​Unit 1 : Ecology​

​Topics Covered​
​●​ ​Basics of Ecology and Ecosystem​
​●​ ​Levels of Organisation in Ecology​
​●​ ​Ecosystem​
​○​ ​Functional Components of an Ecosystem​
​○​ ​Niche​
​○​ ​Ecotone​
​○​ ​Edge Species​
​●​ ​Trophic Level​
​●​ ​Energy in the Ecosystem​
​●​ ​Primary Producers​
​●​ ​Consumers​
​●​ ​Scavengers​
​●​ ​Micro Consumers​
​●​ ​Food Chain​
​○​ ​Types of Food Chain​
​●​ ​Food Web​
​○​ ​Key Characteristics of Food Web​
​○​ ​Food Web Collapse​
​●​ ​Ecological Pyramids​
​○​ ​Law of 10%​
​○​ ​Pyramid of Energy​
​○​ ​Pyramid of Biomass​
​○​ ​Pyramid of Numbers​
​●​ ​Bioaccumulation​
​○​ ​Biomagnification​
​○​ ​Biomagnification in Vultures​
​●​ ​Biotic Interactions​
​●​ ​Ecological Succession​
​○​ ​Primary Succession​
​○​ ​Secondary Succession​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​1​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​○​ ​Succession in Plants​
​○​ ​Types of Succession based on Cause​
​○​ ​Types of Succession based on Dominant Organism​
​●​ ​Bio-geochemical Cycles​
​○​ ​Water Cycle​
​○​ ​Nitrogen Cycle​
​○​ ​Carbpon Cycle​
​○​ ​Methane Cycle​
​○​ ​Phosphorus Cycle​
​○​ ​Sulfur Cycle​
​●​ ​Mangroves​
​○​ ​Ecological Significance of Mangroves​
​○​ ​Mangrove Forests​
​○​ ​Global Mangrove Alliance​
​○​ ​Mangrove Alliance for Climate​
​○​ ​Mangroves for Future Programme​

​Introduction​

​●​ ​In​ ​1962​​,​ ​the​ ​book​ ​Silent​ ​Spring​ ​was​ ​published​ ​by​ ​Rachel​ ​Carson​​,​
​highlighting​ ​the​ ​harmful​ ​effects​ ​of​ ​pesticides​ ​and​ ​insecticides​ ​on​ ​the​
​environment.​​She​​emphasized​​that​​humans​​are​​directly​​responsible​​for​
​environmental​ ​degradation​ ​and​ ​advocated​ ​for​ ​a​ ​global​ ​consensus​ ​to​
​consider environmental protection as a major part of policy-making.​
​●​ ​The​ ​1972​ ​Stockholm​ ​Conference​ ​on​ ​the​ ​Human​ ​Environment​ ​was​ ​a​
​landmark​​event​​that​​led​​to​​the​​inclusion​​of​​environmental​​conservation​
​in global policies.​
​●​ ​In​ ​India,​ ​the​ ​Wildlife​ ​Protection​ ​Act​ ​was​ ​enacted​ ​in​​1972​ ​to​​safeguard​
​endangered​ ​species,​ ​and​ ​Project​ ​Tiger​ ​was​ ​launched​ ​in​ ​1973​ ​to​​protect​
​the declining tiger population.​
​●​ ​Conservation​ ​of​ ​the​ ​environment​ ​can​ ​be​ ​classified​ ​into​ ​in-situ​
​conservation​ ​(protecting​ ​species​ ​in​ ​their​ ​natural​ ​habitats,​ ​such​ ​as​
​national​ ​parks​ ​and​ ​wildlife​ ​sanctuaries)​ ​and​ ​ex-situ​ ​conservation​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​2​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​(protecting​ ​species​ ​outside​ ​their​ ​natural​ ​habitats,​ ​such​ ​as​ ​zoos​ ​and​
​seed banks).​
​●​ ​The study of the environment can be divided into five key segments:​
​●​ ​Ecology​ ​and​ ​Ecosystem​ ​Basics​​:​ ​Understanding​ ​ecological​
​interactions and energy flow.​
​●​ ​Biodiversity​​:​ ​The​ ​variety​ ​of​ ​life​ ​forms​ ​and​ ​conservation​
​strategies.​
​●​ ​Climate​ ​Change​​:​ ​Global​ ​warming,​ ​greenhouse​ ​gases,​ ​and​
​adaptation measures.​
​●​ ​Acts​ ​and​ ​Legislations​​:​ ​Environmental​ ​laws,​ ​international​
​treaties, and national policies.​
​●​ ​Pollution:​ ​Another​ ​critical​ ​segment​ ​is​ ​Pollution​​,​ ​which​ ​includes​
​air,​ ​water,​ ​soil,​ ​and​ ​noise​ ​pollution​ ​and​ ​their​ ​impact​​on​​human​
​health and ecosystems.​

​Basics of Ecology and Ecosystem​

​●​ ​The​ ​word​ ​environment​ ​is​ ​derived​ ​from​ ​the​ ​French​ ​word​ ​"environner,"​
​which​ ​means​ ​to​ ​surround​​.​ ​It​ ​refers​ ​to​ ​the​ ​sum​ ​total​ ​of​ ​living​ ​and​
​non-living​ ​elements​ ​that​ ​influence​ ​life​ ​on​ ​Earth.​ ​The​ ​environment​
​includes​ ​biotic​ ​components​ ​(such​ ​as​ ​plants,​ ​animals,​ ​and​
​microorganisms)​ ​and​​abiotic​ ​components​ ​(such​​as​​soil,​​air,​​water,​​light,​
​temperature, and climate).​
​●​ ​An​​ecosystem​ ​is​​a​​functional​ ​unit​ ​of​ ​the​ ​environment​ ​that​​consists​​of​
​both​ ​biotic​ ​and​ ​abiotic​ ​components​ ​interacting​ ​with​ ​each​ ​other​ ​in​ ​a​
​specific​ ​area.​ ​It​ ​includes​ ​the​ ​flow​ ​of​ ​energy​ ​and​ ​cycling​ ​of​ ​nutrients​
​between​ ​organisms​ ​and​ ​their​ ​surroundings.​ ​Examples​ ​of​ ​ecosystems​
​include forests, grasslands, ponds, and oceans.​
​●​ ​Ecology​ ​is​ ​the​ ​scientific​ ​study​ ​of​ ​the​ ​relationships​ ​between​​organisms​
​and​​their​​environment.​​It​​examines​​how​​living​​beings​​interact​​with​​each​
​other​ ​and​ ​with​ ​their​ ​surroundings,​ ​including​ ​aspects​ ​like​ ​food​ ​chains,​
​energy​​flow,​​and​​environmental​​balance.​​Ecology​​helps​​in​​understanding​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​3​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​biodiversity,​​conservation​​efforts,​​and​​the​​impact​​of​​human​​activities​​on​
​nature.​

​Levels of Organization in Ecology​

​●​ ​Organism:​ ​An​ ​organism​ ​is​ ​an​ ​individual​ ​living​ ​being​ ​that​ ​has​ ​the​
​capability​​to​​act​​or​​function​​independently.​​It​​can​​be​​a​​plant,​​animal,​​or​
​microorganism.​
​●​ ​Population:​ ​A​ ​population​ ​is​ ​a​ ​group​ ​of​ ​organisms​ ​of​​the​​same​​species​
​that live in a particular area and have the ability to interbreed.​
​●​ ​Community:​ ​A​ ​community​ ​consists​​of​​different​​populations​​of​​various​
​species living together in the same habitat, interacting with each other.​
​●​ ​Ecosystem:​ ​An​ ​ecosystem​ ​is​ ​the​ ​structural​ ​and​ ​functional​​unit​​of​​the​
​biosphere,​ ​where​ ​biotic​ ​(living)​ ​and​ ​abiotic​ ​(non-living)​ ​components​
​interact.​
​○​ ​The​​structural aspect​​includes biotic and abiotic components.​
​○​ ​The​ ​functional​ ​aspect​ ​includes​ ​key​ ​processes​ ​such​ ​as​
​productivity, energy flow, decomposition, and nutrient cycling.​
​●​ ​Biome:​ ​A​ ​biome​ ​is​ ​a​ ​large​ ​ecological​ ​region​ ​characterized​ ​by​ ​specific​
​climate,​ ​soil,​ ​and​ ​vegetation​ ​types.​ ​Examples​ ​include​ ​deserts,​ ​forests,​
​grasslands, and tundras.​
​●​ ​Biosphere:​ ​The​ ​biosphere​ ​is​ ​the​ ​global​ ​ecological​ ​system,​ ​including​ ​all​
​living​ ​organisms​ ​and​ ​their​ ​interactions​ ​with​ ​the​ ​atmosphere,​
​hydrosphere,​ ​and​ ​lithosphere.​ ​It​ ​is​ ​the​ ​highest​ ​level​ ​of​ ​ecological​
​organization and supports life on Earth.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​4​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​Ecosystem​

​An​​ecosystem​​is​​a​​structural​ ​and​​functional​​unit​​of​​the​​biosphere​​where​​living​
​organisms​ ​interact​ ​with​ ​nonliving​ ​components​ ​to​ ​sustain​ ​life.​ ​It​ ​consists​ ​of​
​biotic​ ​(living)​ ​and​ ​abiotic​ ​(non-living)​ ​components​ ​that​ ​function​ ​together​
​through processes like energy flow, nutrient cycling, and decomposition.​
​Structural Components of an Ecosystem:​
​●​ ​Biotic Components (Living Elements):​
​○​ ​Producers​ ​(Autotrophs):​ ​Organisms​​that​​can​​convert​​free​​energy​
​(solar​ ​energy)​ ​into​ ​potential​ ​energy​ ​and​ ​solar​ ​energy​ ​into​
​chemical​ ​energy​ ​through​ ​photosynthesis​ ​(plants,​ ​algae,​
​cyanobacteria).​
​○​ ​Consumers​ ​(Heterotrophs):​​Organisms​​that​​depend​​on​​producers​
​or​ ​other​ ​organisms​ ​for​ ​food.​ ​It​ ​includes​ ​herbivores​ ​(primary​
​consumers),​ ​carnivores​ ​(secondary/tertiary​ ​consumers),​ ​and​
​omnivores.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​5​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​○​ ​Decomposers​ ​(Saprotrophs/Detritivores):​​Organisms​​like​​bacteria​
​and​ ​fungi​ ​that​ ​break​ ​down​ ​dead​ ​organic​ ​matter​ ​and​ ​recycle​
​nutrients back into the ecosystem.​
​●​ ​Abiotic Components (Non-Living Elements):​
​○​ ​Climatic Factors:​
​i.​ I​nsolation:​​The amount of solar radiation received.​
​ii.​ ​Rainfall:​ ​Determines​ ​water​ ​availability​ ​for​ ​plants​ ​and​
​animals.​
​iii.​ ​Winds:​ ​Influence​ ​temperature,​ ​evaporation,​ ​and​ ​seed​
​dispersal.​
​○​ ​Edaphic Factors:​
​i.​ S
​ oil:​​Provides nutrients and habitat for organisms.​
​ii.​ ​Minerals:​ ​Essential​ ​for​ ​plant​ ​growth​ ​and​ ​biochemical​
​cycles.​
​iii.​ ​Topography:​ ​Includes​ ​altitude,​ ​slope,​ ​and​ ​landscape​
​features that influence climate and species distribution.​

​Functional Components of an Ecosystem​

​●​ ​Productivity:​ ​The​ ​rate​ ​at​ ​which​ ​energy​ ​is​ ​produced​ ​and​ ​stored​ ​by​
​autotrophs.​
​●​ ​Energy​ ​F low:​ ​The​ ​transfer​ ​of​ ​energy​ ​from​ ​producers​ ​to​ ​consumers​
​through the food chain and food web.​
​●​ ​Decomposition:​ ​The​ ​breakdown​ ​of​ ​organic​ ​matter​ ​by​ ​decomposers,​
​which​ ​releases​ ​nutrients​ ​back​ ​into​ ​the​ ​soil​ ​and​ ​supports​ ​nutrient​
​cycling.​

​Niche​
​●​ ​A​ ​habitat​ ​is​ ​a​ ​place​ ​where​ ​organisms​ ​or​ ​communities​ ​of​ ​organisms​
​live,​ ​whereas​ ​a​ ​niche​ ​refers​ ​to​ ​the​​unique​​role​​or​​position​​of​​a​​species​
​within​ ​an​ ​ecosystem.​ ​The​ ​concept​ ​of​ ​a​ ​niche​ ​highlights​ ​that​ ​the​
​elimination​ ​of​ ​even​ ​a​ ​single​ ​species​ ​from​ ​an​​ecosystem​​can​​lead​​to​​a​
​chaotic impact​​on its functioning.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​6​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​●​ ​Each​​species​​plays​​a​​specific​ ​role​ ​in​​maintaining​​ecological​​balance,​​and​
​this role is known as its​​niche​​.​
​●​ ​A​​niche​​is​​considered​​a​​functional​​space​​occupied​​by​​an​​organism​​,​​where​
​it​ ​obtains​ ​the​ ​resources​ ​needed​ ​for​ ​survival​ ​and​ ​reproduction​ ​under​
​certain environmental conditions.​

​Ecotone​
​●​ ​An​ ​ecotone​ ​is​ ​a​ ​zone​ ​of​ ​transition​ ​between​​two​​different​​ecosystems.​
​These​ ​areas​ ​are​ ​rich​ ​in​ ​biodiversity​ ​as​​they​​contain​​species​​from​​both​
​adjacent​ ​ecosystems,​ ​along​ ​with​ ​some​ ​unique​ ​species​ ​adapted​ ​to​ ​the​
​transitional environment.​
​●​ ​Examples of Ecotones:​

​○​ ​Mangrove forests​​(transition between marine and terrestrial​

​ecosystems)​
​○​ ​Grasslands​​(between forests and deserts)​
​○​ ​Marshes (Marshlands)​​(between terrestrial and aquatic​
​ecosystems)​

​Ecotones exhibit a​​progressive increase in the species composition​​of one​

​incoming ​, while
community​ simultaneously showing a​​decrease in the species​

​of the​​outgoing ​. This

community​ results in a​​gradual ecological shift​​and a​
​mixing of biodiversity​​from both ecosystems.​

​Edge Species​

​●​ ​Edge​ ​species​ ​are​ ​those​ ​that​ ​primarily​ ​and​ ​abundantly​ ​thrive​ ​in​ ​the​
​transition​ ​zone​ ​between​ ​two​ ​diverse​ ​ecosystems.​ ​They​​are​​adapted​​to​
​the​​conditions​​of​​habitat​​edges.​​The​​edge​​effect​​refers​​to​​the​​ecological​
​phenomenon​ ​in​ ​which​ ​there​ ​is​ ​an​ ​increased​ ​diversity​ ​of​ ​fauna​ ​at​​the​
​boundaries between two diverse ecosystems.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​7​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​Rhino​
​●​ ​There​ ​are​ ​five​ ​species​ ​of​ ​rhinos​ ​on​ ​Earth.​ ​Among​ ​them,​ ​two​ ​are​
​African​ ​rhinos​ ​(Black​ ​and​ ​White),​ ​while​ ​three​ ​are​ ​from​ ​South​ ​and​
​Southeast​ ​Asia​ ​(Javan,​ ​Sumatran,​ ​and​ ​One-Horned​ ​Rhinos).​ ​Rhino​
​poaching​ ​in​ ​Africa​ ​has​ ​increased​ ​by​ ​4%,​ ​while​ ​the​ ​White​ ​Rhino​
​population has increased.​
​●​ ​The​ ​populations​ ​of​ ​Black​ ​and​ ​Greater​ ​One-Horned​ ​Rhinos​ ​have​
​remained​ ​stable.​ ​While​ ​three​ ​species​ ​of​ ​rhinos​ ​are​ ​classified​ ​as​
​critically​​endangered,​​the​​One-Horned​​Rhino​​is​​classified​​as​​vulnerable​
​and the White Rhino is classified as Near Threatened.​
​●​ ​The​ ​Indian​ ​Greater​ ​One-Horned​ ​Rhino​ ​is​ ​the​ ​second-largest​ ​living​
​rhino.​ ​It​ ​has​ ​folds​ ​in​ ​its​ ​skin​ ​that​ ​increase​ ​surface​ ​area,​ ​helping​
​regulate​​body​​temperature.​​These​​rhinos​​are​​also​​excellent​​swimmers​
​and can run at a speed of 55 km/h, though only for short periods.​
​●​ ​They​ ​have​ ​an​ ​excellent​ ​sense​ ​of​ ​hearing​ ​and​ ​smell​ ​but​ ​poor​ ​vision.​
​Indian​ ​rhinos​ ​are​ ​grazers,​ ​and​ ​their​ ​diet​ ​consists​ ​of​ ​grasses,​​leaves,​
​and branches of shrubs. Their gestation period is around 16 months.​
​●​ ​The​ ​Chitwan​ ​Declaration​ ​(Nepal),​ ​signed​ ​by​ ​the​ ​five​ ​rhino​ ​range​
​countries,​ ​commits​ ​to​ ​protecting,​ ​conserving,​ ​and​ ​increasing​ ​the​
​population​ ​of​ ​Javan,​ ​Sumatran,​ ​and​ ​Greater​ ​One-Horned​ ​Rhinos​ ​by​
​3% annually.​
​●​ ​Pobitora​ ​Wildlife​ ​Sanctuary,​ ​often​ ​called​ ​"Mini​ ​Kaziranga,"​ ​has​ ​the​
​highest​ ​density​ ​of​ ​One-Horned​ ​Rhinos​ ​in​ ​the​ ​world​ ​and​ ​the​
​second-highest concentration of rhinos in Assam after Kaziranga.​

​Trophic Level​

​●​ ​A​ ​trophic​ ​level​ ​represents​ ​the​ ​flow​ ​of​ ​energy​ ​in​ ​an​ ​ecosystem​ ​and​
​refers​ ​to​​the​​position​​an​​organism​​occupies​​in​​a​​food​​chain.​​It​​explains​
​how​ ​members​ ​of​ ​an​ ​ecosystem​ ​are​ ​connected​ ​based​ ​on​ ​their​
​nutritional needs.​
​●​ ​Trophic-level interactions involve three key concepts:​
​○​ ​Food Chain​​– A linear sequence of organisms through which​
​nutrients and energy pass.​
​○​ ​Food Web​​– A complex network of interconnected food chains.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​8​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​○​ ​Ecological Pyramids​​– Graphical representations showing the​
​relative amounts of energy, biomass, or the number of​
​organisms at each trophic level.​

​Energy in the Ecosystem​

​●​ ​Plants absorb less than 1% of the sunlight that reaches them.​
​●​ ​Photosynthetic​​organisms​​produce​​approximately​​170​​billion​​metric​​tons​
​of food each year.​
​●​ ​Energy flow in the ecosystem is driven by two key processes:​
​○​ ​Photosynthesis​​– The process by which plants convert sunlight​
​into chemical energy.​
​○​ ​Respiration​​– The process by which organisms break down food​
​to release energy.​

​Primary Producers​

​●​ ​Also,​ ​known​ ​as​ ​autotrophs​​,​ ​primary​ ​producers​ ​include​ ​green​ ​plants,​
​certain bacteria, and algae.​
​●​ ​They​ ​synthesize​ ​carbohydrates​ ​from​ ​simple​ ​inorganic​ ​raw​ ​materials​
​like​ ​carbon​ ​dioxide​ ​and​ ​water​ ​in​ ​the​ ​presence​ ​of​ ​sunlight​ ​through​
​photosynthesis​​,​ ​providing​ ​energy​ ​for​ ​themselves​ ​and​ ​indirectly​
​supplying it to non-producers.​
​●​ ​In​ ​terrestrial​ ​ecosystems​​,​​producers​​are​​mainly​​herbaceous​​and​​woody​
​plants,​ ​while​ ​in​ ​aquatic​ ​ecosystems​​,​ ​they​ ​consist​​of​​various​​species​​of​
​microscopic algae.​
​●​ ​Producers are classified into two types:​
​○​ ​Phototrophs​​– Organisms that perform photosynthesis and​
​contain chlorophyll. They absorb water, carbon dioxide, and​
​sunlight to produce sugar and oxygen.​
​○​ ​Chemotrophs​​– Organisms that obtain energy through chemical​
​reactions. For example, sulfur bacteria like​​Thiobacillus​​produce​
​carbohydrates and sulfuric acid using carbon dioxide, water,​
​hydrogen sulfide, and oxygen.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​9​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​Consumers​
​●​ ​Also​ ​known​ ​as​ ​heterotrophs​​,​ ​consumers​ ​are​ ​organisms​ ​that​ ​cannot​
​produce their own food or perform photosynthesis.​
​●​ ​They​ ​rely​ ​on​ ​organic​ ​food​ ​derived​ ​from​ ​plants,​ ​animals,​ ​or​ ​both​ ​for​
​survival.​
​●​ ​Consumers are broadly classified into two groups:​
​●​ ​Micro-consumers​​– Small organisms like bacteria and fungi that​
​break down organic matter.​
​●​ ​Macro-consumers​​– Larger organisms like herbivores, carnivores,​
​and omnivores.​

​Scavengers​
​●​ ​Scavengers​ ​feed​ ​on​ ​carrion,​ ​which​ ​includes​ ​dead​ ​or​ ​injured​ ​animal​
​corpses.​
​●​ ​They​ ​consume​ ​dead​ ​plants​ ​and​ ​animals,​ ​while​ ​decomposers​ ​complete​
​the process by breaking down the remaining organic material.​

​Micro Consumers​
​●​ ​Micro-consumers​ ​include​ ​bacteria​ ​and​ ​fungi​​,​ ​which​ ​obtain​ ​energy​ ​and​
​nutrients​ ​by​ ​decomposing​ ​dead​ ​organic​ ​matter​ ​(​detritus​​)​​from​​plants​
​and animals.​
​●​ ​They​​break​​down​​microscopic​​bits​​of​​dead​​organic​​material​​and​​convert​
​them into​​inorganic nutrients​​.​

​●​ ​The​​inorganic​​nutrients​​released​​during​​decomposition​​are​​recycled​​and​
​reused by producers in the ecosystem.​
​●​ ​Detritus​ ​feeders​ ​like​ ​earthworms,​ ​nematodes,​ ​and​ ​arthropods​ ​play​ ​a​
​crucial​ ​role​ ​in​ ​the​ ​decomposition​ ​process​ ​by​ ​breaking​ ​down​ ​organic​
​material into smaller particles, aiding microbial activity.​
​Examples Of Aquatic Ecosystems​

​●​ ​Producers​​: Blue-green algae, phytoplankton, and diatoms.​

​●​ ​Primary ​: Crustaceans,
Consumers​ zooplankton, and small fish.​
​●​ ​Secondary ​: Herrings,
Consumers​ larger fish, and sharks.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​10​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​Food Chain​
​●​ ​A​​food​ ​chain​​is​​a​​sequence​​of​​organisms​​where​​each​​organism​​feeds​​on​
​the one before it, facilitating the transfer of food energy.​
​●​ ​It​​represents​​the​​flow​ ​of​ ​energy​​from​​producers​​(green​​plants)​​through​
​a​ ​series​ ​of​ ​organisms​ ​with​ ​repeated​ ​eating​ ​and​ ​being​ ​eaten​
​interactions.​
​●​ ​A food chain starts with producers and ends with top carnivores.​
​●​ ​Arrows in the food chain indicate the direction of energy flow.​
​●​ ​Energy flow in a food chain is​​linear (unidirectional).​

​●​ ​The trophic level of an organism refers to its position in the food chain.​

​Types of Food Chains​

​1.​ ​Grazing Food Chain​

​○​ ​Starts with consumers utilizing​​plants or plant parts​​as food.​
​○​ ​Examples​​:​
​■​ ​Terrestrial ecosystem​​: Grass → Caterpillar → Lizard →​
​Snake​
​■​ ​Aquatic ​: Phytoplankton
ecosystem​ → Zooplankton →​
​Fish → Pelican​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​11​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​2.​ ​Detritus Food Chain​
​○​ ​Begins​ ​with​ ​organic​ ​matter​ ​from​ ​dead​ ​and​ ​decaying​​plant​​and​
​animal bodies from the grazing food chain.​
​○​ ​Organisms​ ​that​ ​feed​ ​on​ ​detritus​ ​(dead​ ​organic​ ​matter)​ ​are​
​called detritivores or decomposers.​
​○​ ​Detritivores are eaten by​​predators.​
​○​ ​Bacteria​ ​and​ ​fungi​ ​break​ ​down​ ​detritus​ ​into​ ​simpler​ ​inorganic​
​substances, a process known as​​catabolism.​
​○​ ​Humification​ ​and​ ​mineralization​ ​occur​ ​during​ ​decomposition​ ​in​
​the soil.​

​In​​an​​aquatic​​ecosystem​​grazing​​food​​chain​​is​​the​​major​​conduit​​for​​energy​
​flow​ ​against​ ​this,​ ​in​ ​a​ ​terrestrial​ ​ecosystem​ ​a​ ​much​ ​larger​ ​fraction​ ​of​
​energy flows through the grazing food chain.​

​Deer​
​Deer​ ​are​ ​widely​ ​dispersed​ ​ruminant​ ​mammals​ ​found​ ​on​ ​all​ ​continents​
​except​ ​Antarctica.​ ​They​ ​belong​ ​to​ ​the​ ​Cervidae​ ​family​ ​and​ ​are​ ​even-toed​
​ungulates​​.​ ​Unlike​ ​antelopes,​ ​they​ ​have​ ​branched​ ​antlers​ ​that​ ​shed​ ​and​
​regrow seasonally.​
​Swamp Deer​
​●​ ​Swamp​ ​deer​ ​are​ ​classified​ ​into​ ​three​ ​types:​ ​Western​ ​Swamp​ ​Deer​
​found​ ​in​ ​Indo-Gangetic​ ​plains;​ ​Eastern​ ​Swamp​ ​Deer​ ​found​ ​in​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​12​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​Kaziranga​ ​National​ ​Park​ ​and​ ​Dudhua​ ​National​ ​Park​ ​and​ ​Southern​
​Swamp Deer​​found in Madhya Pradesh.​
​●​ ​Swamp​ ​deer​ ​is​ ​considered​ ​as​ ​vulnerable​ ​and​ ​it​ ​is​ ​protected​ ​under​
​Schedule 1 of the Wildlife Protection Act, of 1972.​
​Kashmiri Stag (Hangul)​
​●​ ​Kashmiri​ ​Stag​ ​(Hangul)​ ​is​ ​primarily​​found​​in​​the​​Dachigam​ ​Wildlife​
​Sanctuary,​ ​with​ ​small​ ​fragmented​​populations​​in​​the​​Overa​ ​Wildlife​
​Sanctuary​​in southern Kashmir.​
​●​ ​It is classified as​​Critically Endangered (CR)​​by the IUCN.​
​Himalayan White Bellied Musk Deer​
​●​ ​It​ ​is​ ​a​ ​state​ ​animal​ ​of​ ​Uttarakhand​ ​and​ ​is​ ​unique​ ​as​ ​only​ ​males​
​produce musk.​
​●​ ​It​​faces​​threats​​from​​poaching​​and​​illegal​​musk​​trade,​​is​​classified​​as​
​ ndangered​ ​(EN)​ ​by​ ​the​ ​IUCN,​ ​and​ ​is​ ​listed​ ​under​ ​Schedule​ ​I​ ​of​ ​the​
E

​ ildlife Protection Act, 1972.​

W
​ ​ ​It​ ​is​ ​found​ ​in​ ​Valley​ ​of​ ​F lowers​ ​National​ ​Park,​ ​Nanda​ ​Devi​ ​National​
●
​Park,​ ​Gangotri​ ​National​ ​Park,​ ​and​ ​Govind​​Pashu​​Vihar​​National​​Park​
​in Uttarakhand.​
​Sangai deer​
​●​ ​Sangai​​Deer,​​also​​known​​as​​the​​Dancing​​Deer,​​Brow-Antlered​​Deer,​​or​
​Eld’s Deer, is the​​state animal of Manipur​

​●​ ​It​​is​​found​​in​​Keibul​ ​Lamjao​ ​National​ ​Park,​ ​the​​only​​floating​​national​

​park in the world.​
​●​ ​It is classified as​​Endangered (EN)​​due to inbreeding depression.​
​Chital​
​●​ ​Chital​ ​also​ ​known​ ​as​ ​Spotted​ ​Deer​ ​or​ ​Axis​ ​Deer​ ​is​ ​native​ ​to​ ​the​
​Indian​ ​subcontinent,​ ​commonly​ ​found​ ​in​ ​Telangana,​ ​and​ ​is​​classified​
​as​​Least Concern (LC)​​by the IUCN.​
​●​ ​It is protected under Schedule III of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.​
​Sambar Deer​
​●​ ​Sambar​ ​Deer,​ ​native​ ​to​ ​the​ ​Indian​ ​subcontinent,​ ​is​ ​Vulnerable​ ​(VU)​
​and prefers dense deciduous shrubs and grasses.​
​●​ ​They​​are​​nocturnal,​ ​with​​males​​living​​alone​​while​​females​​form​​small​
​herds.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​13​ ​Daily Class Notes​

​Food Web​
​A​ ​food​ ​web​ ​is​ ​a​ ​diagrammatic​ ​representation​ ​that​ ​illustrates​ ​the​
​interdependence​ ​of​ ​organisms​ ​within​ ​an​ ​ecosystem​​.​ ​It​ ​shows​ ​the​ ​flow​ ​of​
​energy​ ​and​ ​nutrients​ ​from​ ​one​ ​organism​ ​to​ ​another​ ​through​ ​multiple​
​interconnected​​feeding relationships​​.​

​Key Characteristics of a Food Web​

​●​ ​Non-Linear​ ​Energy​ ​F low:​ ​Unlike​ ​a​ ​simple​ ​food​ ​chain,​ ​a​ ​food​ ​web​
​represents a multi-dimensional and interconnected energy flow.​
​●​ ​Complexity and Stability​​:​

​○​ ​The​ ​greater​ ​the​ ​number​ ​of​ ​species,​ ​the​​more​​complex​​the​​food​

​web.​
​○​ ​More​ ​complex​ ​food​ ​webs​ ​are​ ​more​ ​stable​ ​because​ ​alternative​
​food sources are available in case one species declines.​
​○​ ​This​ ​redundancy​ ​helps​ ​prevent​ ​the​ ​entire​ ​system​ ​from​
​collapsing when a single species is removed.​

​Food Web Collapse​

​●​ ​A​ ​food​ ​web​ ​collapse​ ​occurs​ ​when​ ​the​ ​interconnected​ ​food​ ​chain​ ​of​​an​
​ecosystem breaks down or fail to function in a sustainable manner.​
​●​ ​This​​can​​happen​​due​​to​​a​​number​​of​​factors​​such​​as​​changes​​in​​climate,​
​loss of key species, pollution, and overexploitation by humans.​
​●​ ​A​ ​food​ ​web​ ​collapse​ ​can​ ​have​ ​serious​ ​consequences​ ​on​ ​the​ ​entire​
​ecosystem,​ ​including​ ​loss​ ​of​ ​biodiversity,​​reduced​​productivity,​​and​​even​
​ecosystem collapse.​

​Ecological Pyramids​
​●​ ​Ecological​ ​pyramids​ ​are​ ​graphical​ ​representations​ ​of​ ​the​ ​trophic​​levels​
​within an ecosystem.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​14​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​●​ ​They​ ​show​ ​the​ ​relative​ ​abundance​ ​or​ ​biomass​ ​of​ ​different​ ​groups​ ​of​
​organisms​​at​​each​​trophic​​level​​in​​an​​ecosystem,​​and​​the​​flow​​of​​energy​
​and nutrients through the food chain.​

​Law of 10%: Given By Raymond Lindeman​

​●​ ​Because​​of​​the​​10%​​law,​​food​​chains​​have​​five​​or​​less​​links.​​Because​​90%​
​of​​energy​​is​​lost​​at​​each​​level,​​the​​amount​​of​​energy​​available​​decreases​
​very quickly.​
​●​ ​Most​ ​of​ ​the​ ​energy​ ​loss​ ​is​ ​in​ ​the​ ​production​ ​of​ ​heat​ ​energy​ ​and​
​movement from one place to the other.​

​Pyramid of Energy​
​●​ ​The​​pyramid​​of​​energy​​graphically​​represents​​the​​flow​​of​​energy​​within​
​an ecosystem.​
​●​ ​It​ ​is​ ​always​ ​upright​​,​ ​as​ ​energy​ ​decreases​ ​at​ ​each​ ​successive​ ​trophic​
​level.​
​●​ ​As​​energy​​moves​​up​​the​​pyramid,​​less​​energy​​is​​available​​,​​with​​only​​10%​
​transferred​ ​to​ ​the​ ​next​ ​level,​ ​while​ ​the​ ​rest​ ​is​ ​lost​ ​as​ ​heat,​ ​following​
​the​​laws ​.​
of thermodynamics​

​●​ ​In​ ​aquatic​ ​ecosystems​​,​ ​energy​ ​transfer​ ​is​ ​more​ ​efficient​ ​than​ ​in​
​terrestrial​ ​ecosystems​ ​since​ ​less​ ​energy​ ​is​ ​required​ ​for​
​thermoregulation​​.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​15​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​●​ ​In​ ​aquatic​ ​food​ ​chains​​,​ ​predators​ ​are​ ​usually​ ​only​ ​slightly​ ​larger​ ​than​
​their prey, minimizing​​energy ​.​
loss due to metabolic demands​

​●​ ​Aquatic​ ​ecosystems​ ​exhibit​ ​greater​ ​stability​ ​in​ ​energy​ ​flow,​

​experiencing​ ​minimal​ ​seasonal​ ​fluctuations​ ​compared​ ​to​ ​terrestrial​
​ecosystems.​
​●​ ​Primary​ ​producers​ ​in​ ​aquatic​ ​ecosystems,​ ​such​ ​as​ ​algae​ ​and​
​phytoplankton​​,​​invest​​less​​energy​​in​​structural​​biomass​​than​​terrestrial​
​plants.​
​●​ ​The​ ​pyramid​ ​of​ ​energy​ ​helps​ ​illustrate​ ​the​ ​significance​ ​of​ ​primary​
​producers​​and the​​limitations of energy transfer​​within an ecosystem.​

​Pyramid of Biomass​
​●​ ​The​ ​pyramid​ ​of​ ​biomass​ ​visually​​represents​​the​​total​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​living​
​organic​ ​matter​ ​or​ ​biomass​ ​present​ ​at​ ​each​ ​trophic​ ​level​ ​within​ ​an​
​ecosystem.​
​●​ ​It​​is​​not​ ​always​ ​upright​​,​​as​​its​​shape​​depends​​on​​factors​​like​​organism​
​size​​and​​turnover rate​​at each level.​
​●​ ​Biomass​ ​is​​calculated​​as​​the​​dry​​weight​​of​​organisms​​multiplied​​by​​the​
​sample size.​
​●​ ​The​​pyramid​​is​​upright​​in​​terrestrial​​ecosystems​​but​​inverted​​in​​aquatic​
​ecosystems​​due to the rapid turnover of phytoplankton.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​16​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​●​ ​It​ ​illustrates​ ​the​ ​relative​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​biomass​ ​at​ ​each​ ​level,​ ​with​ ​the​
​largest​ ​biomass​ ​at​ ​the​ ​base​ ​and​ ​progressively​ ​smaller​ ​biomass​ ​at​
​higher trophic levels.​
​●​ ​The​ ​shape​ ​of​ ​the​ ​pyramid​ ​can​ ​vary​ ​depending​ ​on​ ​organism​ ​size​ ​and​
​turnover rate​​at each trophic level.​

​Pyramid Of Numbers​

​●​ ​The​​pyramid​ ​of​ ​numbers​ ​represents​​the​​number​ ​of​ ​individuals​ ​at​​each​

​trophic level in an ecosystem.​
​●​ ​It​ ​is​ ​often​ ​upright​​,​ ​with​​the​​largest​ ​number​ ​of​ ​organisms​ ​at​ ​the​ ​base​
​and​​fewer individuals at higher levels​​.​

​●​ ​However,​ ​exceptions​ ​exist​​,​ ​leading​ ​to​ ​irregular​ ​pyramid​ ​shapes​

​depending on the ecosystem and species involved.​
​●​ ​This​ ​pyramid​ ​highlights​ ​the​ ​population​ ​size​ ​at​ ​each​ ​level​ ​and​ ​how​ ​it​
​changes across the food chain.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​17​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​Bioaccumulation​
​Bioaccumulation​​refers​​to​​the​​gradual​ ​buildup​ ​of​​pollutants,​​chemicals​​(chronic​
​poisoning), or other harmful substances within an organism over time.​

​Properties of Substances That Lead to Biomagnification​

​For​ ​biomagnification​ ​to​ ​occur,​ ​substances​ ​typically​ ​have​ ​the​ ​following​

​characteristics:​
​●​ ​Long-lived​​(persist in the environment for extended periods)​
​●​ ​Mobile​​(able to move through ecosystems)​
​●​ ​Fat-soluble​​(accumulate in fatty tissues of organisms)​
​●​ ​Non-biodegradable​​(cannot be broken down by natural processes)​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​18​ ​Daily Class Notes​

​Biomagnification​
​Biomagnification​ ​is​ ​the​ ​progressive​ ​increase​ ​in​ ​the​ ​concentration​ ​of​
​bioaccumulated​​substances​​as​​they​​move​​up​ ​the​ ​trophic​ ​levels​ ​in​​a​​food​​chain​
​over time.​

​Biomagnification in Vultures​
​●​ ​Traces​​of​​diclofenac​​and​​its​​derivative​​compounds​​have​​been​​detected​​in​
​the​​carcasses of vultures​​across India and neighboring countries.​
​●​ ​The​ ​biomagnification​ ​of​ ​diclofenac​ ​occurs​ ​when​ ​vultures​ ​consume​ ​the​
​carcasses​ ​of​ ​infected​ ​domestic​ ​animals​​,​​leading​​to​​high​​mortality​​rates​
​in vulture populations.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​19​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​●​ ​A​ ​study​ ​by​ ​the​ ​University​ ​of​ ​York​ ​(UK)​ ​found​ ​that​ ​vultures​ ​mostly​
​forage ​.​
outside Protected Areas (PAs)​

​●​ ​Removing​ ​poison-laced​ ​carcasses​ ​from​ ​these​ ​areas​ ​could​​help​​curb​​the​

​decline in vulture populations.​

​ bout Vultures​
A
​ ​ ​Vultures​ ​are​ ​Medium-​ ​to​ ​large-sized​ ​'birds​ ​of​ ​prey'​ ​that​ ​are​ ​known​
●
​for eating carrion (the bodies of dead animals).​
​●​ ​Being​ ​specialised​ ​scavengers,​ ​they​ ​play​ ​a​ ​very​ ​important​ ​role​ ​in​
​quickly​ ​disposing​ ​of​ ​of​ ​carcasses​ ​that​ ​could​ ​harbor​ ​millions​ ​of​
​pathogenic bacteria and fungi.​
​There are 23 extant species of vultures:​
​●​ ​Old​ ​World​ ​vultures​ ​include​ ​16​ ​living​ ​species​ ​native​ ​to​ ​the​ ​old-world​
​continents ie. Europe, Africa, & Asia.​
​●​ ​New​​World​​vultures​​include​​7​​species​​that​​are​​restricted​​to​​the​​New​
​World continents ie. The Americas - North and South America.​
​●​ ​Physical​ ​features:​ ​A​ ​particular​ ​characteristic​ ​of​ ​many​ ​vultures​ ​is​ ​a​
​bald, unfeathered head.​
​●​ ​This​ ​bare​ ​skin​ ​is​ ​thought​ ​to​ ​keep​ ​the​ ​head​​clean​​when​​feeding,​​and​
​also plays an important role in thermoregulation.​
​●​ ​Terms​ ​associated​ ​with​ ​Vultures:​ ​A​​group​​of​​vultures​​in​​flight​​is​​called​
​a​ ​'kettle'.​ ​The​ ​term​ ​'committee'​​refers​​to​​a​​group​​of​​vultures​​resting​
​on​ ​the​ ​ground​ ​or​ ​in​ ​trees.​ ​A​ ​group​ ​of​ ​vultures​ ​that​ ​is​ ​feeding​ ​is​
​termed a 'wake'.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​20​ ​Daily Class Notes​

​Biotic Interactions​

​Interaction​ ​ ffect on​

E ​ ffect on​
E ​Example​ ​Notes​
​Type​ ​ pecies 1​
S ​ pecies 2​
S

​Amensalism​ ​0​ ​(No​ ​-​ ​ read​ ​mold​ ​fungi​ O

B ​ ne​ ​species​ ​is​
​effect)​ ​(Harmed)​ (​Penicillium)​ ​inhibited,​ ​while​
​produce​ ​penicillin,​ ​the​ ​other​
​inhibiting​ ​remains​
​bacterial​ ​growth.​ u ​ naffected.​
​ arge​
L ​ ree​
t

​ hades​ a
s ​​ s
​ mall​
​ lant​​,​ ​retarding​
p

​its growth.​

​Predation​ ​+​ ​-​ ​ eopards,​ ​tigers,​ P

L ​ redators​ ​help​
​ nd​ ​cheetahs​ ​use​ ​maintain​ ​species​
​(Benefited​ ​(Harmed)​ a
​)​ ​speed,​ ​teeth,​ ​and​ d
​ iversity​ ​by​
​claws​ ​to​ ​hunt​ ​reducing​
​prey.​ ​competition​
​among​ ​prey​
​species.​

​Parasitism​ ​+​ ​-​ ​ apeworms,​

T ​The​ ​female​
​(Benefited​ ​(Harmed)​ r​ oundworms,​ ​ osquito​ ​is​ ​NOT​
m
​malaria​ ​ onsidered​
c ​a​
​)​
​parasites,​ ​ arasite​ ​because​
p
​bacteria,​ ​and​
​it​​does​​not​​live​​on​
​ iruses​
v ​are​
​the​ ​host—only​
​common​
​takes​ ​blood​ ​for​
​parasites​ ​of​
​reproduction.​
​humans.​

​Competition​ ​-​ ​-​ ​Occurs​​when​​two​ ​Both​ ​species​ ​are​

​(Harmed)​ ​(Harmed)​ ​species​ ​compete​ ​negatively​
​for​ ​the​ ​same​ ​affected​ ​due​ ​to​
​resources.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​21​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​resource​
​limitations.​

​ ommensalis​ +​ ​
C ​0​ ​ uckerfish​
S ​ ne​
O ​species​
​ ​
m
​(Benefited​ ​(No​ ​ ttaches​ ​to​ ​a​ ​benefits​
a
​while​
​shark​ ​for​
​)​ ​effect)​ ​the​ ​other​ ​is​
​protection,​ ​a​ ​free​
​neither​ ​harmed​
​ride,​ ​and​ ​leftover​
​nor helped.​
​food.​ ​The​ ​shark​
​remains​
​unaffected.​
​ piphytic​ ​plants​
E

​ row​ ​on​ ​trees​

g

​without​ ​harming​
​them.​

​Mutualism​ ​+​ ​+​ ​ ea​

S ​anemone​ B ​ oth​ ​species​
​ ttaches​ ​to​ ​the​ ​benefit;​
​(Benefited​ ​(Benefite​ a ​some​
​ hells​ o
s ​ f​ ​hermit​
​)​ ​d)​ ​mutualisms​ ​(like​
​ rabs​​,​
c ​gaining​
​coral-zooxanthella​
​transport​ ​and​
​e)​ ​are​ ​so​
​food​ ​while​
​dependent​ ​that​
​providing​
​species​ ​cannot​
​protection​
​survive​ ​without​
​through​ ​its​
​each other.​
​stinging​ ​cells.​
​ oral​
C ​and​
​ ooxanthellae​ ​in​
z

​symbiotic​
​relationships.​

​Neutralism​ ​0​ ​(No​ ​0​ ​(No​ ​True​ ​neutralism​ ​Neither​ ​species​

​effect)​ ​effect)​ ​is extremely rare.​ ​affects the other.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​22​ ​Daily Class Notes​

​Allelopathy​
​●​ ​Allelopathy​ ​is​ ​a​ ​type​ ​of​ ​chemical​ ​interaction​ ​between​ ​plants​ ​in​ ​which​
​one​ ​plant​ ​releases​ ​chemicals​​or​​secondary​​metabolites​​that​​affect​​the​
​growth, survival, or reproduction of another plant.​
​●​ ​The​ ​chemicals​ ​produced​ ​by​ ​one​ ​plant​​species​​can​​either​​be​​harmful​​or​
​beneficial to another plant species.​
​●​ ​These​ ​chemicals​ ​can​ ​be​ ​released​ ​through​ ​leaching,​ ​volatilization,​ ​or​
​decomposition of plant residues.​
​○​ ​Sunflowers:​ ​Sunflowers​ ​release​​chemicals​​called​​allelochemicals,​
​which​ ​can​ ​inhibit​ ​the​ ​growth​ ​of​ ​other​ ​plants​ ​growing​ ​nearby.​
​This​ ​chemical​ ​effect​ ​can​ ​help​ ​sunflowers​ ​outcompete​ ​other​
​plants for resources.​
​○​ ​Eucalyptus​ ​trees:​ ​Eucalyptus​ ​trees​ ​release​ ​allelochemicals​ ​that​
​inhibit​ ​the​ ​growth​ ​of​ ​many​ ​other​​plant​​species.​​This​​effect​​can​
​help​ ​eucalyptus​ ​trees​ ​outcompete​ ​other​ ​plants​ ​in​ ​their​
​environment.​

​Bears in India​
​India​​is​​home​​to​​four​​species​​of​​bears,​​each​​with​​distinct​​characteristics​​and​
​habitats.​
​●​ ​Sloth​ ​Bear:​ ​The​ ​sloth​ ​bear​ ​is​ ​found​ ​only​ ​in​​the​​Indian​​subcontinent​
​and​ ​is​ ​mostly​ ​distributed​ ​across​ ​India,​ ​except​ ​in​ ​Jammu​ ​and​
​Kashmir​ ​and​ ​the​ ​northeastern​ ​states.​ ​It​ ​is​ ​omnivorous,​ ​feeding​ ​on​
​fruits,​ ​insects,​ ​and​ ​ants.​ ​Sloth​ ​bears​ ​are​ ​nocturnal​ ​and​ ​have​ ​a​
​shaggy​ ​black​ ​coat​ ​with​ ​a​ ​distinct​ ​white​ ​V-shaped​ ​mark​ ​on​ ​their​
​chest.​
​●​ ​Himalayan​ ​Brown​ ​Bear:​ ​A​ ​subspecies​ ​of​ ​the​ ​sloth​ ​bear,​ ​the​
​Himalayan​ ​brown​​bear​​is​​the​​largest​​mammal​​among​​Indian​​bears.​
​It​​inhabits​​the​​high-altitude​​regions​​of​​the​​Himalayas​​and​​hibernates​
​during​ ​the​ ​winter​ ​months.​ ​This​​species​​is​ ​Critically​​Endangered​ ​and​
​is protected under​​Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection​​Act (WPA)​
​.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​23​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​●​ ​Sun​ ​Bear:​ ​The​ ​sun​ ​bear​ ​is​ ​the​ ​smallest​ ​of​ ​all​ ​bear​ ​species​ ​and​ ​is​
​found​ ​in​ ​the​ ​tropical​ ​forests​ ​of​​Southeast​​Asia.​​It​​is​​also​​known​​as​
​the​ ​Honey​​Bear​ ​due​​to​​its​​preference​​for​​honey.​​Unlike​​other​​bears,​​it​
​does​ ​not​ ​hibernate​ ​and​ ​has​ ​a​ ​short,​ ​sleek​ ​black​ ​coat​ ​with​ ​a​
​distinctive golden or orange patch on its chest.​
​●​ ​Himalayan​ ​Black​ ​Bear:​ ​Also​​known​​as​​the​​Moon​​Bear,​​the​​Himalayan​
​black​ ​bear​ ​is​ ​a​ ​subspecies​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Asian​ ​black​ ​bear.​ ​It​ ​inhabits​ ​the​
​mountainous​ ​forests​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Himalayas​ ​and​ ​hibernates​ ​during​
​winter.​ ​It​ ​is​ ​omnivorous​ ​and​ ​classified​ ​as​ ​Vulnerable​ ​by​ ​the​ ​IUCN.​
​This species plays a crucial role in maintaining forest biodiversity.​

​Ecological Succession​
​●​ ​Ecological​​succession​​is​​the​​gradual​​and​​predictable​​process​​of​​change​​in​
​the species composition and structure of an ecosystem over time.​
​●​ ​It​ ​occurs​ ​in​ ​response​ ​to​ ​disturbances​ ​or​ ​changes​ ​in​ ​environmental​
​conditions,​ ​leading​ ​to​ ​the​ ​colonization,​ ​establishment,​​and​​replacement​
​of different plant and animal species.​
​●​ ​Ecological​ ​succession​ ​can​ ​be​ ​classified​ ​into​ ​two​ ​main​ ​types:​ ​primary​
​succession and secondary succession.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​24​ ​Daily Class Notes​

​Primary Succession​
​●​ ​Primary​ ​succession​ ​occurs​ ​in​ ​areas​ ​where​ ​no​ ​soil​ ​or​ ​living​​organisms​
​exist,​ ​such​ ​As​ ​on​ ​bare​ ​rock​ ​surfaces,​ ​sand​ ​dunes,​ ​or​ ​newly​ ​formed​
​volcanic​ ​islands.​​It​​begins​​with​​the​​colonization​​of​​pioneer​​species,​​such​
​as​ ​lichens​ ​and​ ​mosses,​ ​which​ ​can​ ​grow​ ​on​ ​bare​ ​rock​ ​and​ ​start​ ​the​
​process of soil formation through their decomposition.​
​●​ ​Over​ ​time,​ ​as​ ​organic​ ​matter​ ​accumulates​ ​and​ ​soil​ ​develops,​ ​more​
​complex​ ​plant​ ​species,​ ​including​ ​grasses,​ ​shrubs,​ ​and​ ​eventually​ ​trees,​
​can​ ​establish​ ​themselves.​ ​These​ ​early​ ​successional​ ​species​ ​are​ ​often​
​adapted​ ​to​ ​harsh​ ​environmental​ ​conditions​ ​and​ ​are​ ​characterized​ ​by​
​rapid growth rates and short life cycles.​
​●​ ​As​ ​the​ ​soil​ ​becomes​ ​deeper​ ​and​ ​more​ ​fertile,​ ​and​ ​environmental​
​conditions​ ​become​ ​more​ ​stable,​ ​the​ ​composition​ ​of​ ​plant​ ​and​ ​animal​
​species​ ​gradually​ ​changes.​ ​Eventually,​ ​a​ ​stable​​and​​diverse​​community​
​known​ ​as​ ​a​ ​climax​ ​community​ ​forms.​ ​This​ ​climax​ ​community​
​represents​ ​the​ ​endpoint​ ​of​ ​primary​ ​succession​ ​and​ ​is​ ​typically​
​dominated​ ​by​ ​long-lived​ ​tree​ ​species​ ​adapted​ ​to​​the​​prevailing​​climate​
​and soil conditions.​
​●​ ​An​ ​example​ ​of​ ​primary​ ​succession​ ​is​ ​the​ ​colonization​ ​of​ ​barren​ ​lava​
​fields​​by​​pioneer​​plant​​species​​such​​as​​lichens​​and​​mosses,​​followed​​by​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​25​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​the​​establishment​​of​​grasses​​and​​shrubs,​​and​​eventually​​the​​growth​​of​
​forests over centuries or millennia.​

​Secondary Succession​
​●​ ​Secondary​ ​succession​ ​occurs​ ​in​ ​areas​ ​where​ ​soil​​and​​some​​vegetation​
​remain​ ​intact​ ​after​ ​a​​disturbance,​​such​​as​​after​​a​​forest​​fire,​​flood,​​or​
​human​ ​activity​ ​like​ ​logging​ ​or​ ​agriculture.​ ​Unlike​ ​primary​ ​succession,​
​secondary​ ​succession​ ​begins​ ​with​ ​the​ ​re-establishment​ ​of​ ​plant​ ​and​
​animal communities in an area that was previously inhabited.​
​●​ ​Pioneer​ ​species,​ ​such​ ​as​ ​annual​ ​plants,​ ​grasses,​ ​and​ ​fast-growing​
​shrubs,​ ​colonize​ ​the​ ​disturbed​ ​area​ ​and​ ​quickly​ ​take​ ​advantage​ ​of​
​available​ ​resources.​ ​These​ ​early​ ​successional​ ​species​ ​prepare​ ​the​ ​soil​
​and​ ​create​ ​conditions​ ​favorable​ ​for​ ​the​ ​growth​ ​of​ ​more​ ​complex​
​vegetation.​
​●​ ​Over​ ​time,​ ​as​ ​soil​ ​fertility​ ​improves​ ​and​ ​environmental​ ​conditions​
​stabilize,​​larger​​and​​more​​long-lived​​plant​​species,​​including​​trees,​​begin​
​to​ ​establish​ ​themselves.​ ​The​ ​composition​ ​of​ ​plant​ ​and​ ​animal​ ​species​
​gradually​ ​changes,​ ​eventually​ ​leading​ ​to​ ​the​ ​development​​of​​a​​mature​
​and diverse community similar to that of the original ecosystem.​
​●​ ​An​ ​example​ ​of​ ​secondary​ ​succession​ ​is​ ​the​ ​regeneration​ ​of​ ​a​ ​forest​
​after​ ​a​ ​wildfire.​ ​Pioneer​ ​species​ ​like​ ​fire-adapted​ ​grasses​ ​and​ ​shrubs​
​quickly​ ​colonize​ ​the​ ​burned​ ​area,​ ​followed​ ​by​ ​the​ ​gradual​
​reestablishment​ ​of​ ​tree​ ​species​ ​over​ ​decades​ ​or​ ​centuries,​ ​leading​ ​to​
​the recovery of a mature forest ecosystem.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​26​ ​Daily Class Notes​

​Succession in Plants​
​●​ ​Xerarch​ ​Succession​ ​(Dry​ ​Environments):​ ​This​​type​​of​​succession​​occurs​
​in​ ​dry​ ​conditions,​ ​such​ ​as​ ​on​ ​bare​ ​rocks,​ ​where​ ​moisture​ ​is​ ​low.​ ​Over​
​time,​ ​the​ ​xerophytic​ ​habitat​ ​(dry-adapted​​plants)​​gradually​​transitions​
​into a mesophytic habitat (requiring moderate moisture).​
​●​ ​Hydrarch​​Succession​​(Water​​Environments):​​This​​succession​​takes​​place​
​in​ ​water​ ​bodies​ ​like​​ponds​​and​​lakes.​​Initially,​​aquatic​​plants​​dominate,​
​but​​as​​organic​​matter​​accumulates,​​the​​habitat​​gradually​​transitions​​to​
​a​ ​mesic​ ​condition​ ​with​ ​moderate​ ​moisture,​ ​supporting​ ​more​ ​complex​
​plant life.​

​Types of Succession Based on Causes​

​●​ ​Autogenic​ ​Succession:​ ​Autogenic​ ​succession​ ​is​ ​driven​ ​by​ ​internal​
​ecosystem​ ​changes,​ ​such​ ​as​ ​soil​ ​formation​ ​by​ ​pioneer​​species,​​leading​
​to​ ​the​ ​gradual​ ​development​ ​of​ ​a​ ​stable​ ​community.​ ​Since​ ​it​ ​starts​​in​
​areas without soil, it is also known as primary succession.​
​●​ ​Allogenic​ ​Succession:​ ​Allogenic​ ​succession​ ​is​ ​initiated​ ​by​ ​external​
​disturbances​ ​like​ ​wildfires,​ ​hurricanes,​ ​floods,​​or​​human​​activities​​such​
​as​ ​deforestation.​ ​It​ ​occurs​ ​in​ ​areas​ ​where​ ​soil​ ​is​ ​already​ ​present,​
​making it similar to secondary succession.​

​Types of Succession Based on Dominant Organisms​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​27​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​●​ ​Autotrophic​ ​Succession:​ ​Autotrophic​ ​succession​ ​is​ ​primarily​ ​driven​ ​by​
​the​ ​growth​ ​and​ ​development​ ​of​ ​plants,​ ​mosses,​ ​and​ ​lichens,​ ​which​
​create​ ​conditions​ ​favorable​ ​for​ ​further​ ​plant​ ​growth​ ​and​ ​ecological​
​development.​
​●​ ​Heterotrophic​ ​Succession:​ ​Heterotrophic​ ​succession​ ​is​ ​dominated​ ​by​
​decomposers​ ​such​ ​as​ ​fungi​ ​and​ ​bacteria,​ ​where​ ​changes​ ​in​ ​the​
​ecosystem​​are​​significantly​​influenced​​by​​heterotrophic​​organisms​​that​
​break down organic material.​

​Bio-Geo Chemical Cycle​

​●​ ​The​​term​​"Biogeochemical​​Cycle"​​is​​derived​​from​​"Bio"​​(living),​​"Geo"​​(rock),​
​and​ ​"Chemical"​ ​(element).​ ​It​ ​refers​ ​to​ ​the​ ​cyclic​ ​exchange​​of​​materials​
​between​ ​living​ ​organisms​ ​and​ ​their​ ​non-living​ ​environment,​ ​ensuring​
​the​ ​conservation​ ​and​ ​continuous​ ​recycling​ ​of​ ​nutrients​ ​in​ ​the​
​ecosystem.​
​●​ ​These​ ​cycles​ ​prevent​ ​the​ ​permanent​ ​loss​ ​of​ ​essential​ ​nutrients​ ​from​
​ecosystems, maintaining ecological balance.​
​●​ ​Based​​on​​the​​nature​​of​​the​​primary​​reservoir,​​biogeochemical​​cycles​​are​
​classified into two types:​
​○​ ​Gaseous​ ​Biogeochemical​ ​Cycles​​,​ ​where​ ​nutrients​ ​primarily​​cycle​
​through​ ​the​ ​atmosphere​ ​or​ ​hydrosphere​ ​(e.g.,​ ​carbon,​ ​nitrogen,​
​and oxygen cycles).​
​○​ ​Sedimentary​ ​Biogeochemical​ ​Cycles​​,​ ​where​ ​nutrients​ ​mainly​
​reside​ ​in​ ​the​ ​earth’s​ ​crust​ ​or​ ​sediments​ ​(e.g.,​ ​phosphorus​ ​and​
​sulfur cycles).​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​28​ ​Daily Class Notes​

​Water Cycle​
​The​​water​​cycle​​is​​a​​continuous​​movement​​of​​water​​through​​various​​processes​
​that help distribute and recycle Earth's water resources.​

​Precipitation:​
​●​ ​Water droplets in clouds combine to form larger droplets.​
​●​ ​When​ ​they​ ​become​ ​heavy,​ ​they​ ​fall​ ​to​ ​the​ ​Earth's​ ​surface​ ​as​
​precipitation, which includes drizzle, rain, snow, and hail.​

​Surface Runoff​
​●​ ​Water that falls as precipitation flows over the Earth's surface.​
​●​ ​This​ ​runoff​ ​moves​ ​towards​ ​rivers,​ ​lakes,​ ​and​ ​oceans,​ ​replenishing​
​surface water bodies.​

​Infiltration​
​●​ ​Some of the precipitated water seeps into the soil.​
​●​ ​This​ ​process​ ​increases​ ​the​ ​groundwater​ ​level,​ ​making​ ​water​ ​available​
​for plant roots and underground reserves.​

​Percolation​
​●​ ​Water further moves through soil layers and porous or fractured rocks.​
​●​ ​This process helps replenish deep​​aquifers​​, ensuring long-term​
​groundwater storage.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​29​ ​Daily Class Notes​

​Nitrogen Cycle​
​Nitrogen​ ​is​​a​​major​​component​​of​​the​​atmosphere,​​constituting​​about​​78%​​of​
​atmospheric​ ​gases.​ ​However,​ ​plants​ ​cannot​​use​​atmospheric​​nitrogen​​directly.​
​It​ ​must​ ​first​ ​be​ ​converted​ ​into​ ​nitrogenous​ ​compounds​ ​through​ ​a​ ​process​
​called nitrogen fixation.​

​Nitrogen Fixation​
​Nitrogen​​fixation​​is​​the​​conversion​​of​​atmospheric​​nitrogen​​(N₂)​​into​​ammonia​
​(NH₃)​ ​or​ ​related​ ​compounds,​ ​making​ ​it​ ​accessible​ ​to​ ​plants.​ ​This​ ​can​ ​occur​
​through:​
​●​ ​Biological​ ​Fixation:​ ​Certain​ ​bacteria,​ ​such​ ​as​ ​Rhizobium​ ​(found​ ​in​
​leguminous​ ​plants)​ ​and​ ​free-living​ ​bacteria​ ​like​ ​Azotobacter,​ ​convert​
​nitrogen into ammonia.​
​●​ ​Industrial​ ​Fixation:​ ​The​ ​Haber-Bosch​ ​process​ ​is​ ​used​ ​to​ ​manufacture​
​ammonia for fertilizers.​
​●​ ​Lightning​ ​and​ ​Atmospheric​ ​Fixation:​ ​Natural​ ​phenomena​ ​like​​lightning​
​can​ ​convert​ ​nitrogen​ ​into​ ​nitrates,​ ​which​ ​dissolve​ ​in​ ​rainwater​ ​and​
​enter the soil.​

​Nitrification​
​●​ ​Ammonia​ ​(NH₃)​ ​is​ ​converted​ ​into​ ​nitrite​ ​(NO₂⁻)​ ​by​ ​Nitrosomonas​
​bacteria.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​30​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​●​ ​Nitrite​ ​is​ ​further​ ​transformed​ ​into​ ​nitrate​ ​(NO₃⁻)​ ​by​ ​Nitrobacter​
​bacteria.​
​●​ ​Nitrates​ ​are​ ​the​ ​primary​ ​nitrogen​ ​source​ ​that​ ​plants​ ​absorb​ ​for​
​growth.​

​Nitrogen Assimilation​
​●​ ​Plants​ ​absorb​ ​nitrate​ ​ions​ ​(NO₃⁻)​ ​and​ ​use​​them​​to​​synthesize​​organic​
​molecules like amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins.​
​●​ ​Herbivorous​ ​animals​ ​consume​ ​plants​ ​and​ ​convert​ ​plant​ ​proteins​ ​into​
​animal proteins.​
​●​ ​Carnivorous animals obtain nitrogen by feeding on herbivores.​

​Ammonification​
​●​ ​The​ ​decomposition​ ​of​ ​nitrogenous​ ​waste​ ​(from​ ​dead​ ​organisms​ ​and​
​excretory​ ​products)​ ​by​ ​putrefying​ ​bacteria​ ​and​ ​fungi​ ​releases​
​ammonium compounds (NH₄⁺) back into the soil.​
​●​ ​This​​process​​returns​​nitrogen​​to​​the​​ecosystem,​​ensuring​​its​​continuous​
​availability.​

​Denitrification​
​●​ ​Free-living​ ​Pseudomonas​ ​bacteria​ ​convert​ ​nitrates​ ​(NO₃⁻)​ ​back​ ​into​
​gaseous nitrogen (N₂), releasing it into the atmosphere.​
​●​ ​This process helps maintain the balance of atmospheric nitrogen.​

​Loss of Nitrogen​
​●​ ​Some​​nitrates,​​being​​highly​​soluble​​in​​water,​​are​​lost​​from​​the​​soil​​due​
​to​ ​surface​ ​runoff​ ​and​ ​leaching,​ ​reducing​ ​the​ ​available​ ​nitrogen​ ​for​
​plants.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​31​ ​Daily Class Notes​

​Carbon Cycle​
​●​ ​Although​​carbon​​is​​a​​minor​​component​​of​​the​​atmosphere​​compared​​to​
​oxygen​​and​​nitrogen,​​it​​is​​essential​​for​​life.​​Carbon​​dioxide​​(CO₂)​​plays​​a​
​crucial role in photosynthesis, enabling plants to produce carbohydrates.​
​●​ ​Additionally,​ ​carbon​ ​forms​ ​the​ ​backbone​ ​of​ ​all​ ​organic​ ​substances,​
​including​ ​fossil​ ​fuels​ ​like​ ​coal​​and​​oil,​​as​​well​​as​​DNA​​(deoxyribonucleic​
​acid), which carries genetic information.​
​●​ ​In​​the​​atmosphere,​​carbon​​primarily​​exists​​as​​carbon​​dioxide​​(CO₂).​​The​
​carbon​ ​cycle​ ​ensures​ ​a​ ​continuous​ ​exchange​ ​of​ ​carbon​ ​between​ ​the​
​atmosphere and living organisms, maintaining ecological balance.​

​Short-Term Carbon Cycle​

​●​ ​Plants​ ​absorb​ ​atmospheric​ ​carbon​ ​through​ ​photosynthesis,​ ​converting​
​it into organic matter.​
​●​ ​Animals consume plants, transferring carbon through the food chain.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​32​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​●​ ​Respiration​ ​by​ ​both​ ​plants​ ​and​ ​animals,​ ​as​​well​​as​​the​​decomposition​
​of dead organic matter, releases carbon back into the atmosphere.​
​●​ ​This process occurs relatively quickly, making it a short-term cycle.​

​Long-Term Carbon Cycle​

​●​ ​Some​ ​carbon​ ​enters​ ​a​ ​long-term​ ​cycle​ ​by​ ​accumulating​ ​as​
​undecomposed​ ​organic​ ​matter​ ​in​ ​marshy​ ​soil​ ​or​ ​as​ ​insoluble​
​carbonates in aquatic sediments.​
​●​ ​In​ ​deep​ ​oceans,​ ​carbon​ ​can​ ​remain​ ​buried​ ​for​ ​millions​ ​of​ ​years​ ​until​
​geological movements uplift these carbon-rich rocks.​
​●​ ​Once​ ​exposed,​ ​weathering​ ​and​ ​erosion​ ​release​ ​carbon​ ​dioxide,​
​carbonates,​ ​and​ ​bicarbonates​ ​into​ ​streams​ ​and​ ​rivers,​ ​gradually​
​returning carbon to the environment.​

​Role of Fossil Fuels​

​●​ ​Fossil​ ​fuels​ ​such​ ​as​ ​coal,​ ​oil,​ ​and​ ​natural​ ​gas​ ​originate​ ​from​ ​organic​
​matter that was buried before decomposition.​
​●​ ​Over​ ​millions​ ​of​ ​years,​ ​geological​ ​processes​ ​transformed​ ​this​ ​organic​
​matter into fossil fuels.​
​●​ ​When​ ​burned,​ ​these​ ​fuels​ ​release​ ​stored​ ​carbon​ ​back​ ​into​ ​the​
​atmosphere as carbon dioxide, contributing to the global carbon cycle.​
​●​ ​This​ ​continuous​ ​movement​ ​of​ ​carbon​ ​through​ ​various​ ​processes​
​ensures​ ​the​ ​stability​ ​of​ ​ecosystems​ ​and​ ​influences​ ​global​ ​climate​
​patterns.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​33​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​Crocodile​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​34​ ​Daily Class Notes​

​Indian Gharial​

​Gharials​​are​​believed​​to​​have​​a​​lifespan​​of​​50-60​​years​​in​​the​​wild,​​similar​​to​
​other large reptilian species.​

​Protection Status​

​The​​Indian​​gharial​​is​​one​​of​​the​​most​​critically​​endangered​​crocodilian​​species​
​in the world. Its protection status is as follows:​
​●​ ​IUCN​ ​Red​ ​List:​ ​Critically​​Endangered​​–​​meaning​​it​​is​​at​​an​​extremely​
​high risk of extinction in the wild.​
​●​ ​CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species):​

​Appendix I – which restricts international trade to prevent​

​exploitation.​
​●​ ​Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 (India):​​Schedule I​​– offering the highest​
​level of legal protection against hunting and habitat destruction.​

​Recent Discovery in Kaziranga​

​For​ ​the​ ​first​​time​​in​​75​ ​years​​,​​the​​presence​​of​​gharials​​has​​been​​confirmed​

​in​ ​Greater​ ​Kaziranga,​ ​Assam​​.​ ​This​ ​discovery,​ ​made​ ​by​ ​forest​ ​department​
​officials,​ ​is​ ​significant​ ​because​ ​it​ ​indicates​ ​that​ ​gharials​ ​may​ ​still​ ​be​
​surviving in regions where they were believed to be extinct.​

​Physical Characteristics of the Gharial​

​●​ ​Gharials​ ​are​ ​among​​the​​largest​ ​crocodilians​​,​​growing​​up​​to​​7​ ​meters​

​(23 ​.​
feet) in length​

​●​ ​They have​​thick, ​, which​​help

smooth, non-overlapping scales​ them​
​glide smoothly in water.​
​●​ ​The​​most distinctive feature​​of the gharial is its​​thin and elongated​

​snout​​, which is perfectly adapted for catching fish.​

​●​ ​Male gharials develop a​​bulbous knob​​at the end of​​their snout when​
​they reach maturity. This structure, known as the​​"ghara"​​(which​
​means​​pot​​in Hindi), gives the species its name.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​35​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​●​ ​Unlike other crocodiles, gharials are​​not aggressive​​towards humans​

​and have​​weak jaws​​that are unsuitable for attacking​​large prey.​

​Feeding Habits​

​Gharials​ ​are​ ​also​ ​called​ ​"fish-eating​ ​crocodiles"​​,​ ​as​ ​their​ ​diet​ ​primarily​
​consists​ ​of​ ​fish.​ ​Their​ ​long,​ ​narrow​​snout​​is​​specially​​designed​​for​​grabbing​
​slippery fish​​with minimal resistance.​

​●​ ​Adult gharials​​feed almost exclusively on fish, using​​their sharp,​

​interlocking teeth to catch prey quickly.​
​●​ ​Juveniles​​start by feeding on​​small invertebrates​​like insects, larvae,​

​and ​, before
frogs​ transitioning to a fish-based diet​​as they grow.​
​●​ ​Unlike some other crocodilian species,​​gharials do​​not hunt large​

​mammals ​. They
or consume human flesh​ lack the jaw​​strength​
​needed to capture or chew large prey.​

​Historical and Current Distribution​

​Historical Distribution​

​Gharials​ ​were​ ​once​ ​found​ ​across​ ​a​ ​vast​ ​range​ ​of​ ​South​ ​Asia,​ ​primarily​ ​in​
​large river systems such as:​
​●​ ​Indus River​​(Pakistan)​

​●​ ​Ganga River System​​(India, Nepal, and Bangladesh)​

​●​ ​Brahmaputra River​​(India and Bhutan)​
​●​ ​Mahanadi-Brahmani-Baitarani River System​​(India)​

​●​ ​They were also present in​​Myanmar’s Irrawaddy River​​.​

​Current Distribution​

​●​ ​Today,​ ​gharials​ ​are​ ​found​ ​in​ ​only​ ​a​ ​few​ ​remaining​ ​river​ ​habitats​​,​
​particularly​ ​those​ ​with​ ​deep,​ ​fast-flowing,​ ​and​ ​clear​ ​water​​.​ ​Their​
​known populations are mainly concentrated in:​
​ ​ ​Chambal River and Girwa River
○ (India)​

​○​ ​Rapti-Naryani River (Nepal)​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​36​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​●​ ​Their​​drastic​​decline​​in​​distribution​​highlights​​the​​severe​​threats​​they​
​have faced over the years.​

​Major Threats to Gharials​

​The​ ​gharial​ ​population​ ​has​ ​declined​ ​due​ ​to​ ​several​ ​human-induced​ ​factors,​
​including:​
​●​ ​River​ ​Damming​ ​and​ ​Diversion:​ ​Many​ ​rivers​ ​where​ ​gharials​ ​once​
​thrived​ ​have​ ​been​ ​dammed​ ​or​ ​diverted​ ​for​ ​irrigation,​ ​reducing​ ​their​
​habitat.​
​●​ ​Seasonal Drying of Rivers​​: Rivers that were once perennial​​now dry​
​up during certain seasons, limiting the availability of suitable gharial​
​habitats.​
​●​ ​Decline in Fish Population​​: Overfishing and pollution​​have reduced fish​
​populations, directly impacting gharials, which depend on them for​
​food.​
​●​ ​Habitat Destruction​​: Sand mining, agriculture, and​​urban expansion​
​along riverbanks have led to habitat degradation.​
​●​ ​Egg ​: Gharial
Harvesting and Poaching​ eggs are often​​collected for​
​food or traditional medicine, while adults are poached for their skin​
​and body parts.​

​Conservation Efforts​

​To​ ​save​ ​the​ ​gharial​ ​from​ ​extinction,​ ​several​ ​conservation​ ​programs​ ​have​
​been implemented:​
​●​ ​Project​ ​Crocodile​ ​(1975)​ ​was​​launched​​with​​FAO​​and​​UNDP​​assistance​
​to protect crocodilian species, including the gharial.​
​●​ ​Gharial reserves exist in​​Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,​​and Uttar​

​Pradesh​​.​
​●​ ​WWF-India and the University of Tokyo​​have initiated​​a​​Gharial​
​Bio-logging Science study​​to understand their underwater​​behavior​
​and habitat requirements.​

​Crocodilian Species Found in India​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​37​ ​Daily Class Notes​

​India​ ​is​ ​home​ ​to​ ​three​ ​species​ ​of​ ​crocodilians​​,​ ​each​ ​with​ ​distinct​
​characteristics and conservation statuses.​

​Mugger (Marsh Crocodile)​

​●​ ​A broad-snouted species that lays eggs in holes; is known to be​

​dangerous ​.​
to humans​

​●​ ​Habitat:​​Found in​​freshwater ​,​​but

rivers, lakes, and reservoirs​ can also​
​tolerate​​coastal ​.​
saltwater lagoons and estuaries​

​●​ ​Current Range:​​Mainly found in​​India, Sri Lanka, Nepal,​​and Pakistan​​.​

​Extinct in​​Bhutan and Myanmar​​.​

​●​ ​Threats:​
​○​ ​Habitat destruction and fragmentation.​
​○​ ​Accidental capture in fishing nets.​
​○​ ​Poaching for its skin and body parts, which are used in​
​traditional medicine.​
​●​ ​Protection Status:​
​○​ ​IUCN Red List:​​Vulnerable​
​○​ ​CITES:​​Appendix I​
​○​ ​Wildlife Protection Act, 1972:​​Schedule I​

​Estuarine (Saltwater) Crocodile​

​●​ ​It​ ​is​ ​the​ ​largest​ ​living​ ​crocodile​ ​species,​ ​notorious​ ​for​ ​being​ ​a​
​man-eater.​
​●​ ​Habitat:​​Found in​​mangrove forests, estuaries, and​​coastal waters​
​.​
​●​ ​Current Range in India:​
​○​ B ​ hitarkanika National Park (Odisha)​
​○​ S​ undarbans (West Bengal)​
​ ndaman & Nicobar Islands​
​○​ A
​ lobal Range:​​Also found in​​Southeast Asia and
​●​ G northern​​Australia​
​.​
​●​ ​Threats:​
​○​ ​Illegal hunting for skin and meat.​
​○​ ​Habitat destruction due to deforestation and urbanization.​
​○​ ​Human-crocodile conflict, leading to retaliatory killings.​
​●​ ​Protection Status:​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​38​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​○​ ​IUCN Red List:​​Least Concern​
​○​ ​CITES:​​Appendix I (​​except for managed populations​​in​

​ ustralia, Indonesia,
A and Papua New Guinea, which are in​

​ ppendix II​​)​
A

​○​ ​Wildlife Protection Act, 1972:​​Schedule​​I​

​Methane Cycle​
​The​​methane​​cycle​​describes​​the​​movement​​of​​methane​​(CH₄)​​through​​various​
​natural​ ​and​ ​human-influenced​ ​processes,​​including​​its​​production,​​release,​​and​
​removal from the atmosphere.​

​Sources of Methane​
​●​ ​Wetlands,​ ​landfills,​ ​livestock,​ ​and​ ​fossil​ ​fuel​ ​extraction​ ​are​ ​major​
​sources of methane emissions.​
​●​ ​Methane is also produced in the soil by microbes called​​methanogens​​.​

​Methane Consumption in Soil​

​●​ ​Methanotrophic​ ​bacteria​ ​in​ ​the​ ​soil​ ​act​ ​as​ ​a​ ​major​ ​methane​ ​sink​ ​by​
​consuming methane as an energy source.​
​●​ ​These bacteria reside in oxygen-rich upper soil layers and help reduce​
​atmospheric methane levels.​
​●​ ​However, methanogens typically produce more methane than​
​methanotrophs can consume, allowing methane to escape into the​
​atmosphere.​

​Atmospheric Removal of Methane:​

​●​ ​The​​primary​​mechanism​​for​​methane​​removal​​is​​oxidation​​by​​hydroxyl​
​radicals (OH)​​in the troposphere.​
​●​ ​Hydroxyl radicals break down methane through a series of chemical​
​reactions, converting it into​​carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water vapor​​.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​39​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​●​ ​Because of this role, hydroxyl radicals are often referred to as the​
“​cleanser of the atmosphere.”​

​●​ ​Some methane also moves into the stratosphere, where similar​
​oxidation processes contribute to its removal.​

​REDUCING METHANE FROM ORGANIC WASTE DECLARATION​

​Context:​ ​The​ ​Reducing​ ​Methane​ ​from​ ​Organic​ ​Waste​ ​declaration​ ​was​
​launched​ ​to​ ​set​ ​sectoral​ ​targets​ ​to​ ​mitigate​ ​methane​ ​emissions​ ​from​
​organic waste.​
​ bout the Reducing Methane from Organic Waste Declaration:​
A

​This​ ​initiative​ ​builds​ ​on​ ​previous​​climate​​pledges​​and​​aligns​​with​​the​​Global​

​Methane​ ​Pledge​ ​(GMP)​ ​to​ ​reduce​ ​methane​ ​emissions​ ​by​ ​approximately​
​30-35% below 2020 levels by 2030 and nearly 55% by 2050.​
​●​ ​Launch:​ ​Announced​​at​​COP29​​in​​partnership​​with​​the​​UNEP-convened​
​Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC).​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​40​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​●​ ​Signatories:​ ​Over​​30​​countries,​​including​​seven​​of​​the​​top​​10​​methane​
​emitters​​from​​organic​​waste,​​have​​signed​​the​​COP29​​Declaration,​​but​
​India has not.​
​●​ ​Top​ ​Emitting​ ​Countries:​ ​Nearly​ ​70%​ ​of​ ​methane​ ​emissions​ ​from​
​fossil fuels come from the top 10 emitting countries.​
​●​ ​The​​United​​States​​is​​the​​largest​​emitter​​of​​methane​​from​​oil​​and​​gas​
​operations, closely followed by Russia.​
​ ajor​ ​Highlights​ ​of​ ​International​ ​Energy​ ​Agency's​ ​Global​ ​Methane​ ​Tracker​
M

​ 024:​
2

​●​ M​ ethane​ E​ missions​ O ​ verview:​ ​In​ ​2023,​ ​methane​ ​emissions​ ​from​

​fossil fuels totaled close to 120 million tonnes (Mt).​
​●​ ​Rise​ ​of​ ​Major​ ​Methane​ ​Emissions​ ​Events:​ ​Major​​methane​​emissions​
​events increased by over 50% in 2023 compared to 2022.​
​●​ ​One​ ​prominent​ ​incident​ ​was​ ​a​ ​major​ ​well​ ​blowout​ ​in​ ​Kazakhstan​
​that lasted over 200 days.​
​Major Sources of Methane Emission:​
​ atural​ ​Sources:​ ​Wetlands,​ ​both​ ​natural​ ​and​ ​human-made,​ ​are​
​●​ N
​significant​ ​sources​ ​of​ ​methane​ ​emissions​ ​due​ ​to​ ​the​ ​anaerobic​
​decomposition of organic matter.​
​●​ ​Agricultural​ ​Activities:​ ​Growing​​paddy​​fields​​releases​​methane​​due​​to​
​anaerobic​ ​conditions​ ​in​ ​flooded​ ​rice​ ​paddies.​ ​Excreta​​from​​cattle​​and​
​other​ ​livestock​ ​undergo​ ​enteric​ ​fermentation,​ ​producing​​methane​​as​
​a byproduct​
​●​ ​Combustion​ ​and​ ​Industrial​ ​Processes:​ ​Burning​ ​of​ ​fossil​ ​fuels,​
​including oil and natural gas releases methane emissions.​

​What is the Global Methane Pledge?​

​●​ ​About:​ ​The​​Global​​Methane​​Pledge​​was​​launched​​at​​UNFCCC​​COP26​​in​
​November​ ​2021​​to​​catalyze​​action​​to​​reduce​​methane​​emissions.​​Led​
​by​ ​the​ ​US​ ​and​ ​the​ ​EU,​ ​the​ ​Pledge​ ​now​ ​has​ ​111​ ​country​ ​participants​
​who​ ​together​ ​are​ ​responsible​ ​for​ ​45%​ ​of​ ​global​ ​human-caused​
​methane emissions.​
​●​ ​Aim:​ ​It​ ​aims​ ​for​ ​a​​30%​​reduction​​in​​global​​methane​​emissions​​from​
​2020 levels by 2030.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​41​ ​Daily Class Notes​

I​ndia has opted not to sign the Global Methane Pledge.​
​ ey Reasons for this Decision include:​
K
​●​ ​India​ ​contends​ ​that​ ​the​ ​primary​ ​contributor​ ​to​ ​climate​ ​change​
​remains CO2, with a long lifespan of 100-1000 years.​
​●​ ​The​ ​Pledge​ ​shifts​ ​focus​ ​to​ ​methane​ ​reduction,​ ​which​ ​has​ ​a​ ​shorter​
​lifespan of just 12 years, thus altering the burden of CO2 reduction.​
​●​ ​Methane​ ​emissions​ ​in​ ​India​ ​primarily​ ​stem​ ​from​ ​agricultural​
​activities​ ​like​ ​enteric​ ​fermentation​ ​and​ ​paddy​ ​cultivation,​ ​affecting​
​small,​ ​marginal,​ ​and​ ​medium​ ​farmers​ ​whose​ ​livelihoods​ ​would​ ​be​
​jeopardised by the Pledge​
​●​ ​This​ ​contrasts​ ​with​ ​industrial​ ​agriculture​ ​prevalent​ ​in​ ​developed​
​countries.​
​●​ ​Also,​ ​given​ ​India's​ ​significant​ ​role​ ​as​ ​a​ ​rice​ ​producer​ ​and​ ​exporter,​
​signing the Pledge could affect trade and economic prospects.​
​●​ ​India​ ​hosts​ ​the​ ​world's​ ​largest​ ​cattle​ ​population,​ ​supporting​ ​the​
​livelihoods of many.​
​●​ ​However,​ ​Indian​ ​livestock's​ ​contribution​ ​to​ ​global​ ​enteric​​methane​​is​
​minimal​ ​due​ ​to​ ​their​ ​diet​ ​rich​ ​in​ ​agricultural​ ​by-products​ ​and​
​unconventional feed materials.​

​ ood Recovery to Avoid Methane Emissions​

F

​Context:​ ​The​ ​Food​ ​Recovery​ ​to​ ​Avoid​ ​Methane​ ​Emissions​ ​(FRAME)​ ​shows​
​that​ ​each​ ​food​ ​bank​ ​cuts​ ​greenhouse​ ​gas​ ​(GHG)​ ​emissions​ ​equal​ ​to​
​removing 900 gasoline cars from the road for a year​
​ bout FRAME​
A

​It​ ​measures​ ​the​ ​emissions​ ​avoided​ ​by​ ​working​ ​in​ ​local​​community​​centers​

​redirecting food waste for human consumption.​
​●​ ​Developed​ ​by:​​The​​Global​​Food​​Banking​​Network​​(GFN),​​Global​​Methane​
​Hub, and the Carbon Trust​
​●​ ​The​ ​FRAME​ ​system​ ​was​ ​first​ ​tried​ ​in​ ​Mexico​ ​and​ ​Ecuador​ ​with​ ​six​
​community-run food banks​
​●​ ​The​ ​new​ ​FRAME​ ​tool​ ​allows​ ​food​ ​banks,​ ​recovery​​organizations,​​and​
​private​ ​companies​ ​to​ ​measure​ ​and​ ​manage​ ​emissions​ ​from​ ​food​
​recovery and redistribution.​
​About Food Bank:​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​42​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​●​ ​A​​food​​bank​​is​​a​​non-profit​​organisation​​that​​provides​​food​​to​​people​
​who struggle to afford enough food to avoid hunger.​
​●​ ​Food​​banks,​​driven​​by​​volunteers,​​recover​​surplus​​food​​from​​the​​entire​
​food​ ​supply​ ​chain​ ​and​ ​distribute​ ​it​ ​to​ ​those​ ​facing​ ​hunger​ ​through​
​community organizations.​
​●​ ​In​ ​2019,​ ​food​ ​banks​ ​globally​ ​prevented​ ​over​ ​12​ ​million​​tonnes​​of​​CO,​
​emissions,​​saved​​75​​million​​tonnes​​of​​surplus​​food​​from​​landfills,​​and​
​served Love ve Smillion people facing hunger​

​Phosphorus Cycle​

​●​ ​Phosphorus​ ​primarily​ ​exists​ ​in​ ​the​ ​form​ ​of​ ​phosphates​ ​on​ ​land.​
​Through​ ​weathering​ ​and​ ​erosion​​,​ ​these​ ​phosphates​ ​enter​ ​rivers​ ​and​
​streams​​,​ ​which​ ​transport​ ​them​​to​​the​​ocean​​.​​In​​marine​​environments,​
​phosphorus accumulates on​​continental shelves​​as​​insoluble deposits​
​.​
​●​ ​Over​​millions​ ​of​ ​years​​,​​tectonic​​movements​​cause​​crustal​​plates​​to​​rise,​
​exposing​ ​these​ ​phosphates​ ​on​ ​land.​ ​Eventually,​ ​weathering​ ​releases​
​phosphorus back into the ecosystem, restarting the​​geochemical cycle​​.​

​Role of Guano and Oceanic Processes​

​●​ ​Phosphorus​ ​also​ ​enters​ ​ecosystems​ ​through​ ​biological​ ​sources.​ ​Guano​
​(bird​ ​droppings)​ ​found​​along​​the​​coast​ ​of​ ​Ecuador​​is​​rich​​in​​phosphorus​
​and acts as a​​natural ​.​
fertilizer​

​●​ ​The​ ​El​ ​Niño​ ​and​ ​La​ ​Niña​ ​phenomena​​play​​a​​role​​in​​phosphorus​​cycling​

​by​ ​influencing​ ​upwelling​ ​along​ ​the​ ​coasts​ ​of​ ​Ecuador​ ​and​ ​Peru​​.​
​Upwelling​ ​brings​ ​nutrient-rich​ ​waters​ ​to​ ​the​ ​surface,​ ​supporting​ ​fish​
​populations, which, in turn, sustain​​guano bird​​colonies.​

​●​ ​This​ ​process​ ​leads​ ​to​ ​phosphorus​ ​accumulation​ ​in​ ​bird​ ​droppings,​
​contributing to its redistribution.​

​Importance in Aquatic Ecosystems​

​●​ ​Phosphorus​​is​​an​​essential​​nutrient​​in​​aquatic​​ecosystems​​and​​plays​​a​
​significant​ ​role​ ​in​ ​water​ ​quality​​.​ ​Unlike​ ​carbon​ ​and​ ​nitrogen​​,​ ​which​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​43​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​primarily​​originate​​from​​the​​atmosphere​​,​​phosphorus​​is​​mainly​​derived​
​from​ ​phosphate​ ​rocks​ ​and​ ​enters​ ​the​ ​ecosystem​ ​through​​erosion​ ​and​
​mining ​.​
activities​

​●​ ​However,​ ​excessive​ ​phosphorus​ ​levels​ ​can​ ​lead​ ​to​ ​the​ ​rapid​ ​growth​ ​of​
​microscopic​ ​plants​ ​in​ ​lakes,​ ​causing​ ​eutrophication​​,​ ​which​ ​disrupts​
​aquatic ecosystems.​

​Storage​
​●​ ​The​ ​primary​ ​storage​ ​of​​phosphorus​​is​​in​​the​​earth’s​ ​crust​​,​​particularly​
​in​​soil ​. These
and sediments​ exist in two forms:​
​○​ ​Organic ​: Found
deposits​ in​​coal, ​.​
oil, and peat​

​○​ ​Inorganic deposits​​: Present in​​phosphate-bearing rocks (e.g.,​

​apatite) and sediments.​

​Sulfur Cycle​
​●​ ​Sulfur​ ​exists​ ​in​ ​various​ ​forms,​ ​including​​sulfates,​ ​sulfides,​ ​and​ ​organic​
​sulfur.​​It is released into terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems through:​
​○​ ​Weathering of rocks​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​44​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​○​ ​Erosional runoff​
​○​ ​Decomposition of organic matter​
​●​ ​Although​ ​the​ ​sulfur​ ​cycle​ ​is​ ​largely​ ​sedimentary​​,​ ​it​ ​can​​also​​enter​​the​
​atmosphere​​through natural and human activities such as:​
​○​ ​Volcanic eruptions​
​○​ ​Combustion of fossil fuels​
​○​ ​Emissions from ocean surfaces​
​○​ ​Gases released by decomposition​
​●​ ​Atmospheric​ ​Reactions​ ​and​ ​Acid​ ​Rain:​ ​Once​ ​in​ ​the​ ​atmosphere,​
​hydrogen​​sulfide​​(H₂S)​​undergoes​​oxidation​​to​​form​​sulfur​​dioxide​​(SO₂).​
​This​ ​sulfur​ ​dioxide​ ​dissolves​ ​in​ ​rainwater,​ ​forming​ ​weak​ ​sulfuric​ ​acid,​
​which returns sulfur to the soil through precipitation.​
​●​ ​Sulfur​ ​in​ ​Biological​ ​Processes:​ ​Sulfur​​is​​absorbed​​by​​plants​​in​​the​​form​
​of​ ​sulfates​ ​(SO₄²⁻)​ ​and​ ​incorporated​ ​into​ ​sulfur-bearing​ ​amino​ ​acids​
​through​​metabolic​​processes.​​When​​organisms​​die,​​sulfur​​is​​returned​​to​
​the​​soil,​​ponds,​​and​​lakes​​through​​excretion​​and​​decomposition,​​ensuring​
​its continuous recycling within ecosystems.​

​Homeostasis​
​Homeostasis​ ​refers​ ​to​ ​the​ ​maintenance​ ​of​ ​stable​ ​equilibrium​ ​in​ ​an​
​organism,​ ​especially​ ​through​ ​physiological​ ​functions​​.​ ​This​ ​ensures​ ​that​
​organisms​ ​can​ ​survive​ ​despite​ ​changing​ ​external​ ​environmental​ ​conditions​
​that may disrupt their internal stability.​

​Regulation:​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​45​ ​Daily Class Notes​

​Some​​organisms​​regulate​​their​​internal​​environment​​using​​physiological​​and​
​behavioral adaptations:​

​●​ ​Physiological​ ​Regulation​​:​ ​Sweating​ ​to​ ​cool​ ​the​ ​body,​ ​increasing​

​metabolism to maintain warmth.​
​●​ ​Behavioral​ ​Regulation​​:​​Animals​​seeking​​shade​​under​​trees​​in​​summer​
​to avoid excessive heat.​

​Organisms​ ​that​ ​can​ ​regulate​ ​their​ ​internal​ ​environment​ ​include​ ​birds,​

​mammals​​,​​and​​a​​few​​lower​​vertebrates​​and​​invertebrates​​.​​This​​ability,​​called​
​thermoregulation​ ​and​ ​osmoregulation​​,​ ​allows​ ​mammals​ ​to​ ​survive​ ​in​
​extreme​ ​environments​ ​like​ ​Antarctica​ ​and​ ​the​ ​Sahara​ ​Desert​​.​ ​However,​
​plants lack such mechanisms, making their habitat range more limited.​

​ onformation:​
C

​Most​ ​animals​ ​and​ ​nearly​ ​all​ ​plants​ ​cannot​ ​regulate​ ​their​ ​internal​
​environment and instead​​conform​​to external conditions.​

​●​ ​Their​​body temperature​​fluctuates with the ambient temperature.​

​●​ ​In​​aquatic​ ​organisms​​,​​the​​osmotic​ ​concentration​ ​of​​body​​fluids​​varies​
​with that of the surrounding water.​

​Conformers​ ​have​ ​not​ ​evolved​ ​into​ ​regulators​ ​because​ ​thermoregulation​ ​is​

​energetically​ ​costly​​,​ ​especially​ ​for​ ​small​ ​animals​ ​like​ ​shrews​ ​and​
​hummingbirds​​.​ ​Small​ ​animals​ ​have​ ​a​ ​higher​ ​surface​ ​area-to-volume​ ​ratio​​,​
​causing​ ​them​ ​to​ ​lose​​heat​​rapidly​​in​​cold​​conditions.​​As​​a​​result,​​very​ ​small​
​animals ​.​
are rarely found in polar regions​

​ igration:​
M

​Many​ ​organisms​ ​temporarily​ ​move​ ​from​ ​stressful​ ​environments​ ​to​ ​more​

​favorable ones and return when conditions improve.​
​●​ ​Example:​ ​Migratory​ ​birds​ ​from​ ​Siberia​ ​and​ ​other​​cold​​regions​​travel​
​to​ ​the​ ​Keoladeo​ ​National​ ​Park​ ​(Bharatpur),​ ​Rajasthan​​,​​during​​winter​
​to escape harsh conditions.​

​ uspension:​
S

​Some organisms enter a dormant state to survive unfavorable conditions:​

​●​ ​Microorganisms​ ​(bacteria,​ ​fungi,​ ​lower​ ​plants)​ ​form​ ​thick-walled​
​spores​​, which germinate when conditions become favorable.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​46​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​●​ ​Higher​ ​plants​ ​rely​​on​​seeds​ ​and​ ​vegetative​​reproductive​​structures​​to​
​endure stressful periods and aid in dispersal.​
​●​ ​Animals​ ​escape​ ​stress​ ​by​ ​entering​ ​hibernation,​ ​aestivation,​ ​or​
​diapause​​:​
​○​ ​Hibernation​​:​ ​Polar​ ​bears​ ​enter​ ​a​ ​deep​ ​sleep​ ​during​ ​winter​​to​
​conserve energy.​
​○​ ​Aestivation​​:​ ​Some​ ​snails​ ​and​ ​fish​ ​reduce​ ​activity​ ​during​ ​hot​
​and dry summers​​to avoid heat stress.​
​○​ ​Diapause​​:​​Many​​zooplankton​ ​species​​in​​lakes​ ​and​​ponds​​enter​
​a​ ​suspended​ ​developmental​ ​stage​ ​to​ ​survive​ ​unfavorable​
​conditions.​

​These​​adaptations​​help​​organisms​​maintain​​homeostasis​​and​​improve​​their​
​survival chances in changing environments.​

​Homeostasis in Ecosystem​

​●​ ​Ecological​ ​homeostasis​ ​is​ ​the​​idea​​proposed​​by​​Gems​​Lovelock​​in​​his​

​gaya​ ​hypothesis​ ​named​ ​after​ ​the​​Greek​​goddess​​of​​the​​earth​​which​
​suggests​ ​the​ ​earth​ ​has​ ​closely​ ​controlled​ ​self-regulating​ ​negative​
​feedback​ ​loops​ ​that​ ​keep​ ​the​ ​conditions​ ​on​ ​the​ ​planet​ ​within​ ​the​
​boundaries that are favourable to life.​
​●​ ​In​ ​ecology,​ ​homeostasis​ ​is​ ​the​ ​tendency​ ​for​ ​a​ ​biological​ ​system​ ​to​
​resist​ ​changes.​ ​Ecosystems​ ​can​ ​maintain​ ​their​ ​state​ ​of​​equilibrium.​
​They​ ​can​ ​regulate​ ​their​ ​own​ ​species'​ ​structure​ ​and​ ​functional​
​processes.​​This​​capacity​​of​​the​​ecosystem​​of​​self-regulation​​is​​known​
​as homeostasis.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​47​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​●​ ​For​ ​example,​ ​in​ ​a​ ​pond​ ​ecosystem,​ ​if​ ​the​ ​population​ ​of​ ​zooplankton​
​increases,​ ​they​ ​consume​ ​much​ ​phytoplankton,​ ​and​ ​as​ ​a​ ​result,​ ​food​
​will​ ​become​ ​scarce​ ​for​ ​zooplankton.​ ​When​ ​the​ ​number​ ​of​
​zooplankton​ ​is​ ​reduced​ ​because​ ​of​ ​starvation,​ ​the​ ​phytoplankton​
​population​ ​increases.​ ​After​ ​some​ ​time.​ ​the​ ​population​ ​size​ ​of​
​zooplankton​ ​also​ ​increases,​ ​and​ ​this​ ​process​ ​continues​ ​at​ ​all​ ​the​
​trophic levels of the food chain.​
​●​ ​In​ ​a​ ​homeostatic​ ​system,​ ​a​ ​negative​ ​feedback​ ​mechanism​ ​(an​
​increase​ ​in​ ​one​ ​factor​ ​causes​ ​a​ ​decrease​ ​in​​another,​​and​​vice​​versa)​
​induced​ ​by​ ​the​ ​limiting​ ​resource​ ​(here,​ ​its​ ​scarcity​ ​of​ ​food)​ ​is​
​responsible​ ​for​ ​maintaining​ ​stability​ ​in​ ​an​ ​ecosystem.​ ​However,​ ​the​
​homeostatic​ ​capacity​ ​of​ ​ecosystems​ ​is​ ​not​ ​unlimited​​as​​well​​as​​not​
​everything in an ecosystem is always well-regulated.​

​Great Indian Bustard​

​●​ ​The​ ​Great​ ​Indian​ ​Bustard​
​(Ardeotis​ ​nigriceps)​ ​is​ ​one​​of​
​the​ ​heaviest​ ​flying​ ​birds​ ​and​
​is​ ​primarily​ ​found​ ​in​
​grasslands​ ​and​ ​semi-arid​
​regions​ ​of​ ​Rajasthan​ ​and​
​Gujarat.​
​●​ ​It​ ​is​ ​the​ ​state​ ​bird​ ​of​
​Rajasthan​ ​and​ ​is​ ​currently​
​listed​ ​as​ ​Critically​
​Endangered by the IUCN.​

​Threats to Population Decline​

​The​ ​population​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Great​ ​Indian​ ​Bustard​ ​has​ ​declined​ ​due​ ​to​ ​several​
​reasons, including:​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​48​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​●​ ​Collision​ ​with​ ​transmission​ ​wires:​ ​As​ ​a​ ​large,​ ​low-flying​ ​bird,​ ​it​ ​is​
​highly vulnerable to power lines.​
​●​ ​Slow​​breeding​​rate:​​They​​lay​​only​​one​​egg​​per​​year,​​making​​population​
​recovery difficult.​
​●​ ​Habitat​ ​destruction:​ ​Conversion​ ​of​ ​grasslands​ ​for​ ​agriculture,​
​infrastructure development, and urbanization.​
​●​ ​Predation:​ ​Eggs​ ​and​ ​chicks​ ​are​ ​highly​ ​vulnerable​ ​to​ ​predators​ ​like​
​foxes, dogs, and crows.​

​Conservation Efforts​
​●​ ​Project​ ​Great​ ​Indian​ ​Bustard:​ ​A​ ​dedicated​ ​initiative​ ​to​ ​conserve​ ​and​
​protect the species.​
​●​ ​Protected​ ​Areas:​ ​Desert​ ​National​ ​Park​ ​(Rajasthan)​​is​​one​​of​​the​​key​
​habitats for their survival.​
​●​ ​Captive​ ​Breeding​ ​Program:​ ​Efforts​​are​​being​​made​​to​​breed​​them​​in​
​protected environments and later release them into the wild.​
​Lesser Floricans​
​●​ ​The​ ​Lesser​ ​F lorican​​,​ ​the​ ​smallest​ ​among​ ​bustard​ ​species,​ ​is​ ​unique​
​for its breeding season, which occurs during the monsoon.​
​●​ ​Listed​ ​as​ ​endangered​​,​ ​this​ ​bird​ ​is​ ​known​ ​for​ ​the​ ​spectacular​ ​sky​
​dance​ ​performed​​by​​males,​​where​​they​​leap​​up​​to​​2​​meters​​in​​the​​air​
​to impress females.​
​●​ ​Unlike​ ​most​ ​ground-nesting​ ​birds,​ ​Lesser​ ​F loricans​ ​prefer​ ​croplands​
​as their habitat.​
​●​ ​However,​ ​the​ ​species​ ​faces​ ​a​ ​significant​ ​threat​ ​due​ ​to​ ​the​ ​loss​ ​of​
​grasslands​​, driven by​​urbanization​​and the expansion​​of​​agriculture​​.​
​Bengal Florican​
​●​ ​The​​Bengal​ ​F lorican​​,​​also​​known​​as​​the​​dancing​​bustard​​,​​is​​one​​of​​the​
​rarest birds in the world​​and is seldom seen in the​​wild.​
​●​ ​It is found in​​Assam, Uttar Pradesh, and Arunachal​​Pradesh​​.​

​●​ ​Classified​ ​as​ ​critically​ ​endangered​​,​ ​its​ ​population​ ​is​ ​rapidly​ ​declining​
​due to habitat loss and other environmental threats.​
​Macqueen’s Bustard​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​49​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​●​ ​The​ ​MacQueen’s​ ​Bustard​​,​ ​classified​ ​as​ ​vulnerable​​,​ ​is​​a​​desert​ ​nomad​
​adapted to arid environments.​
​●​ ​These​​birds​​have​​a​​remarkable​​ability​​to​​extract​​moisture​​from​​their​
​food​​, allowing them to survive with minimal water intake.​
​●​ ​However,​ ​their​ ​population​ ​is​ ​under​ ​threat​ ​due​ ​to​ ​extensive​ ​hunting​​,​
​making conservation efforts crucial for their survival.​

​Mangroves​
​●​ ​Mangroves​ ​are​ ​ecotones,​
​forming​ ​a​ ​characteristic​
​littoral​ ​forest​ ​ecosystem​
​found​ ​in​ ​sheltered​
​low-lying​ ​coastal​ ​areas,​
​including​ ​estuaries,​
​mudflats,​ ​tidal​ ​creeks,​
​backwaters,​​marshes,​​and​
​lagoons of tropical and subtropical regions.​
​●​ ​These​ ​mostly​ ​evergreen​ ​forests​ ​thrive​ ​below​ ​the​ ​high​ ​water​ ​level​ ​of​
​spring tides, occurring worldwide between latitudes 25°N and 25°S.​

​Ecological Significance of Mangroves​

​●​ ​Coastal​ ​Protection:​ ​Act​ ​as​ ​a​ ​natural​ ​barrier​ ​against​ ​cyclones​ ​and​
​tsunamis, reducing coastal erosion.​
​●​ ​Marine​ ​Habitat:​ ​Serve​ ​as​ ​breeding​ ​and​ ​spawning​ ​grounds​ ​for​ ​many​
​commercially important fish species.​
​●​ ​Highly​ ​Productive​ ​Ecosystem:​ ​Provide​ ​critical​ ​ecosystem​ ​services,​
​supporting biodiversity and livelihoods.​

​Adaptations to Harsh Coastal Conditions​

​●​ ​Halophytes:​ ​Mangroves​ ​are​ ​halophytes,​ ​meaning​​they​​can​​tolerate​​and​
​thrive​ ​in​ ​high-salinity​ ​environments.​ ​They​ ​have​ ​special​ ​adaptations​ ​to​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​50​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​regulate​ ​the​ ​intake​ ​and​ ​expulsion​ ​of​ ​salt,​ ​ensuring​ ​their​ ​survival​ ​in​
​coastal waters.​
​●​ ​Water​ ​Loss​ ​Regulation:​ ​Thick​ ​leaves​ ​with​ ​salt-secreting​ ​glands;​ ​some​
​species block salt absorption at the roots.​
​●​ ​Salt​ ​Filtration​ ​&​ ​Root​ ​Systems:​ ​A​ ​complex​ ​filtration​ ​system​ ​helps​
​manage saltwater immersion and wave action.​
​●​ ​Low​ ​Oxygen​ ​Adaptation:​ ​Mangroves​ ​grow​ ​in​ ​waterlogged​ ​and​ ​anoxic​
​(oxygen-deficient) soils, where oxygen availability is limited.​
​●​ ​High​ ​Solar​ ​Radiation​ ​Requirement:​ ​Mangroves​ ​require​ ​abundant​
​sunlight​ ​for​ ​photosynthesis​ ​and​ ​to​ ​effectively​ ​filter​ ​saline​ ​water​
​through their root systems.​

​Unique Features of Mangrove Vegetation​

​●​ ​Viviparity​ ​Mode​ ​of​ ​Reproduction:​ ​Seeds​ ​germinate​ ​while​ ​still​ ​attached​
​to the tree, allowing them to survive in saline water.​
​●​ ​Specialized Root Structures:​
​○​ ​Pneumatophores:​ ​Vertical​ ​roots​ ​(blind​ ​roots)​ ​that​ ​help​ ​in​
​respiration under anaerobic soil conditions (e.g., Avicennia).​
​○​ ​Prop​ ​Roots:​ ​Arching​ ​roots​ ​that​ ​stabilize​ ​trees​ ​in​​soft​​mud​​(e.g.,​
​Rhizophora).​
​○​ ​Stilt​ ​Roots:​ ​Adventitious​ ​roots​ ​emerging​ ​from​ ​the​ ​trunk​ ​above​
​ground level for support.​

​Mangrove Forests​
​●​ ​Mangroves​ ​are​ ​salt-tolerant​ ​trees​ ​and​ ​shrubs​ ​that​ ​thrive​ ​in​ ​coastal​
​intertidal zones with saline or brackish water.​
​They​​flourish​​in​​low-lying​​tropical​​and​​subtropical​​regions​​(between​​24°​
​North​ ​and​ ​38°​ ​South)​ ​that​ ​receive​ ​significant​ ​rainfall.​ ​Mangroves​ ​are​
​part of the littoral forest ecosystem, also known as wetland forests.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​51​ ​Daily Class Notes​

​Specialized Adaptations of Mangroves​
​●​ ​Salt​ ​Tolerance:​ ​Mangroves,​ ​also​ ​known​ ​as​ ​halophytes,​ ​can​ ​withstand​
​high​​salinity.​​They​​typically​​grow​​between​​8​​to​​20​​meters​​in​​height​​and​
​have thick leaves.​
​●​ ​Distribution:​ ​Restricted​​to​​tropical​​and​​subtropical​​regions,​​they​​require​
​intense solar radiation to filter saline water through their roots.​
​●​ ​Breathing​ ​Roots:​ ​Equipped​ ​with​ ​pneumatophores—specialized​ ​aerial​
​roots that enable respiration in anaerobic soil conditions.​
​●​ ​Viviparous​ ​Reproduction:​ ​Their​ ​seeds​ ​begin​ ​germinating​ ​while​ ​still​
​attached to the parent tree before detaching and falling into the water.​

​Global Mangrove Alliance​

​The​ ​Global​ ​Mangrove​ ​Alliance​ ​(GMA)​ ​is​ ​an​ ​unprecedented​ ​collaboration​ ​that​
​unites​ ​NGOs,​ ​governments,​ ​scientists,​ ​and​ ​local​ ​communities​ ​with​​the​​shared​
​objective of conserving and restoring mangrove ecosystems.​

​●​ ​Launch:​​Introduced at the World Ocean Summit in 2018.​

​●​ ​Goal:​ ​Aims​ ​to​ ​double​ ​the​ ​global​ ​protection​ ​of​ ​mangroves​​by​​2030​​and​
​eliminate human-induced losses.​
​●​ ​Coordination:​ ​Led​ ​by​ ​Conservation​ ​International,​ ​IUCN,​ ​The​ ​Nature​
​Conservancy, Wetlands International, and WWF.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​52​ ​Daily Class Notes​

​Mangrove Alliance For Climate​
​The​ ​Mangrove​ ​Alliance​ ​for​ ​Climate​ ​(MAC)​ ​was​ ​launched​ ​during​ ​the​ ​COP27​
​Climate​ ​Summit​ ​in​ ​Sharm​ ​El​ ​Sheikh,​ ​Egypt,​ ​by​ ​the​ ​United​ ​Arab​ ​Emirates​
​(UAE) and Indonesia.​

​Key Features of MAC​

​●​ ​Member​ ​Countries:​ ​Includes​ ​UAE,​ ​Indonesia,​ ​India,​ ​Sri​ ​Lanka,​​Australia,​
​Japan, and Spain.​
​●​ ​Objective:​ ​Aims​​to​​educate​​and​​spread​​awareness​​about​​the​​crucial​​role​
​of​ ​mangroves​ ​in​ ​curbing​ ​global​ ​warming​ ​and​ ​their​ ​potential​ ​as​ ​a​
​natural climate change solution.​
​●​ ​Voluntary​ ​Participation:​ ​The​ ​alliance​ ​functions​ ​without​ ​binding​
​commitments,​ ​meaning​ ​there​ ​are​ ​no​ ​strict​ ​checks​ ​and​ ​balances​ ​to​
​enforce accountability.​
​●​ ​F lexible​ ​Commitments:​ ​Each​ ​member​​nation​​sets​​its​​own​​targets​​and​
​deadlines for mangrove conservation, restoration, and plantation.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​53​ ​Daily Class Notes​

 ​●​ ​Knowledge​ ​Sharing:​ ​The​ ​members​ ​collaborate​ ​by​ ​sharing​ ​expertise,​
​conducting​ ​research,​ ​and​ ​supporting​ ​efforts​ ​to​ ​manage​ ​and​ ​protect​
​coastal ecosystems.​

​ angrove​ ​Initiative​ ​For​ ​Shoreline​ ​Habitats​ ​And​

M

​ angible Income (MISHTI)​

T
​The​ ​MISHTI​ ​program​ ​is​ ​a​ ​government​ ​initiative​ ​focused​ ​on​ ​protecting​ ​and​
​restoring​ ​mangrove​ ​forests​ ​in​ ​India.​ ​It​ ​was​ ​announced​ ​in​ ​the​ ​Union​ ​Budget​
​2023-24​​and officially launched on​​World ​.​
Environment Day in June 2023​

​Objectives:​
​●​ ​Expand​​mangrove cover​​along the coastline and salt pan lands.​
​●​ ​Conserve and restore​​mangrove ecosystems​​.​

​●​ ​Prevent​​coastal erosion​​and enhance shoreline stability.​

​●​ ​Support​​sustainable livelihoods​​for local communities.​
​●​ ​Mitigate the​​impacts of climate change​​by enhancing carbon​
​sequestration.​

​Implementation Strategy​
​●​ ​The​ ​program​ ​aims​ ​to​ ​cover​ ​approximately​ ​540​ ​sq​ ​km​ ​across​ ​nine​
​coastal states and four Union Territories​​over a span of​​five ​.​
years​

​●​ ​It​ ​will​ ​be​ ​executed​ ​in​ ​a​ ​participatory​ ​manner​​,​ ​involving​ ​local​
​communities ​.​
and NGOs​

​●​ ​Funding​ ​and​ ​support​ ​will​ ​come​ ​through​​the​​convergence​ ​of​ ​MGNREGS,​

​CAMPA ​.​
Fund, and other sources​

​●​ ​Public​​awareness​ ​campaigns​ ​will​​be​​conducted​​to​​educate​​communities​

​about the significance of mangroves.​

​Mangroves for the Future (MFF) Program​

​The​ ​Mangroves​ ​for​ ​the​ ​Future​​(MFF)​​program​​is​​a​​regional​​initiative​​launched​
​by​ ​the​ ​International​ ​Union​ ​for​ ​Conservation​ ​of​ ​Nature​ ​(IUCN)​ ​and​​the​ ​United​
​Nations​ ​Development​ ​Programme​ ​(UNDP)​ ​to​​promote​​mangrove​​conservation​
​and sustainable coastal development.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​54​ ​Daily Class Notes​

​Key Features​
​●​ ​Launch:​ ​Initiated​ ​after​ ​the​ ​2004​ ​Indian​ ​Ocean​ ​tsunami​​to​​restore​​and​
​protect coastal ecosystems.​
​●​ ​Participating​ ​Countries:​ ​Bangladesh,​ ​Cambodia,​ ​India,​ ​Indonesia,​
​Maldives,​ ​Myanmar,​ ​Pakistan,​ ​Sri​ ​Lanka,​ ​Thailand,​ ​Vietnam,​ ​and​
​Seychelles.​

​Objective​
​●​ ​Restore mangroves and coastal ecosystems.​
​●​ ​Strengthen climate resilience in coastal communities.​
​●​ ​Support sustainable livelihoods for local populations.​
​●​ ​Promote policy reforms for coastal conservation.​

​PW OnlyIAS​ ​55​ ​Daily Class Notes​