest
are available or affordable.
Composite breeds
Crossbreeding is also used to form new or "composite" breeds. Once the crossbred base
population has been formed, the flock is managed as a purebred flock. This is how
many new breeds are created.

Many of the aforementioned crossbreeding systems are difficult to accomplish in a

small flock, which may only have the option of one or two breeding groups. The
purchase of replacement females would enable the use of a terminal crossing program.
Alternating the use of ram and ewe breeds would maintain maternal and growth
characteristics in the flock

22
 Health and disease control in sheep
Basic concepts and causes of diseases
Disease cost farmers millions/billions of money. So knowledge of disease and their
control is important for a number of reasons:
 Diseased animal do not produce to their ultimate capacity
 Disease causes frequent loss of body condition
 Unthrifty animals require more food and take
 Longer time for growth than the healthy stock
Any one of those reasons lost economical value.
 Moreover, since some animals disease can be transmitted to humans, there is a
connection between the state of health of domestic animals and humans or public health.
 Health is the state of wellbeing of an animal in which all body parts are functioning
normally
Health animals define: The condition of an animal that enables it to attain acceptable
level of production within the farming system in which it is maintained.
The term "healthy" certainly does not imply that the animal is free from all disease
agents. An animal may be infected by a potentially pathogenic agent but be unaffected
by it and remain in good health for an indefinite period.
Diseased animal define: any condition in which there is a deviation from health or
normal functioning of any or all the tissue and organs of the animal body. In general, it
is any departure from the state of health. Disease is usually categorized as:
Non-infectious: - include disorders caused by factors other than organisms. Not all disease
problems in domestic animal are due to the presence of organisms. According to our
definition of disease, any defect in the body or body part qualifies as a disease. This
would include such mechanical or physical problems as wound or broken bones.

23
 Infectious disease: - those caused by bacteria, virus, and protozoa. They involve the
invasion of the host by another organism.
Transmission: - the transmission of disease can be thought of as a chain with three
links. The first link is the source or reservoir for the disease; this is usually a diseased
animal. The second link is the mode of transmission. The third is a susceptible animal.

Some common sheep diseases

Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP)
CCPP is a per-acute, acute or chronic contagious disease of goats affecting the
respiratory system. Infection occurs by direct contact between goats. The disease is
widely distributed in the Rift Valley and lowland parts of the country.
Signs : Many goats are usually sick at the same time, 20–30 days after infection with
CCPP. Some animals die before they show signs of the disease. Affected goats cough
and have a discharge from the nose. In severe occurrences that happen quickly:
 animals have distressed breathing.
 animals become weak and tired and have a high fever.
 many goats die after 4–5 days.
 With the mild form of the disease that lingers:
 animals develop joint problems.
 does may get mastitis.
 goats become thin and look very sick. Most recover slowly but some become very sick
and die.
In dead animals, the lung looks very dark and has some yellow pus in it. The lungs
often stick to the side of the chest. A lot of yellow fluid is observed in the chest.
Treatment
Treatment of sick animals with broad spectrum antibiotics is effective.
Prevention
Ring vaccination of CCPP vaccine is given around the outbreak sites. The National
Veterinary Institute (NVI) at Debre Zeit produces a limited amount of CCPP vaccine.
Ring vaccination of CCPP should be given around an outbreak area in order to stop the
spread of the disease. Restriction of movement of goats from and to the outbreak areas
is necessary to prevent spread of the disease.

24
 Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD)
The disease is common in Ethiopia and neigh boring countries. Animals become sick
with FMD 2–14 days after infection. Animals get infection from direct contact with
infected animals, from feed infected by the saliva of infected animals and from people
or things that infected animals have touched. Infective organisms can also spread
hundreds of kilometers through the air
Sign
Blisters in their mouth. The blisters are often very small. Most blisters are on the dental
pad. It is difficult to see blisters on the feet. The feet are painful and the animals are
often lame. Animals usually recover but often lose body condition for a long time.
Treatment
There is no treatment for FMD but it is helpful to give infected animals plenty of water,
shade them from the hot sun, and give soft, green feed. Antibiotic treatment is
important to prevent bacterial infection of the blisters.
Prevention and control
Due to limited production capacity of the National Veterinary Institute, vaccine is given
only for improved cattle and cattle intended for export. Sheep and goats are not
vaccinated since the disease is mild in them, but they could be sources of infection for
cattle. Movement of animals to and from outbreak areas should be restricted in order to
stop the spread of the disease.
Peste des petits Ruminants (PPR)
PPR is common in Ethiopia. It is an acute contagious disease of sheep and goats that is
particularly severe in goats. Transmission of PPR requires close contact between
healthy and sick animals.
Signs
 A clear discharge from the nose.
 Sores in the mouth that come and go.
 Intermittent diarrhea.
 Low fever.
In dead animals: The eyes and nose will have a dirty white/grey discharge. The
animal’s rear will often be covered with bad smelling, watery feces. The mouth has
many sores in it. Upon necropsy, pus will be found in the lungs.

25
Treatment
There is no treatment for PPR but antibiotic treatment will stop secondary infection with
bacteria.
Prevention and control
Immediately isolate animals with signs of PPR. Vaccine for PPR is effective. Vaccinate
before start of the rainy season. Vaccinate all the sheep and goats around an outbreak
area. Vaccine for PPR is produced by the National Veterinary Institute.
Anthrax
Cattle, sheep and goats get anthrax most often. People also can get anthrax. Animals
become sick with anthrax 12–24 hours after they get infected. Animals get the disease
while grazing on infected pastures.
Signs
Animals, especially ruminants, often die before disease signs are seen. Infected animals
have a very high fever and may have blood in the urine, feces or milk. They often have
difficulty breathing and usually collapse and die after 1–3 days. Dark blood often
comes from the nose, mouth and anus of dead animals. This blood stays liquid (does
not clot) and the body does not go stiff after death.
Treatment
People usually do not see animals with anthrax soon enough to treat them.
Sometimes when the disease is less severe, there is time to treat animals with
antibiotics.
Prevention
Bury or burn the dead bodies of animals infected with anthrax. Avoid taking animals for
grazing to places where anthrax was found. Follow annual vaccination with anthrax
vaccine produced at the National Veterinary Institute. Vaccinate animals every year a
month before disease occurrence is expected in common infection areas.
Sheep pox
Sheep pox occurs in both sheep and goats. It is severe in very young animals. Some
young sheep and goats die before showing signs of the disease. The disease spreads by
direct contact between animals and contaminated materials.
Signs

26
 Sheep and goats become sick 1–7 days after infection. Most animals are weak and tired
and stop eating. They have a high fever for a short time. A watery discharge comes out
of the nose and eyes. Animals have increased salivation. They have small red patches on
the skin, usually around the mouth, on the head, under the tail and between the legs. The
patches become swellings under the skin. Then they become blisters that break and
become open sores that soon develop scabs. Animals often have distressed breathing.
Pregnant ewes and does often abort.
Treatment
There is no treatment for sheep and goat pox but the following measures may help
animals to recover:
 Topical antiseptic treatment of bad or deep sores.
 Antibiotics to prevent secondary infection.
Prevention
Annual vaccination with sheep and goat vaccine produced at the National Veterinary
Institute. The vaccine gives protection for at least one year
Anaplasmosis
Anaplasmosis is caused by a rickettsia, Anaplasma ovis, which invades red blood cells
and causes anemia. The disease may be transmitted by ticks and biting flies as well as
contaminated needles and equipment. It is rare in sheep and goats reared in the
presence of the disease. Sheep and goats introduced into these areas should be closely
monitored.
Signs
Animals become sick 20–28 days after they get infected with Anaplasmosis. Mucous
membranes are pale and may become yellow. Animals breathe faster than normal and
have a very fast heartbeat. Animals have high fever. Animals go off feed and do not
pass feces. Older animals that have never been infected can be severely affected and
often die in 3–4 days. Animals younger than six months are not severely affected.
Treatment
Treatment works well if started soon enough. Give an antibiotic. Oxytetracycline works
well.
Prevention and control
Prevent anaplasmosis by controlling the vectors that spread it.

27
 Trypanosomiasis
Tsetse flies from the Glossinaspp are responsible for the spread of the disease. The fly
has infested an estimated 130,000–200,000 square kilometers of fertile land in the
western and south western parts of
Ethiopia.
Signs
Animals become sick with Trypanosomiasis 1–3 weeks after being bitten by infected
tsetse flies. The disease lasts for a prolonged period. Animals become weak and tire
easily, often lagging behind herd mates. Animals have rough, dull coats, slowly lose
weight and become thin. Eyes have a watery discharge and may become cloudy. The
animals blink a lot. Lymph nodes are swollen and noticeable under the skin. Mucous
membranes become progressively pale over a period of weeks. Animals exhibit
intermittent fever. Pregnant animals often abort or have weak offspring. Poor feeding,
stress or overwork increases severityof the disease.
Treatment
Medicines such as Diminazine aceturate and Nomidiumchlorides are known to be
effective. However, chemotherapy is becoming very difficult because trypanosomes
have become resistant to available drugs under dosing and overuse of the drugs leads to
the development of resistance.
Prevention and control
Use insecticide-impregnated targets to kill mosquitoes. Use trypanocidal medicine
routinely.
Heart water
Heart water is one of the most important tick-borne diseases of sheep and goats. It is
caused by rickettsia, Cowdria ruminantum, leading to the disease known as cowdriosis.
The rickettsia is transmitted by Amblyomma variegatum ticks.
Signs
Animals become sick 1–4 weeks after being bitten by infected Amblyomma ticks. In
sudden, severe onset, animals quickly develop a high fever, collapse, convulse and die
in a few hours. In slower disease onset, animals show the following signs:
 Decreased appetite, nervousness, easily prone to agitation.
 Muscle uncoordination, a very high stepping gait, often walking in circles.

28
 Teeth-grinding and licking lips.
 Collapse, convulse and die after 1–7 days.
The mild form of the disease occurring in sheep, goats, sometimes even in young cattle
has the following
 A few animals have diarrhea, which is often bloody.
 Animals have a low fever but few other signs of disease.
 The sac around the heart of dead animals is full offluid. There is also fluid in the chest
and abdomen [Cattle have less fluid around the heart than sheep or goats.]
Treatment
Treatment only works if it is started soon enough. Give an antibiotic, tetracycline.
Check other animals in a group with a sick animal and immediately treat any that have a
fever.
Prevention and control
Control of ticks by spraying or dipping small ruminants with acaricides.
Brucellosis
The disease is caused by Brucella melitensis. The disease is very severe in goats and
death may occur. Sheep are more resistant. Large numbers of [Link] are
discharged during abortion. Close contact between animals is necessary for infection to
be transmitted. This is a zoonotic disease, which is transmissible to humans from
infected goats.
Signs
Animals become sick 3–20 weeks after infection. A primary infection following the
introduction of disease by an infected male or female may at first result in a few
abortions. This usually progresses to a serious storm of abortions. Goats seldom abort
more than once due to brucellosis but many sheep abort twice or have dead lambs at the
pregnancy following the abortion.
 Abortions usually occur beginning the fourth month of gestation.
 Mastitis is often the first sign seen, with milk appearing clotted and dis colored.
 Lameness; orchitis may be found in males.
Treatment
There is no effective treatment.
Prevention

29
Hygiene and good management practice is essential.
Dispose of all aborted material, including the fetus, and disinfect the surroundings. A
separate shed should be used for kidding. Isolate infected flocks to prevent the spread of
the disease.
Contagious foot rot
Foot rot in goats is caused by infection with two bacteria, Dichelobacter nodosus(from
the feet of infected animals) and Fusobacterium necrophorum (commonly found in the
environment). The source of [Link] is the hooves of chronically infected carriers
that occur in approximately 10% of affected small ruminants. Because of D. nososus’
short life-span outside the hoof (usually less than four days), pastures or paths left alone
by sheep and goats can be considered to be non infectious after two weeks in wet/warm
environments and after one week in a dry environment. Outbreaks of foot rot occur only
when pastures are continually wet. Wet conditions soften tissues surrounding the hoof
and can lead to infection or dermatitis, making the skin more permeable to infectious
bacteria.
Signs
In the mild form: Skin between the hooves will be inflamed and swollen. There may be
some secretion. Mild lameness. Can disappear spontaneously when the feet are exposed
to dry conditions. Usually only a few animals are affected. In the severe form: The foot
is red, swollen, and moist. As the infection progresses, the hoof exudes a dark, foul-
smelling pus. The animal will limp or walk on its knees due to the painful hooves. An
animal may have a fever and will lose productivity.
Treatment, prevention, and control
Treatment, prevention, and control generally consist of combinations of antibiotic use,
foot baths and foot trimming. Injectable antibiotics are highly effective. Keep animals in
a dry environment for at least 24 hours following treatment. Topical treatment with
antibiotics (5% tincture of tetracycline) or antiseptics (10% zinc sulfate, 10% copper
sulfate solution) is adequate for mild foot rot in small flocks of animals. Large goat
herds are treated more practically with foot baths.

Principal parasites

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 Internal Parasites
Internal parasites are worms. Worms are small creatures that are found inside animals.
Sometimes they can be seen with the naked eye, but sometimes they are not easily seen.
Unless you specifically look for worms in an animal that dies or which is slaughtered,
you may not see worms.
Types of internal parasites
The major types of internal parasites of sheep and goats can be categorized into four
groups according to their locations in the animal.
 Abomasal worms – nematodes (round worms)
 Liver flukes – trematodes (leaf-like worms)
 Intestinal worms – cestodes (tape worms)
 Protozoa (coccidia)
Signs of internal parasites in live animals
Some animals are more badly affected by worms than others, while some animals never
develop a bad worm infection. How will you know if an animal is suffering from
worms? There are a number of signs that may indicate that an animal has a worm
infection. However, the signs will not tell you that the problem is definitely caused by
worms, but should make you suspicious. Some commonly seen signs are:
Bottle jaw
 You may notice that a sheep or goat has a bottle jaw. This is a soft, cold swelling under
the chin of the animal. It may be seen with a serious worm infection.
 Brisket edema or swelling between the front legs and belly.
Pale mucous membrane (anemia)
 Sometimes the inner eyelid of animals may be very pale. This may be a sign of bad
worm infection.
Shab by wool or hair (poor condition)
 Animals may have poor hair or shabby wool during the dry season. You may notice at
first that sheep or goats are emaciated. You should feel the animals over their lower
backs.
 Loss of condition and rough hair coat
Diarrhea

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 It may be difficult to see that a sheep with a fat tail has diarrhea unless you look
carefully under the tail.
 Diarrhea can be caused by round worms, coccidian or liver flukes. It may also have
other causes.
Sometimes toxic plants or an inappropriate diet may cause diarrhea.
 Weakness, depression and lying down abnormally.
 Eating less than usual or stopping eating altogether.
 Decrease in milk production.
 Ewes or does may not have enough milk for their lambs or kids. The young may die of
starvation.
 Pass tape worm segments in their feces.
 Signs of bad worm infection in dead or slaughtered animals
 You may notice the following signs of worm infection when you open the carcass of a
dead or slaughtered animal.
 Worms and bleeding in the milk stomach
 Worms and fluid in the intestines
 Fluid in the body cavities
 Bumps on the intestines
 No fat on the carcass
 Pale carcass
Prevention and control
 Curative deworming
 Pasture management
 The use of breeds that have increased worm resistance is one strategy. Some breeds of
sheep and goats are more resistant to parasites.
 use anthelmintic drugs
External Parasites
External parasites are responsible for a great diversity of animal health problems.
Effects of external parasites
 Attachment to the host causes irritation of the skin with subsequent ulceration and
secondary infections.
 The wounds attract screw worms and other flies,and myiasis can develop.

32
 Heavy infestations are associated with anemia, since adult female ticks can suck up to
10 mℓof blood.
 The presence of large numbers causes annoyance and animals become restless. This
may cause loss of weight and condition.
 One of the most damaging effects of external parasites is their ability to transmit
diseases to their hosts.
Some of these are serious with fatal consequences.
 Cause tick-paralysis.
 Bites can damage sensitive areas of skin (teats, vagina, eyes, etc.)
 Tick attachment between the claws of the feet may cause severe lameness.
 Transmit diseases.
 There is an associated economic loss through skin damage, rendering the skin
unsuitable for the leather industry.

Type of external parasites.

Horn flies face flies, stable flies, ticks, lice and mites are the major external parasites
Horn Flies are about half the size of house flies and are dark gray. They are blood-
sucking flies that stay on the shoulders and backs of cattle almost continuously.
Face Flies closely resembles house flies. They cluster on the faces of cattle and feed on
secretions from the mucus membranes of the eyes, nose, and lips. Face flies do not suck
blood. They do irritate the surface of the eyeball and carry and spread bacteria and
viruses that contribute to pinkeye problems. They spend only a small portion of their
life on animal which makes them more difficult to control than horn flies.

Stable flies are sometimes called biting house flies. The look very much like house
flies. They feed primarily on legs and lower abdomen of the animals. The blood loss
and pain associated with the bite of stable flies’ results in substantial economic loss.

Ticks cause blood loss, discomfort, and spread diseases like anaplasmosis. Tick control
is extremely difficult in areas with high tick populations. Control on animal through
persistent use of approved pesticides is achieved by spraying, dipping, ear tags, pour-
ons, dust, and backrubs.

33
 Lice cause skin irritation and itching. Both biting and sucking lice infest the animal.
Causes reduced appetite and appear unhealthy. Sprays and pour –ons are common
methods to treat lice.

Mite infestation is called mange in. A serious form of mange is called scabies. Scabies
is caused by sarcoptic and psoroptic mites and must be reported to the disease control
authorities. Severe infestations can weaken cattle and make them vulnerable to diseases.
Mite control works best with Injectable products or pour-on products with systemic
activity
Control and prevention
 Back rubbers allow animals to treat themselves while loafing and scratching.
 Dust bags are most effective when used where animals have to pass under them daily to
get to water or mineral.
 Feed additives target horn fly maggots breeding in fresh animal manure.
 High pressure sprays can be used to treat animals thoroughly and inexpensively on a
per head basis.
 An insecticide bolus is a large pill-like formulation that is given to the animal with a
standard balling gun.
 Insecticide-impregnated animals ear tags release small amounts of an insecticide which
are distributed over the animal during grooming or rubbing.
 Pour on insecticides

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Nutrition of sheep
The nutrition of sheep is the most important factor affecting performance. Nutrients are
substances, supplied by feedstuffs, used by animals for maintenance and production.
Poor nutrition results in low rates of production, often defined by growth and
reproduction. It also affects the immune system and the ability of an animal to fight
disease. In extreme conditions of malnutrition, death can occur. In many animal
production systems, approximately two-thirds of improvements in livestock
productivity can be attributed to improved nutrition. In economic terms, feed cost
accounts for about 70% of the total cost of livestock production. The feasibility of
livestock enterprises is, therefore, a function of the type of feed and feeding system. It is
estimated that up to a five-fold increase in tropical livestock productivity can be attained
if there is optimal feed resource utilization. Sheep and goat production in Ethiopia
suffers from feed shortages at all levels with an estimated 40% deficit in the national
feed balance. This is aggravated by seasonal availability of forage and crop residues in
the highlands and by recurrent and prolonged drought in the lowlands.

Sheep are ruminants. Ruminants have the ability to consume and digest coarse, fibrous
feedstuffs that form the major feed base in Ethiopia. The digestive tract of ruminants is
unique in structure and function, allowing them to digest the fibrous feeds they
consume. The following are some of the unique features of the ruminant digestive tract
compared to monogastric animals (animals with a simple stomach such as swine, dogs,
cats, humans, etc.):
 Ability to digest carbohydrate sources not digested by monogastrics.
 Ability to use sources of non-protein nitrogen (NPN) to satisfy part of their
protein needs.
 Large stomach volume to accommodate and utilize bulky feeds.
 Mouth and teeth well adapted for prehension and grinding of fibrous feeds.
 Well-developed salivary glands for production of large volumes of saliva.

There are six nutrients found in feedstuffs and animals, namely water, carbohydrates,
fats (lipids), protein, minerals, and vitamins. Energy is not a nutrient but is derived from
the breakdown of carbohydrates, fats, and protein. A major constituent of most
feedstuffs is water.

Energy
Energy makes up the largest portion of the diet. Carbohydrates, fat, and excess protein
in the diet all contribute towards fulfilling the energy requirements of sheep.
Carbohydrates are the major sources of energy. Concentrates (grain) contain starch,
which is a rich source of energy. Forages contain fiber or cellulose, which is not as rich
in energy as starch. The major sources of energy in a sheep's diet are pasture and
browse, hay, silage, and grains.

Meeting energy requirements without over or underfeeding animals is one of the

producer's biggest challenges. Energy deficiency is the most common nutritional
deficiency in sheep. An energy deficiency will manifest itself in many ways. In growing
animals, an early sign of energy deficiency is reduced growth, then weight loss, and
ultimately death. In reproducing females, early signs of an energy deficiency are
reduced conception rates, fewer multiple births, and reduced milk production.

35
Moreover, With restricted energy consumption, wool growth slows, fiber diameter is
reduced, and weak spots (breaks) develop in the wool fiber. An energy deficiency
reduces the function of the immune system. Undernourished sheep are more susceptible
to diseases, especially gastro-intestinal worms.

On the other hand, excess energy consumption can cause many problems in sheep.
Extra energy is stored as fat (adipose tissue). Gross excesses in adipose tissue impair
reproductive function in rams and ewes. During late gestation, fat ewes are more prone
to ketosis (pregnancy toxemia).

Energy is quantified in the ration in many ways. The simplest measure is total digestible
nutrients (TDN) or metabolizable energy (ME) and net energy (NE) values are more
accurate measures of energy in a sheep's diet. TDN is usually used to formulate rations
for breeding animals, while the net energy system is usually used to calculate diets for
growing lambs.

Protein
Animals require a considerable amount of protein because their bodies and products
(meat, milk) are composed of high levels of protein. Most common feeds are low in
protein, and supplying proteins to livestock is a major challenge. Protein is usually the
most expensive part of the diet. Since the rumen manufactures protein from amino
acids, the quantity of protein is more important than the quality of protein in a sheep's
diet. Protein requirements are highest for young, growing lambs which are building
muscle and lactating ewes when produce milk proteins.

The most common protein supplement for sheep is soybean meal. Other less common
sources include sunflower meal, cottonseed meal, whole cottonseed, whole soybeans,
peanut meal, canola meal, fish meal, and alfalfa pellets. It is illegal to feed meat and
bone meal from other ruminants. Legume hays, when they are harvested in the early to
mid-bloom stage are intermediate sources of protein. Though levels vary, grains are
usually low in protein. Urea is the most inexpensive source of protein or dietary
nitrogen. Urea is converted to protein in the rumen. It needs to be carefully incorporated
into sheep rations and should not be included in creep rations.

Protein blocks are the most expensive way to provide supplemental protein to pastured
animals, but they save labor. The hardness of the block regulates intake by the sheep.
Excess protein is an expensive and inefficient source of energy.

Minerals
Although required in small quantities, minerals are very important to the living
organism. They form part of the structure of the skeletal system and play a role in most
body processes. Plants obtain their minerals from the soil. The mineral composition of a
feedstuff largely depends on the mineral composition of the soil. Mineral composition
of plants is affected by plant species and stage of growth. Young, leafy materials
generally have a good supply of all the essential minerals, particularly calcium. Cereal
grains have satisfactory amounts of phosphorus and potassium but are poor sources of
calcium. Roots and tubers are poor in all minerals.

36
Minerals are divided into two groups, macro-minerals, those required at 0.1% or more
in the diet, and micro-minerals, those required at very small amounts (part per million
(ppm)) levels. Macro minerals include calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium,
chlorine, sulphur, and magnesium. Micro minerals include iron, copper, cobalt,
manganese, zinc, iodine, selenium, molybdenum, and others. Mineral deficiencies can
lead to decreased growth and reproduction. There are some areas of Ethiopia deficient
in one or more minerals, e.g., copper in the Rift Valley region.

Salt
Salt (sodium [Na] and chloride [Cl]) has an important regulatory function in the body.
Inadequate salt intake can decrease feed and water intake, milk production, and growth
of lambs. Animals desiring salt may chew on wood and/or lick dirt. They are more
likely to consume poisonous plants. When adding salt to mixed rations, it is customary
to add 0.5 percent to the complete diet or 1% percent to the concentrate portion. Salt is
sometimes used to limit the intake of free choice mineral mixes.

Calcium and phosphorus

Calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) are interrelated in the development and maintenance
of the skeleton. Deficiencies may result in rickets. An imbalance of Ca and P in the diet
can cause urinary calculi in male sheep. The calcium in most forages is usually adequate
to meet the needs of sheep. Deficiencies of calcium most often result when high-grain
diets are fed. The ratio of calcium to phosphorus in the sheep's diet should be at least
2:1.

Vitamins
Vitamins stimulate the body’s function or metabolism. Some vitamins have a general
effect while others control a specific reaction or activity. In practical feeding of sheep
and goats, the main vitamins of concern are A and D. Vitamin A is a general growth
promoter and helps the stock resist infection while Vitamin D is important mainly for
maintenance of healthy bones. The B-complex group and Vitamin K are synthesized by
rumen micro-organisms, and hence there is no need to supply them through the feed.
Even vitamins A and D are not a major concern in the tropics where sheep and goats
generally have access to pasture or rangeland. Vitamin A is absent in plant material, but
is synthesized from beta-carotene. Vitamin D is required to prevent rickets in young
animals and osteomalacia in older animals. B-vitamins are not required in the diets of
ruminants because they are synthesized in the rumen. Vitamin K is essential for blood
clotting. Dietary supplementation is usually not necessary.

Fiber
Fiber adds bulk to the diet and keeps the sheep's rumen functioning properly by
increases rumination and salivation. Most ruminant nutritionists agree that sheep should
always have roughage in their diets, at least one pound per head per day. Sheep that do
not consume adequate forage may chew on wood or wool.

Water
Water participates in nearly all body functions and is the most important "nutrient,"
though oftentimes the most neglected aspect of feeding sheep. A sheep will consume
anywhere from½ to 4 gallons of water per day, depending upon its physiological state

37
 and the environmental conditions. Voluntary water intake is usually 2 or 3 times dry
matter intake and increases with high-protein and high-salt diets. Decreased water
intake may reduce milk production in ewes and growth rates of lambs.

Feeding management of sheep

Natural grazing land is the predominant feed source for sheep and goats in Ethiopia.
Very little land is planted to introduced pastures or forage crops. This is especially true
for the pastoral and agro-pastoral areas. Grazing areas are usually communally owned.
Crop residues and agro-industrial by-products represent a large proportion of feed
resources in the mixed crop–livestock system. Reliance on crop residues for animal feed
is ever-increasing as more land is cropped to feed the fast-growing human population.
This has decreased available grazing land and has forced livestock to graze more fragile,
less productive lands not suited for high livestock numbers. Erosion and environmental
degradation result in decreased soil fertility and forage productivity.

Strategies for ensuring appropriate nutrition of sheep include:

 Matching sheep production systems number to available feed resources;
 More efficient use of agricultural and industrial by-products as sources of feed; and
 Encouraging increased intake

One of the strategies of increasing feed availability is through increasing off-take of

animals through sale (destocking). This will increase the amount of feed available to the
remaining animals. Feed efficiency can also be increased if older, mature animals are
sold leaving younger, growing animals that utilize feed nutrients more efficiently.
Supplementation is one method used to improve feed intake. Supplementing a deficient
nutrient in a diet will improve intake. Supplementation of available nitrogen (protein
and/or non-protein nitrogen sources) to diets with poor fermentable nitrogen will
improve digestion, and consequently intake, by promoting multiplication of micro-
organisms in the reticulo-rumen. Supplementation of sulphur will also promote
digestion and intake.

Supplementation
Ruminant diets are generally based on fibrous feeds that have low digestibility and are
deficient in protein, minerals and vitamins. These characteristics keep intake and
productivity low. Provision of appropriate supplementary feedstuff during critical
periods of the year is important to enhance productivity or at least avoid body-weight
loss. This is especially true for livestock consuming poor-quality pasture and crop
residue-based diets.

A supplement is a semi-concentrated source of one or more nutrients used to improve

the nutritional value of a basal feed, e.g., protein supplement, mineral supplement.
Supplementation may be at various levels and for different reasons. It may be done to
assure survival, to assure maintenance or to assure production and reproduction.
Supplementation can be done by providing a complete feed or by giving specific
nutrients. Supplementation can enable animals to consume more forage, to digest the
same quantity of forage more efficiently or to overcome a nutrient deficiency that
critically limits performance.

38
There are various means of improving the efficiency of utilization of available feed
resources. The following are some of the possibilities.

Fodder conservation
The supply of feed fluctuates in most parts of the tropics. Preserving surplus feed in the
wet season for use in the dry season is one method of making the supply of feed to
livestock more evenly distributed throughout the year. Any surplus forage should be
conserved for use during the dry season when feed supply is scarce and feed quality is
poor. Hay- and silage-making are two main methods of preserving forages.
Effective utilization of crop residues
Unlike goat, sheep are at a 50% refusal rate instead of the conventional 10–20% which
is results in increased feed intake in terms of quality and quantity. This will lead to
improved body weight gain. Such a feeding strategy of allowing 50% refusal of the
residue could be wasteful. The practice is justified only if the rejected straw could also
be utilized by less selective ruminants like cattle or alternatively used for other purposes
such as fuel, bedding, compost, soil mulch, etc.

Treatment
Physical treatment
The main objective of this method is to reduce the size of the roughage to expose more
surface area for microbial degradation in the rumen. This involves hydration (soaking)
and chopping.

Chemical treatment
Chemical methods are relatively efficient and easy to put into practice. The effects of
chemical treatment include hydrolysis of chemical bonds that involve lignin. The
chemicals used in treatment of roughages are mainly alkalis. The most effective alkali is
sodium hydroxide or caustic soda. It is, however, not commonly used due to its high
cost and risk of use. The most common methods of chemical treatment use either
ammonia or urea, which are relatively less effective but are cheaper and less hazardous
to use. Moreover, treatment with ammonia or urea has the added advantage of
improving the nitrogen content of the treated roughage. Treatment is recommended
where roughage constitutes over half the diet or where higher levels of production are
desired. The type of treatment will depend on local circumstances.

Ammonia treatment: Ammonia (anhydrous, gaseous) treatment requires a supply of

industrially produced ammonia together with a distribution network. Factors for the
success of ammonia treatment include:
 Amount of ammonia used: 2.5–3.5 kg per 100 kg DM of straw.
 Temperature and duration of the treatment: generally, a longer period of treatment
is required at low temperatures and shorter period at higher temperatures
 Moisture level: optimum moisture level for successful treatment is between 15
and 25%.
 Sealing: an air tight seal is required.
 Nature of the forage to be treated: low-digestible roughage.

39
 Urea treatment: This is one method of improving the feeding value of roughages. It
involves spraying a solution of urea onto dry roughage and covering it with locally
available materials to create a sealed condition. The fact that fertilizer-grade urea is
available in many developing counties like Ethiopia makes it a preferred treatment
technique for improving the nutritional quality of low-quality roughages (LQR) such as
crop residues and agro-industrial by products, e.g., bagasse. The simplicity of its
application is an added advantage of the technique. The most common recommended
level of urea is 5 kg per 100 kg of material (5% urea measured on air-dry LQR). The
moisture or water level in the LQR to be treated determines how much water should be
added. It may range from 0.3 to 1 liter of water per kg straw with the minimum being
applied in areas with water scarcity.

Proper exploitation of natural pasture

The widespread traditional use of natural pasture as an available source of quality feed
during the dry season is vital to maintaining seasonal and yearly stability of livestock
production in drier areas. Natural trees can supply with the bulk of their nutritive
requirements and complements the diet of sheep with protein, vitamins and minerals.
Foliage from trees and shrubs in pastoral areas provides more edible biomass than
pasture. Moreover, browse remains green and high in protein content when pastures
become dry. Proper and strategic use of these feed resources as supplements during dry
periods can help minimize seasonal fluctuation in productivity.
 Plant browses trees /bush/shrubs which are recommendable.
 Maintain the necessary balance of forage species by selective bush clearing.
 Feed browse either by trimming or lopping leaves and branches or by beating down
the fruits or pods.

Routine management practices in sheep

Ewes are the backbone of the sheep enterprise for example for raising lambs &
producing wool. The nutritional status of the ewe during the all stages of production is
critical for optimum production, even though breeding and selection programs
should not be overlooked.

Flushing and breeding

Flushing
 Increase the intake of ewes prior to and during mating to increase ovulation rate &
also have some beneficial effects of increased body weight, thus lambing rate.
 Start about 2 wk before breeding until 2-3 wk into the breeding season.
 Accomplished by turning ewes onto a lush, high-quality pasture just prior to
breeding
 Mature ewes may respond better vs. yearlings or fat ewes (or, ewes in good body
condition), thus flushing may not be economical for ewe lambs/yearlings (no lambs
in previous year) or fat ewes.
 Both energy and protein intake might be important based on some data, but,
perhaps, energy intake is the single most important factor.

a) Nutrition during pregnancy: Determine the number of lambs born alive and lamb
birth weight, and also survivability
Gestation

40
 "Placenta, fetal, and mammary grow during pregnancy
 Many lamb deaths shortly after birth can be attributed to nutrition during gestation
because of placental growth, fetal development, and mammary gland development.

The mature (3 to 8 years) ewe during the first 15 wk of pregnancy:

1) Assuming no substantial weight loss during the previous lactation, can be fed to just
maintain her "normal" weight from weaning her lambs until about 15 wk into her next
pregnancy
2) Nutritional needs are slightly higher than the maintenance, but severe under- or over
nutrition during this phase can be detrimental.
3) Pasture and other "field feeds," when available, are adequate for maintaining ewes
and used often because of the cost.
4) When harvested feed must be fed, a variety of feeds or combination can be used,
e.g., hay, silage, and corn or sorghum silage.
Parturition
 Generally, recommended to provide good-quality forage and plenty of fresh water.
 Start feeding grain or supplement about 12 to 24 hr after lambing.
Nutrition during lactation:
 Critical for milk production.
 Usually 2 to 3 times greater during lactation than during maintenance.
 Ewes with twin lambs produce 20 to 40% more milk than those with singles, thus
have higher nutrient requirements.
Milk production:
a) Peaks early (2 to 3 wks after lambing) and then declines.
b) Ewes produce 3 to 6 + lb milk daily.
 Monitoring changes in body weight during lactation. It should lose about 5 to 7% of
the body wt during lactation, recover this during the post-weaning period, and then
gain weight appropriately during gestation. Nutritional needs differ depending on
the size, body conditions, and levels of production, thus may be useful to divide the
flock into groups of ewes with similar needs.
 Milk provides essentially all the lamb's nutritional needs during the first month and
a significant proportion during the first 2 month.
 Lambs can be weaned successfully at 8 wk (perhaps earlier). More efficient to feed
the lamb directly than to feed the ewe to feed the lamb beyond 8 to 10 wk.
How to feed ewes?
 Not necessary to feed the ewe very much for a day or so after lambing.
 Important to have plenty of fresh water and a light feed during this period.
 By the third day, can be brought up to a regular ration (as-fed basis) - e.g., 2½ -
3lb each of hay and ground ear corn, 4 - 5½ lb hay plus 1 to 1½ lb shelled corn, 8
to 10 lb corn silage plus æ to 1½ lb shelled corn + ½ lb soybean meal, or 10 lb
alfalfa Haylage plus 1½ lb shelled corn.

Daily feed intake can be increased by feeding frequently:

 A rule of thumb? If the ewe is nursing one lamb, feed once a day, if she is nursing
two lambs, twice a day, etc.
 Splitting the amount fed per day into more frequent feedings reduces the potential
for acidosis when more concentrates are fed.

41
Post weaning:
 This is the time of rest for the ewes, but also the time that the ewes can be
"conditioned" for the breeding period.
 Still, desirable to use the poor-quality pasture or feed so that better quality forages
can be saved for more critical periods.
Lambs:
 Born with a nonfunctional rumen, thus need dietary sources of nutrients such as
milk and milk replacer.
 Important to make sure that a lamb nurses within 1 hr or its chance of survival is
rather limited. But, most lambs nurse within 30 min after birth.
 With access to dry feed immediately, some degrees of rumen functionality
become apparent within 2 wk or so.
 With continued consumption of dry feed, milk is no longer essential for efficient
growth by 45 to 60 d of age.
Colostrum:
 Not only important in terms of nutrition but also plays an important role in disease
resistance because it contains antibodies.
 Also, important as a laxative to clean out the fecal matter accumulated during fetal
life.
 Transfer of antibodies through the umbilical cord does not occur in sheep and
cattle as it does in many other animals.
 If colostrum is not available (or in sufficient; at least 6 to 8 day) from the ewe,
then should provide colostrum from another ewe; Or, frozen ewe or cow
colostrums warmed to body temperature with a bottle is an adequate alternative.
 Most of lamb death losses are due to starvation during the first week after birth.
 May require rearing on milk replacer to save those lambs.
 Lambs that are orphans due to death of the mother, one side of udder
nonfunctional on ewe with twins, mismatch, etc.

A weak lamb(s) twins or in triplets

Any lamb showing symptoms of progressive weakness during the first week after birth,
which can be traced to inadequate milk supply
Milk replacer
 Raising lambs on milk replacer is relatively time consuming and expensive process,
thus should be as short as possible.
 Can be weaned from milk replacer at 3 wk of age.
 The decision to switch to milk replacer
 Should be made as soon after birth as possible.
Perhaps, easier to train?
 Place lambs in a warm, dry enclosed area with others on milk replacer, and they
should
not be allowed to hear their dams.
May want to inject with the followings when they are placed in the nursery? - Vitamin
A, D, E, Se (in low Se areas), etc.
 Typically composition of milk replacers (DM basis) e.g., fat, 30-32%; CP, 22-24%;
and lactose, 22-25%.

42
 The dry replacer should be diluted with water to a minimum of 17 to 20% DM (i.e.,
1 to 2 lb milk replacer per gallon of water).
 Make sure that the milk replacer contains a high dose of antibiotics to avoid scours
and other digestive disorders.
 Use one of the multiple nipple pails or similar systems for self feeding the milk
replacer (should be cold), or hand feed with warm milk
Creep feeding:
Healthy baby lambs show interest in dry feed at 10 days of age, thus they might be able
to start on dry feed very early.
Creep feeding:
1) Advantages?
 Increased weight gains, especially in twins & triplets. Up to 0.25 lb /d more
 Can be marketed at younger age. Perhaps, 1 to 2 month earlier?
 Moving lambs to the dry lot earlier, which allows more ewes on available
pasture.
To be successful, start as soon as possible. May want to set up when lambs are 7 to
10 day of age & on the location where they spend most of their time. Scientifically
formulated and commercially prepared complete creep feeds:
 Often available in pelleted form & in 50-lb bags, which make creep feeding simple
 Relatively costly, but lambs don't consume much during this period, so can be
justified
Examples of palatable feeds offered to lambs (in addition to commercial feeds)? -
Cracked, shelled corn, bran, rolled oats, molasses, soybean meal, and high quality, leafy
alfalfa hay.
Make fresh feed available in clean bunks at least twice daily. Should give only the
quantity lambs clean up between each feeding. When feeding simple cracked corn and
hay-based creep rations, a complete supplement should be top-dressed on corn to
provide added CP, Ca, vitamin E, Se, antibiotic, etc
Weaning
 Artificially reared lambs weighing 25 lb can be weaned at 25 to 30 days of age.
 Lambs raised by ewes in peak milk production are seldom weaned, and lambs are
not normally weaned before 7- to 8-wk old and weighing more than 40 lb.
 To reduce weaning stress, a lamb should be consuming about a pound of palatable,
nutritious dry feed daily.
 May want to keep lambs in familiar surroundings at weaning and no change in their
diet for about a week or so.
 Very early weaned 25-lb lambs need an 18-19% CP, high-energy, well-fortified diet
until reaching about 50 lb.
 Can be fed as a "typically weaned lamb" thereafter.
 Under excellent forage conditions, lambs may reach slaughter weight while nursing
ewes.
Feeder lambs:
 Most are available in the fall from western & southwestern ranges.
 Usually about 5 to 6 moth of age and weigh between 60 to 90 lb.
 But, many producers are beginning to wean & market lambs at an earlier age. It is
especially true for fall- or winter-born lambs.

43
 Might be more profitable for some producers to wean lambs early & feed them to
slaughter market wt. For instance, market their grains through lambs when grain
prices are relatively low
 Many are placed on high-quality pastures or crop aftermath such as alfalfa fields &
beet tops before a short feedlot phase.
Slaughter or market lambs
 Should have between 0.1 and 0.2 in back-fat.
 Between 95 to 145 lb because of differences in frame size among lambs, i.e., 95-
105 lb for small-frame, 105-120 lb for medium-frame, and 120-145 lb for large-
frame lambs
Feedstuffs
 Many types can be used to furnish necessary nutrients to economically finish lambs.
 With high-concentrate diets, can expect the fastest gain but may not be the most
economical
 Programs using pastures or crop aftermath may be more economical, even though
gains would be slower!
 Lightweight lambs (50-70 lb) can use more roughage but heavier lambs (70-80 lb)
need more concentrates.
 Thus, perhaps lightweight or small-frame lambs might be more suitable for pasture
finishing, and heavy weight or larger-frame lambs might do better in the dry lot.
Handling new lambs
 To succeed in a feeder lamb finishing, the first 2 to 3 wk after arrival are crucial.
Death loss is high during the first 2-3 wk & about 2% for the total finishing period
with good management.
 Unload lambs to a dry, clean area and let them rest before processing. Also,
important to provide shelter from wind, rain, and snow.
 Offer grass or grass-legume hay and clean, fresh water. Getting lambs to drink water
is the key to getting them on feed quickly.
 Adapt lambs to their rations gradually, especially when changing to grain-based
diets, to avoid digestive upsets (acidosis).
Most feedlot operators try to shear all lambs during the feeding period:
1) Feed consumption and gain may improve with shearing, especially in warm weather.
2) Lambs with No. 1 pelt (0.5 to 1" of wool) usually sell at a premium to full-fleeced
lambs. Usually need 40 to 60 days to produce a No. 1 pelt after shearing.
Feeding method
A. Pasture feeding - Pasture can be used for the entire fattening period or for the early
part and then placed in the feedlot for finishing.
1) Plants must be palatable and nutritious, and generally the most nutritious ones are the
legumes or a mixture of legumes and grasses, which can reduce bloat problems.
2) May be less expensive per pound of gain, but it takes longer to finish lambs.
B. Hand feeding - Fed twice daily on a regular basis:
1) Has the advantage of being able to identify sick or off feed animals easily.
2) Feeding silage? - Usually the method of choice.
C. Self feeding:
1) Rations generally contain between 60 and 85% concentrate. In recent years, grain, as
a source of energy, has become less costly in relation to hay, and the current practice is
to feed rations containing more grain. Regardless of feeding method used, care should

44
 be taken in changing from high-forage to high-grain diets (i.e., change "gradually"). If
not, may have problems with acidosis, diarrhea, and enterotoxemia.

Meat, milk and wool production of sheep

Meat
 Dressing percentage is normally in the range of 40-50%.
 With fattened mature fat tailed and fat rumped sheep this may exceed 60%.
 Of the carcass, the meat-bone ratio is normally 2:1.
 The growth rate of lambs is normally in the range of 20-200 g/day.
 Ram lambs grow faster than ewe lambs, whether or not the diet is restricted.
 Ewe lambs get fatter than ram lambs on a given diet and castration reduces growth rate
and increases fatness.

Generally, there are relatively differences in certain meat quality characteristics between
the goat and sheep breeds carcass, for most of the attributes, mutton had significantly more
favourable scores than goat meat. As expected mutton aroma and flavour intensity scores is
higher and goaty flavour and aroma intensity scores lower for sheep meat than for goat
meat in general. In addition, overall tenderness, chewiness and juiciness significantly lower
for goat meat than for sheep meat. Differences in carcass fatness could have contributed to
these differences.

Chemical composition of meat

The approximate composition of meat is about 75% water, 19% protein, 2.5% lipid,
0.65% minerals and some vitamins. Many goat breeds have lower carcass fat than sheep
and deposit more fat in the abdominal cavity.

The most valuable component from the nutritional and processing point of view is protein.
Protein contents and values define the quality of the raw meat material and its suitability
for further processing. Protein content is also the criterion for the quality and value of the
finished processed meat products. The value of animal foods is essentially associated with
their content of proteins. Protein is made up of about 20 amino acids. Approximately 65%
of the proteins in the animal body are skeleton muscle protein, about 30% connective
tissue proteins (collagen, elastin) and the remaining 5% blood proteins and keratin (hairs,
nails). Water is a variable of these components, and is closely and inversely related to the
fat content. The fat content is higher in entire carcasses than in lean carcass cuts. The fat
content is also high in processed meat products where high amounts of fatty tissue are used

Sheep milk
 Sheep’s milk production is reported in only a few countries in the tropics.
 Under very favourable condition the best sheep can produce 2.5 l of milk per day, but 1
l per day is regarded as excellent.
 In tropical environments milk yields of 0.3 l per ewe per day are more common (50 l in
a 100 day lactation)
 sheep’s milk has a high solids content
 More concentrated in fat and protein than in cows (successfully made into cheese,
yoghurt, butter and ghee).
 Sheep’s milk produces especially high yields of cheese

45
 Table 4: A comparison of milk composition (in %) is presented below
Species Fat SNF Prot Lactos Calcium Vit. A Caroten Vit. D
% % ein e % g/g fat oids iu/100 g
% % g/g fat
Temperate 3.5 8.5 3.3 4.6 0.12 8 7 1.8
cow (HF)
Temperate 4.6 9.0 3.6 4.9 0.13 6 16 2.3
cow
(Jersey)
Zebu cow 5.0 8.5 3.2 4.6 0.13 - - -
Doe 4.0 8.7 3.4 4.2 0.13 8 Trace 2.3
Ewe 7.5 11.5 6.0 4.4 0.20 8 0.4 -
Camel 4.2 9.0 3.8 5.0 - - Unlikely -
Human 4.0 9.0 1.3 6.8 0.03 10 4 1.4

Wool production
Nature of wool
In sheep there are two types of follicles:
 Primary follicles produce hair and very coarse wool
 Secondary follicles are smaller and produce wool
The size of the follicles and the number of secondary follicles (S) and the primary
follicles (P) determine the nature of the fleece.
o In Merino sheep the ratio S/P is about 20.
o The follicles mostly develop before the lamb is born, then the number remains constant.
o In the first few years there is an increase in wool production because both the wool fibre
diameter and the growth rate increase.
o Wool and hair are made of keratin (protein).
o Hairs have a hollow centre known as the medulla.
o Fine wool fibres are thin and do not have a medulla.
Fleece weight
o Wool harvested from sheep may be up to 3 kg per year
Wool quality
Wool quality is measured in terms of:
 Fibre diameter
 Staple length
 Soundness
 Colour
 Yield
 Cleanliness
Table 5: wool type
Fibre diameter (µm) Quality count
Wool type
Fine 18-26 80 s - 56 s
blanket 28-36 52 s - 42 s
carpet 38 or more 40 s or less

46
 Staple length: is the length of the longest fibres measured by holding wool fibres along
a ruler.
Soundness: is the strength of wool fibres estimated by taking hold of each end of wool
fibres and pulling until they break.
Coloured wool: is undesirable for commercial manufacture because it cannot be dyed
except to a darker colour.
Yield: is the clean fleece weight expressed as a proportion of greasy fleece weight
usually between 45% and 80%.
Fibre diameter: is measured in a laboratory (Mean fibre diameter) in micrometers
Most wool from tropical sheep has an average fibre diameter between 25 and 65 µm.

Shearing
Sharing intervals
 In India sheep are usually shorn every 6 months to annually
 carpet makers use shorter fibres and with a short interval procedures. Shearing can be
done with a knife, scissors, wool shears or electrically-powered clippers (100/day). The
common mistakes are cutting the skin and to cut some distance away from the skin.
Sheep should be shorn when the fleece is dry.
 Newly-shorn sheep should not be exposed to a wet season nor a very hot season;
 In highland areas, sheep should have a long fleece to keep warm in the cold season;
 Where grass seeds are a problem, sheep should be shorn before the seeds are ripe;
 Finally, ewes should not be shorn in late pregnancy.

47
Methods of wool processing
Carding: wool fibres lined in same direction. Knots untangled or discarded.
Spinning; wool fibres are teased out into a thin strand and the strand is twisted.
Plying: winding together of two or more strands of yarn to make a stronger yarn.

Origin and domestication of goat

Domestication is associated with 3 of the oldest civilisations; the Nile in north-east
Africa, the Tigris-Euphrates in western Asia and the Indus in the Indian sub-continent.
Goats are possibly the earliest domesticated animal or at least next oldest to dog. From
these centers of domestication people migrated to other parts of the world. The goat is a
hollow horned ruminant of the family Bovidae and either of the genera Capra or
Hemitragus. External features that differentiate goat from sheep:
 beard and odoriferous tail-glands of the male
 absence of face glands and hence lachrymal pits in the skull
 absence of foot glands (at least in the hind feet)
 heteronymous nature of the horns
 body covering. Goats > hair, Sheep > hair-wool or wool
 tail is upright (hanging in sheep).

48
Parts of goat body and body condition score

Parts of goat body

Knowledge of the various parts of sheep and goats is important for

differentmanagement purposes. The body parts of a goat are presented in Figure 1

Fig 1:- Parts of goat body

[Link]

Chuck

 Chuck is the lower neck and upper shoulder of the goat.

 Several roasts come from the chuck, including chuck roast, cross rib English
roast, shoulder roast, shoulder clod roast, arm roast and chuck eye roast.

49
  Chuck short ribs and country-style chuck ribs also come from the shoulder
area.
 Many quality cuts of steak come from the shoulder, as well, including flat
iron, top blade steak, mock tender steak, shoulder tender medallions, sierra
cut, Denver cut, ranch steak and chuck eye steak.

Round

 The round is the equivalent of the animal's hind leg, including the butt, ham and
thigh.
 The round is where the rump, round roasts and steaks come from.
 Other cuts from the round include the sirloin tip roast, sirloin tip center steak and
sirloin tip side steak.

Sirloin

 The sirloin is the eight-inch strip of meat in front of the round.

 It runs from the backbone down to the upper belly.
 The sirloin is where the center cut and sirloin steak come from. Tri-tip steak and
tri-tip roast, along with ball tip roast and steak, are all cuts of meat from the sirloin.
 Bottom sirloin flap meats are taken from the lower belly portion of the sirloin.
 The filet of sirloin is from the area of sirloin around the backbone.

Short Loin

 The short loin is the meat located in the center of the cow's back.
 It rests between the sirloin and the ribs.
 It stretches down to the center of the belly.
 This is where you find the tenderloin, which runs alongside the backbone.
 From the short loin comes the bone-in strip steak, strip steak, filet of strip, T-
Bone and porterhouse steaks.
 Strip roast and hanger steak come from the short loin as well.

Flank

 The flank is the belly portion of the short loin and sirloin.
 From the flank come flank steak and the flap.
 Cubed steak, stew meat and ground are often cut from the flank.

Ribs

 The ribs are located between the chuck and the loin.
 This is where the short and back ribs come from.
 Other cuts of meat from the meaty portion on top of the rib bones include rib eye
steak and roast, as well as prime rib, filet of rib and cowboy steak.
 The short plate is the belly portion below the ribs, which is where short ribs and
skirt steak come from.

50
Shank and Brisket

 The shank is the upper portion of the front leg between the shoulder and the knee.
 The brisket is the breast area between the front legs.
 From these areas come the shank steaks and chevon brisket cuts.

Body condition
An animal in good condition is important to achieve good (re)production figures and as
prevention against diseases.

Assessment is made of:

1. Prominence of the spinous processes(vertical protrusion ) of the lumbar vertebrae
2. Prominence of, and the degree of fat cover over, the transverse processes (horizontal
protrusion)of the vertebrae
3. Extent of the muscular and fatty tissues below the transverse process by the ease with
which the fingers pass under the ends of these bones.
4. The fullness of the eye muscle area and its degree of fat cover in the angle between
the spinous and transverse processes.
The scoring system is summarized in the table 6 below
Condition Score Description
Starving 0 Extremely emaciated and on the point of death. It is not possible to detect
any muscular or fatty tissue between the skin and the bone
Very thin 1 The spinous processes are prominent and sharp. The transverse processes
are also sharp, the fingers pass easily under the ends, and it is possible to
feel between each process. The eye muscle areas are shallow with no fat
cover
Thin 2 The spinous processes feel prominent but smooth and individual
processes can be felt only as fine corrugations. The transverse processes
are smooth and rounded, and it is possible to pass the fingers under the
ends with a little pressure. The eye muscle areas are of moderate depth,
but have little fat cover
Moderate 3 The spinous processes are detected only as small elevations; they are
smooth and rounded, and individual bones can be felt only with pressure.
The transverse processes are smooth and well covered, and firm pressure
is required to feel over the ends. The eye muscle areas are full, and have a
moderate degree of fat cover.
Fat 4 The spinous processes can just be detected with pressure as a hard line
between the fat-covered muscle areas. The ends of the transverse
processes cannot be felt. The eye muscle areas are full, and have a thick
covering of fat
Very fat 5 The spinous processes cannot be detected even with firm pressure, and
there is a depression between the layers of fat in the position where the
spinous processes would normally be felt. The transverse processes
cannot be detected. The eye muscle areas are very full with thick fat
cover. There may be large deposits of fat over the rump and tail.

Using the scores

51
 One of the advantages of using condition scoring as a tool in flock management is that
it overcomes differences in body size and weight between individuals within a flock of
between different flocks/breeds.

The condition or fatness of a doe has a major effect on its productivity. With individual
animals live weight is a good index of fatness, but differences in frame size between
individual does make it difficult to formulate general recommendations as to
appropriate live weight at different stages of the annual cycle.

There is a relation between body condition at mating to ovulation rate and kidding
percentage (flushing). There is evidence that over-fatness at mating is associated with
an increased level of barrenness (> 3.5). To achieve a good condition at mating, the
condition should be scored 6-8 weeks before the beginning of mating, and the leaner
ewes taken out for preferential treatment if possible.

It is also important in ensuring that the does has adequate body reserves on which to
draw during the under-nourishment which almost inevitably occurs in most flocks at
some stage of pregnancy.

Goat population, distribution and production systems

Goats are important domestic animals in tropical livestock production systems. In the
subsistence sector pastoralists and agriculturalists often depend on them for much of
their livelihood. The important role of this specie in tropical agriculture is inadequately
understood. The authorities still tend to concentrate livestock research and educational
facilities in the tropics on this specie and problems that are most important in temperate
zone countries, rather than adapt their knowledge to tropical conditions.

Geographical distribution of goats

Goats are widely distributed, from arid, semi-desert to humid rainforest regions, and
represent 20.2%, of the total populations of ruminant livestock in the Tropics and sub-
tropics. Although the total number of sheep is greater than that of goats, sheep in the
Tropics represent a lower proportion of the total world production. The largest
concentrations of goats are in Africa and in the Indian sub-continent. India, with 71
million, is the country with the largest goat population. Africa also has a large sheep
population as does Western Asia and South America.
Table: Relationship between total area, human population, goat and sheep
numbers in the Tropics and sub-tropics

Region Total area Human No. of Goats per No. of Sheep Goat :
Mio. PPn. per Sheep
Ha (Mio.) Hectare person hectare person Ratio
Africa 3031.3 455.9 0.05 0.32 0.05 0.38 1:1.2
S America 1782.0 238.9 0.01 0.08 0.06 0.45 1:5.8
Asia, W of India 688.5 154.7 0.08 0.34 0.16 0.70 1:2.1
Asia, E of India 468.5 391.3 0.03 0.04 0.01 0.02 1:0.5
India, Pakistan & Bamgladesh 423.6 844.2 0.26 0.13 0.16 0.08 1:0.6

52
C America and the Caribbean 273.4 120.0 0.04 0.09 0.03 0.08 1:0.8
Total 6667.41 2205.02 0.083 0.173 0.083 0.293 1:1.8

Types of Goat production systems

The production system of goats is the same with sheep production systems.
 Reading assignment
Breeds and breeding management
Methods of classification goat breeds
Goat Breeds
 There are 300 breeds and types of goat in the world
 The majority of which are found in the tropics
 Goats have unique ability to adapt in harsh environment
 That is why they are important animals in subsistence agriculture
Methods of classification goat breeds
1. Origin: This describe as European, Oriental, Asiatic or African, difficult to trace
because of migrations of man.
2. Ear shape and length: This is more applicable for sheep, but lot of variation in
goats as well.
3. Function: This can include milk, meat, fibre or skin, not applicable for all-purpose
animals
4. Body size: This is most widely used for goat. Here, height at withers goats is
considered, based on this method goat is divides in three groups:
Large breeds
 >65cm
 20-63 kg
 Has dual-purpose in function

Small breeds
 51-65 cm
 19-37 kg
 meat/milk producer
Dwarf breeds
 < 50 cm
 18-25 kg
 meat producer
Important Exotic Goat Breeds
There are many types of meat and dairy goat breeds in the world. Only some of the
important breeds that have been introduced to Ethiopia earlier or with merits of high
value for future use are described. Most of the breeds introduced to date have been dairy
goats with the main purpose of crossing with local goats to improve milk production in
areas where goat milk is known to be consumed.
Damascus
They are common in Lebanon, Syria and Cyprus. In condition normally red/brown in
color. This breed is known by seasonal breeder and prolific. Damascus is probably the
most important dairy goat. Daily milk yield 2-4 litters (up to 6 lit) with a lactation yield
of 300-600 liters in 8 months under intensive management.
Saanen

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Originated in western Switzerland. They are polled and common to temperate and wet
region. It produces an average litter size of 1.9 in Israel and South Africa. This is higher
than that obtained in Europe and suggested that it is well suited to sub-tropical regions.
They are vulnerable in environment where there is shade and poor nutrition. They have
the highest average milk of any breed of goat. They produce up to 990 kg in 336 days
this is why it is introduced to many countries.
Anglo-Nubian
This is a temperate breed used for both meat and milk production (dual purpose) and is
probably the most widely distributed European breed and has consistently done well on
environments into which it has been introduced. It is high milk yielder and is originated
from United Kingdom. Average litter size ranges from 1.6-2.3. In Ethiopia, this breed
has been for cross breeding research at Alemaya University and Awassa College of
Agriculture.
Boer
The modern Boer was developed in South Africa. It is a seasonal breeder. It lives in
subtropical, dry tropical and humid regions. Average litter size is 1.5. This is a meat
breed. Full grown castrate can attain a body weight of 100 kg when provided with good
condition.
Toggenburg goats
The Toggenburg breed is also a Swiss dairy goat breed originating in the Toggenburg
valley. The breed has mostly long hair. The Toggenburg breed was developed through
the crossing of Appenzel goats with Chamoisee. The identifying characteristics of this
breed are its fawn-to-light grey-base color, the white stripes on the head running from
the muzzle to the eyes and polls, and its white ears and legs. Mature body weight is 65
and 45 kg for males and females, respectively. Height at withers is 75–85 cm for males
and 70– 80 cm for females. This breed has also been introduced to Ethiopia for
crossing to produce grade dairy goats by crossbreeding with Somali goats.
Description of African breeds
Migrating pastoralists brought the goat from Asia to Africa. More recently, the origin of
domestic animals in Africa has been described and about 70 different breeds and
varieties are recognised.
West Africa
Red Sokoto (Maradi)
Uniform dark red colour. Found in Nigeria and Niger, very well adapted to the arid
zones. Intermediate size (65 cm). Both sexes are horned. Horns of scimitar type. Males
and females weigh 25 and 20 kg resp. Average litter size is 1.5 kids per birth. Skins
have high retail value (most valuable of all goat skins). Secondary function is meat
production.
West African Dwarf
Found in West and Central Africa. Brought south along the trading routes between
Egypt, Somalia and Sudan from where they spread west throughout the continent.
Indigenous to forest and derived savannah zones of West Africa. Well adapted to the
humid zone.
West Africa Longlegged
Medium to large size and found in arid regions in the north of West Africa where
rainfall is low and vegetation sparse. The ears very from long to short. short coat with
fine covering. Valuable for meat and skin production. Very little milk is produced by
them.

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East Africa
Small East African
Widely distributed throughout East Africa. Small, compact and hardy. Short haired coat
and small horns. Their small ears point forward. Height at withers is 50 cm. Breed all
year round. Males and females weigh 25 kg and 22 kg resp. Age at first kidding is 19
months. Primary value is meat production. Dressing 44%.
Somali
Originates in Somalia, the Ogaden region of Ethiopia and north-east Kenya. Mainly
white in colour but coloured spots or patches are occasionally present. Intermediate in
size between desert goat of Sudan and the small East African goats. short hair and ears.
Males usually horned and females horned or polled. Better adapted to dry than to humid
environments. Valued for meat production
Central Africa
Bantu
Resembles the Small East African breed. Medium sized, hardy goats with mixed
colours. Found in Malawi, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Zambia and South Africa. Are
described as savannah goats. Horns present in both sexes male has beard. Height at
withers 60-65 cm. Very fertile. Males and females weigh 30 and 25 kg resp. Main value
is meat production. Dressing 57%.

Ethiopian Goat Breeds and Their Characteristics

According to recent estimates, the goat population in Ethiopia is about 23.3 million. A
large proportion is found in the lowlands of the country, raised in large flocks by
pastoralists. Nearly 10 million goats (42% of the total) are found in the highland.
Abergelle goats
The Abergelle goat is believed to be a relative of the Afar and Worre goats. It is found
along the Tekeze River and some parts of Alamata of the Tigray Region, and Wag
Hamra (Sekota) and East Gondar zones of the Amhara Region. Abergelle goats are
stocky, compact and well-built. The goats have a straight to concave facial profile.
Both males and females have horns and in most cases the horns in males are much
biggerand spiral shaped. The coat of most goats is plain and patchy. Spotted coat colors
are common. The hair is short and smooth in both sexes and males have beards and
ruffs. Mean height at the shoulders is 71.4 cm and 65 cm for adult bucks and does,
respectively. Abergelle goats are milked for domestic consumption. Their skin is also
used to make aprons, containers, etc

Central Highland goats

Central Highland goats are related to Western Highland and Keffa goats. These goats
are mainly found in the Central highlands, west of the Rift Valley, Wollo, Gondar and
Shoa.

The Central Highland goats have a predominantly straight facial profile. All male goats
have curved or straight horns which are oriented backwards. The coat color varies, the
predominant color being red-brown, and the hair is smooth. Males have beards and
ruffs. In some cases, wattles are also present. The mean height at the shoulders is 76.3
cm for adult bucks and 67.9 cm for does. Skin is an exportable commodity while
manure is used to fertilize backyard farms.
Somali goats

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The Short- and Long-eared Somali goats are [Link] Short-eared Somali goats are
widely distributed in northern and eastern Ogaden, Dire Dawa. The Long-eared Somali
goats are found in all parts of the Ogaden, lowlands of Bale and Borana zones of
Oromia and in some parts of Sidama zone of the Southern Region.

The Short-eared Somali goats are smaller than the Long-eared ones. Mean height at
shoulders for adult Short-eared. Somali bucks and does is 64.9 cm and 61.8 cm,
[Link] corresponding figures for Long-eared Somali adult male and female
goats are 75.8 cm and 69.4 cm, respectively.
Western Lowland
The Western Lowland goats are also called Gumuz. These are thought to be closely
related to the Central and Western Highland goats. The Western Lowland goats are
widely distributed along the areas borderingthe Sudan (Metekel, Assosa and Gambela).

Identifying features of Western Lowland goats are their relatively short stature and
straight facial profile. The dominant color is white followed by fawn, black and grey.
White patchy colors are also commonly observed. Mean height at the shoulders is 67.2
cm and 63.5 cm for adult bucks and does, respectively.

Both males and females have straight and backward-oriented horns. Most males also
have beards and ruffs. Polledness and presence of wattles is also observedin some
goats. Goats are milked in the pastoral and agro-pastoral areas.
Woyto-Guji
Woyto-Guji is known to be related to the Arsi-Bale types. These goats inhabit a wide
area extending from South Omo to southern Sidama and Wolayita. Woyto-Guji goats
are also found in trypanosomiasis affected areas in and along the Gelo valley to the
south of Lake Abaya and other adjacent areas.

The body is covered with shiny and smooth hair of various colors. The predominant
coat colors are reddish-brown appearing in a patchy pattern with black or brown stripes
running along the back, on the underside or on the front of the legs.

The Woyto-Guji goat is a medium-sized goat. The head is small with a mostly straight-
to-concave facial profile. Most males and females are horned and there are some polled
animals. Horns are mostly oriented backward or upward and sometimes laterally. Males
have beards and ruffs, and some goats have wattles. Goats in these areas are kept for
milk, meat, skins and manure production. They are also important for some social
functions.

Begayit (Barka) goats

It is believed that the Begayit, also known as Barka in Eritrea, was derived from Nubian
type goats. These goats are mainly found in western Tigray. Begayit goats have a
predominantly Roman type facial profile. They are tall with mean height at the
shoulders being 74.3 cm for adult bucks and 67.9 cm for does. The coat color of Begayit
goats is mainly white with brown patches. Their hair is particularly long around the
thighs. Both sexes have horns that are straight or curved and oriented backwards. Males
have beards and ruffs. Begayit goats have relatively large udders and are milked.
Nubian

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This breed is found throughout Africa but especially Sudan and Ethiopia. The breed is
the main progenitor of the Anglo-Nubian. Characteristics: lop ears, short silky hair and
a definite convex chanfrin. Colour mostly red, brown and black. Height at withers 70-
80 cm. Selected for milk production (1.2 kg/day).

Breeding management
 Reading assignment
Goat feeds and feeding management
 Reading assignment
Reproduction in goats and management
Sexual maturity is reached quite early, but mating should be delayed to ensure that the
dam is able to accommodate the foetus without having to compete with available
nutrients for her own growth. Therefore, age is not a good criteria and live weight is
better to determine the right time for mating.

There is a lot of difference between breeds. As a comparison, male Boer goat had
morphologically normal sperms in the 8 th week. Semen of Damascus goat showed that
sperms appeared in the ejaculate at the 11th week in bucks, and the average age at
separation of the penis from the prepuce and first ejaculation are 243 and 509 days,
respectively.
Reproduction in does
Oestrus in does occurs periodically and is under endocrinal control.

Characteristics Average value

Length of oestrus cycle 18-21 days
Duration of heat 24-36 hours
Time of ovulation 21-36 hours

In the tropics oestrus activity is greater than in temperate climates > temperature effect.
Indigenous goats tend to have continuous oestrus cycles, exotic goats introduced not
entirely continuous.

The presence of the male triggers oestrus in the female. Experiments with different
influences of bucks (no contact, smell, smell and sound, smell sound and sight, and free
access) showed an increasing percentage of does ovulating (19, 26, 19, 49, 91% resp.;
low third value due to stress of males).

Also the duration of contact has an influence (experimental method not mentioned in
literature, interpret this information with care)

contact with male (days) 5 15 25 35 45

females pregnant (%) 25 50 60 60 70

Signs of oestrus in does:

 continuous bleating

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  wagging of tail rhythmically from side to side
 redness and swelling of the vulva
 mucus discharge from the vulva
 mounting of other goats, and allowing mounting by others
 a lack of interest in feeding
 drop in milk production in some lactating does
Ovulation occurs 12 to 36 hours after the start of oestrus and mating should be arranged
accordingly. The service can be repeated 6 hours later to make sure the penetration was
successful. More frequent servicing is unnecessary and will take place at the expense of
the quality of the sperm. There appears to be no obvious rhythm in sexual activity
during pregnancy, and the interval between heats during gestation cannot be predicted.

To look for animals in heat, a teaser buck can be used. This doesn't necessarily have to
mean that this animal is vasectomised, but mating can be prevented in other ways:
*close supervision
*tying a cloth around the belly to prevent penetration/catch the semen
*using the kunan, to restrict the penis to erect.
Fertility
As mentioned, goats are very fertile animals, but fertility has to be measured in
numbers, in order to compare fertility within breeds, between breeds and between
species.

Fertility and prolificacy are used simultaneously, although in fact different.

Fertility in goats is mostly expressed as:

 services per conception
 litter size
 kidding rate or percentage
 kidding interval
 service period
 non-return rate
Other methods include:
 age at puberty
 age at first kidding
 regularity of oestrus cycles
 interval between first service and conception
 interval between kidding and first oestrus
 percentage of does pregnant at first service (~ non-return)
 average number of kid born per lifetime
 magnitude of reproductive problems in a flock
Reproduction management
 (Reading assignment)
Breed improvement
Selection within a breed
Selection is usually done within cohorts within a flock, i.e., among animals of the same
age which have been raised together. Genetic progress through selection depends on
heritability, selection differential and generation interval.

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Selection differential: The average superiority of the selected parents relative to their
flock contemporaries.
Fewer males are usually needed for breeding than females; therefore, selection
differential is generally higher for males. Sometimes selection differential can be very
large, as it is possible to select very few males with exceptionally high performance for
use through artificial insemination.
Heritability: The proportion of the superiority of the selected parents which appears in
the offspring. It is useful to have an estimate of the heritability for the trait to be
improved in order to predict the likely progress from selection. It is preferable if this
estimate is made from the population considered for selection before selection starts.
This, however, is usually difficult because of unavailability of appropriate records.
Published estimates from a similar population kept under similar conditions would be
valuable.
Generation interval: Generation interval is defined as the average age of the parents
when their offspring or, more strictly, those offspring which are used to replace the
parents, are born. The genetic changes which occur as a result of selection happen only
when one generation is succeeded by the next. In sheep and goats, the generation
interval is affected by the age when the animals first start to breed. It is also influenced
by the interval between successive parturitions and by the number of offspring born on
each occasion which survive to breeding age. The earlier in the life of the parent its
offspring are born, the closer parturitions follow each other and the more offspring per
parturition, the sooner the number needed as replacements is reached. The generation
interval for sheep and goats varies between 3 and 5 years.
Aids to selection
In selection of animals, different sources of information should be used. These include
selection based on individual performance, ancestral performance, progeny performance
and performance of other relatives (half sibs, full sibs, uncles and aunts).
Methods of selection for more than one trait
There are three methods of selecting for more than one trait; tandem selection,
independent culling levels and index selection.
Crossbreeding: (indigenous with indigenous; exotic with indigenous)
Crossbreeding aims to: Combine all desirable characteristics of two or more breeds in
one progeny type, and exploit the hybrid vigor or heterosis that occurs in
crossbreeding. Heterosis or hybrid vigor refers to the superiority in the performance of a
crossbred individual above the average performance of the two parents.

Crossbreeding may improve the performance of sheep and goats under good
management conditions if the parental breeds involved in the crossbreeding are
carefully chosen.
Breeding method
 (Reading assignment)
Routine management practices in goats
 (Reading assignment)
Health management in goats
 (Reading assignment)
Milk and meat production
Milk production

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Goat milk is consumed in some parts of the country. Milk from sheep is rarely used.
Goat milk is composed of fat, protein, lactose, ash and water. It has a pure white
appearance when fresh. Typical figures for milk solids content are given in Table 10.1.
Table: Composition of goat, cow, and sheep milk

Source: Devendra and Mcleroy, 1982

Cows have similar total solids to goats whilst sheep have much higher fat and protein.
Milk composition differs somewhat among breeds but these values are representative
averages. It has been well documented that goat and sheep milk have important
advantages over cow milk for human nutrition.

Compared to cow milk, goat and sheep milk have higher protein, energy and fat
contents with beneficial amino acids. The higher proportions of short- and medium-
chain fatty acids make goat and sheep milk easy for human digestion. Because of this,
and the way it forms a fine curd in the stomach, humans can more easily digest goat
milk than cow milk. Goat milk is an excellent source of calcium, phosphorus and
chlorine. It is also believed that goat milk will not cause cow-milk-allergy (CMA) in
many patients because of its species-specific proteins.

Goat and sheep products include liquid milk, powdered milk, cheese, yogurt, ghee and
ice cream. As much as 50% of goat milk production is made into cheese world-wide.
Their milk and dairy products can meet a significant portion of the daily nutrient
requirements of humans in the world. In addition, goat and sheep products greatly
diversify the diets of people and are considered as delicate treats in many developed
countries. More importantly, they provide food security, needed nutrition and can be an
income source.

Goats: Non-dairy breeds in the tropics have daily milk yields of up to 0.5 liters while
specialized dairy goat breeds could give 2–4 liters per day. The milk production of goats
is affected by different factors, including body size, weight, parity, stage of lactation,
udder size, litter size, nutrition, breed and kidding season.

Goat’s milk in the tropics is used mainly as a family food source. But often it is being
processed, both to add value to the product as well as for storage reasons.
Fermented milk
In many parts of the world, goat’s milk is fermented to produce curd or yoghurt. The
long-set process is used for curd and the short-set process for yoghurt. These products
are especially popular in Asia.
Butter and ghee
Butter and ghee are produced from the cream in goat’s milk. The butter is usually
prepared without any addition (salt, colour, preservative).

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Butter is usually converted to ghee (dehydrated butter). The ghee-making process
involves sterilization, so it usually keeps better than butter. Because the fat in goat’s
milk is white, so is the butter and ghee.
Cheese
A variety of cheeses are produced from goat’s milk. The cheeses may be fresh, soft or
hard. Soft goat’s milk cheeses are not common in tropical goat keeping areas.

Factors influencing milk yield

Factors affecting milk production in goats are the followings:
Breed: Of course there is a big influence of breed on milk production. In goat udder
volume and milk yield are correlated, so selection for udder volume in the dairy breeds
will help to increase milk yields. Live weight also has a direct effect on milk yield.
Age: Age has a significant effect on milk yield. Studies have shown that milk yield
reaches its maximum when goats are around five years of age, after which it declines.
The decline is very steady, so good milk yields can be expected for at least three more
years after the peak.
Stage of lactation: Goats reach their peak milk yield 8 -12 weeks after kidding,
compared with 4 - 6 weeks in cows. The lactation curve for goats is much flatter than
that of cows (greater persistency). Goat lactations can be extended by avoiding mating
to provide ‘out of season’ milk production. In Queensland some high-yielding goats are
left unmated and continue milking at an economical rate for two years. In this condition,
extended lactations, milk production rises to a second peak around the seventeenth
week. The form of the lactation curve also differs if the doe gave birth to a single or
twin.
Nutrition: Milk production improves as the amount of energy in the diet increases.
Low dietary protein suppresses milk production.
Health: Goats in poor condition and health are poor milk yielders for instance mastitis
directly affects milk yield.
Year and season of kidding: Apart from the effect of season on the supply of feed,
there appears to be a direct effect on milk yield. E.g. in India, Beetal goats produce
more milk from January to June than during any other months, with the lowest
production in the wet season from August to September.
Milking
Goats are most commonly hand milked in the tropics. In intensive systems machine
milking is used using a claw with two teat cups. The vacuum pressure is lower than for
cows. If the milking routine is good, does should milk out rapidly (within five minutes).
The milking area for goats should satisfy the same basic criteria as those recommended
for cattle, only on a smaller scale. A usual shed built are of the walk-through or
herringbone types. A modern herringbone shed enables one man to milk 120 Saanen
goats in an hour. Whereas for cattle a milking pit is common, most systems with goats
use a raised platform. This is mainly because of economical reasons and hygiene. Goats
can climb a relatively steep slope without a problem and are not afraid to do so. If
attracted by concentrate, they are very keen to be milked.

Meat production

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Meat is the most important product of small ruminants in tropical countries. Small
ruminant meat is often used for celebrations, especially in Muslim areas. Therefore, the
value of a live goat/sheep is often higher than the separate parts. Most of the small
ruminants slaughtered are never recorded (50% in the tropics).

For the efficiency of production growth rate as such is misleading, because different
final mature sizes lead to a different growth pattern. If breeds should be compared for
growth efficiency, expression in % of mature weight is used as an indirect assessment of
efficiency.

The annual national mutton and goat meat production is 77 and 62 thousand metric tons,
respectively, largely because of the high average off-take rates estimated to be about
30% from sheep and 36% from goats. Sheep and goats, respectively, contribute some 21
and 16.8% of the total ruminant livestock meat output.

While contributing significantly to meat production in Ethiopia, present production

levels of sheep and goats are far below their potential. Productivity per animal is
reported to be very low. Annual meat production is estimated at 3–3.5 kg per animal per
year in the population and 8–10 kg per animal slaughtered. These values are very low
when compared with those in neighboring countries that have small ruminant
populations 50–75% less than Ethiopia. A major cause contributing to such low meat
yield is that animals are commonly slaughtered at immature body weights, 18–20 kg for
sheep and 16–18 kg for goats.

Carcass composition
A carcass is made up of various proportions of muscle, bone and fat. The ideal carcass
can be described as one that has a minimum amount of bone, a maximum amount of
muscle and an optimum amount of fat.

Market requirements differ in size of carcass and level of fatness acceptable. A certain
proportion of fat is desirable to reduce drying out of the carcass. On the other hand, too
much fat is undesirable.

Muscle: Water makes up 74% of the total muscle weight. The remainder of the muscle
is protein, lipid, minerals and some vitamins.
Bone: Bone provides the rigid support to which the muscles are attached. The hard,
calcified cells give bone the strength needed to support the weight of the animal.
Fat: Fat is basically a food or energy reserve for the animal and is laid down in special
cells in various sites of the body. The various fat depots found on a carcass are
subcutaneous, intermuscular, intramuscular and miscellaneous. Subcutaneous fat is the
fat immediately under the skin and lies on the outside surface of the carcass.
Subcutaneous fat minimizes drying out of the underlying meat. Since fat has low water
content, it is unsuitable as an environment for microorganisms to grow and effectively
acts as a protective layer around the meat. Intermuscular fat lies in pockets betweenthe
muscle, frequently surrounding blood vessels and nerves, serving a protective,
cushioning role. Intramuscular fat lies within the muscle between the bundles of muscle
fibers and its content can vary from 1–15% of total muscle weight, depending upon the
level of fatness. A high content of intramuscular fat is known as marbling, a common

62
feature in feedlot and heavy-weight cattle, but seldom seen in sheep or goats. The
miscellaneous fat depots include kidney, scrotal and gut fats.

Major factors affecting carcass composition

Weight: Carcass weight is a main factor affecting the composition of the carcass and is
closely related to age at slaughter. As animals mature, they normally gain weight
resulting in a heavier carcass. Much of the weight gain of a mature animal is fat rather
than muscle. Thus, at heavier live weight, an animal’s carcass will have lower
proportions of muscle and bone and a higher proportion of fat.
Age: Increases in age, independent of changes in weight, tend to have little influence
on the carcass composition of sheep. Normally, as animals’ age they gain weight that is
largely made up of fat. It is this increase in weight that results in an increase in fatness.
Sex: At all weights, females tend to be fatter than ram lambs under similar management.
Breed: Some breeds mature earlier than others and the main breed differences in
carcass composition are related to the rate of fat deposition during the later stages of
growth. To achieve a similar level of fatness with breeds of different maturity types, it is
necessary to market earlier maturing lambs at lighter weights than later maturing lambs.
Conformation: The conformation of a carcass refers to its shape. Carcasses that are
short in the leg and plump or ‘blocky’ in appearance are said to have ‘good’
conformation. Carcasses with a longer ‘leggy’ appearance are said to be of ‘poor’
conformation. Carcasses having good conformation generally contain more fat and less
protein than those of poor conformation.
Nutrition: The effect of nutrition on carcass composition is not a simple one as it
involves the interactions among level of intake, the composition of the feed, and
nutrient needs of the animal. As more food energy is required to produce a kilogram of
fat than a kilogram of muscle, one has to be conscious of the type of market targeted
during the feeding operation.
Meat Quality
Meat is one of the most nutritious foods that humans can consume, particularly in terms
of supplying high-quality protein (essential amino acids), minerals (especially iron) and
essential vitamins. Meat is defined as all animal tissues suitable as food for human
consumption. This includes all processed or manufactured products prepared from
animal tissues.
The following are some of the important parameters/indicators of meat quality.

Meat pH
A key determinant of meat quality is pH. The ultimate pH is determined 24 hours post-
slaughter, using a pH meter. Good quality meat usually has a pH of 5.4–5.7. The muscle
of a living animal has a pH of 7.1. The extent to which pH is lowered after slaughter
depends on the amount of glycogen in the muscle prior to the animal’s death.

The pH value determines environmental microbial balance. Low pH has a bacteriostatic

effect on the meat. Accordingly, meats with pH values above 6 are generally considered
unsuitable for storage because of the favorable development of proteolytic
microorganisms.
Meat color
Meat color is an important parameter in meat quality. It can be measured numerically
using a colorimeter or subjectively. Several factors affect meat color such as

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species/breed, age, sex, cut of meat, surface drying of the meat and surface spoilage.
Meat color is largely determined by the content of myoglobin and its derivatives. It is
normal for meat to change color depending on the presence or absence of air. For
instance, exposed meat changes color due to reactions occurring between myoglobin
and oxygen. Meat color changes in response to both the quantity of myoglobin it
contains, and chemical changes in the myoglobin itself. The more myoglobin in the
meat, the darker the color exhibited. Older sheep contain more muscle myoglobin and
hence have darker meat than lambs.

Color is also greatly affected by muscle pH. At a high pH, muscle has a closed structure
and, hence, appears dark and the meat tends to be tough. Meat color is also affected by
diet.
Meat tenderness
Tenderness appears to be the most important sensory characteristic of meat and a
predominant quality determinant. It can be evaluated by mechanical devices and/or a
taste panel. Factors affecting meat tenderness include breed, nutrition, age, and muscle
location

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