Cartography

Introduction
The International Cartographic Association defines cartography as
((the art ,science ,and technology of making maps, together with
their study as scientific documents and works of art)).

Also it is the scientific field of creating and building maps

through the utilization of spatial information. It is the science of
extracting precise geographic information by accurately
constructing and properly reading maps. Cartography is also
considered the art of simplifying and simulating the geographical
environment as well as demonstrating spatial relations between
broader areas.
Cartography deals with basic characteristics of maps, these
characteristics may be:
1. Geometric:-
Such as dimension, structure, projection, engineering
transportation and cadastral activities.
2. Technology:
Map making involves a series of processes associated with data
collection, map design, production, description of information and
reproduction.
3. Presentation
Map design is a core element of this concept. It focuses upon
visual forms color, pattern, point, line.
A map is a representation of the earth's surface, showing how
things related to each other by:
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  Distance
 Direction
 Size
Maps are a way of showing many things about a portion of the
earth's surface on a flat piece of paper that can be carried and
transported easily.
A map is not a photograph of the earth's surface. It can show many
things that a picture cannot show, and as a result, a map looks
different in many ways from a photograph of the earth's surface.
Map involves a mathematical transformation of some part of
the real world into a piece of paper by scale, color, symbols and
label.
Modern cartography is still pursuing the following two main
goals:
a. Map making as process of data collection, design,
compilation and production.
b. As a science or the study of the artistic and scientific
foundations of the rules for map making and use.
Cartographic production today is undertaken on computers.
Advantage of map
1. Measurement
2. Position of any feature
3. Shape or area of any feature
4. Spread and distribution of any feature
5. Indicates variation in terrain
6. Heights of natural features

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Types of maps
Maps can be classified into different types using different criteria,
two important criteria used for preparing different types of maps
are:
1. Scale of Map
2. Content

Classification of Maps Based on Scale:

Scale is an important factor which controls the amount of details
that can be represented using a map. A mere figure with lines and
symbols cannot be called as a map without scale. Scale can be
defined as the representative fraction by which the actual features
are enlarged or decreased in size for preparing a graphic
diagram(map).
One can classify maps into three types depending on the scale
used for producing the map.
1. Large Scale Maps
2. Medium scale maps
3. Small Scale Maps

Large Scale Maps:

It is a map of an small area represented on a large paper. In other
words, large scale maps show more details of the given area.
These maps are prepared based on the requirement as they are
difficult to prepare due to less generalization and more details.

 Large scale maps have scale 1:20,000 and larger

 It is used for logistic planning, military planning and tourist
map.
 These large scale maps don't use symbols or markers on it.

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Medium Scale Maps:
It is a map having a collection between the general concept and
limited details, on these maps we can find:
 Maps with scale 1:25,000 to 1:1,000,000
 These medium maps use symbols and markers on it and
having moderate amount of details
 It is used for topographic details and terrain analysis.

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Small Scale Maps:
It is a map having a small focus representing large area with few
details, on these maps we can find:

 Maps with scale 1:1,000,000 and smaller.

 It is used for general planning and strategic studies.
 These maps covers a very large area of land like thematic
maps, atlas and world map.
 These small scale maps use many symbols and markers on it.
 Great reduction is employed.

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Classification of Maps Based on Content:
Maps can be classified into:
1. Natural maps
2. Thematic maps
The natural maps also having different types
 Topographic Maps
These maps show a three dimensional world in a two dimensions
by using contour lines.
The mountains and valleys are represented with concentric circles
and lines, this map characterized by large-scale and show both
natural and human made features of an area like roads, railways,
boundaries and other signs.
Geologists depend on topographic maps to record the types of
rocks.
Engineers use topographic maps when they are planning roads,
buildings or other human-made structures.

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Geological maps:
A geological map is made from topographic map and represented
of the different types of rocks that are on the surface of the Earth.
By mapping different rock types, geologist can determine the
relationships between different rock formations which can then be
used to find mineral resources, oil and gravel deposits.

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Surface geologic map of France (BRGM) with sample sites

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Biogeographic maps
Scientists involved in the study of animals, plants and other living
organisms use maps to illustrate where these groups live or
migrate.
It is important to many zoologists to know where the organisms
that they study live and where they move to.

Environmental maps
These types of maps include maps that look at human's activity in
urban and metropolitan areas and the environment in which we all
live.
Maps that illustrate physiographic features such as forests,
grassland, woodland, tundra, gazing land, ocean floors and ocean
sediments could be included in this large grouping.

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Meteorological maps
These types of maps that show climate, weather and wind are
types of environmental maps.
Meteorologists, oceanographers, geographers, city planners, and
many other professionals depend greatly on these maps to record
and forecast their specific field.

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Thematic Map or (Spatial – purpose) maps
A thematic map is a type of map or chart especially designed to
show a particular theme connected with specific area.
These maps can portray physical, social, political, cultural,
economic, sociological, agricultural or any other aspects of a city,
state, region, nation or continent.

Uses of Thematic Maps

Thematic maps served three primary purposes:
1. They provide specific information about particular locations.
2. They provide general information about spatial patterns.
3. They can be used to compare patterns on two or more maps.
Common examples are maps of demographic data such as
population density.

Method of Thematic Mapping

Cartographers use many methods to create thematic maps, but five
techniques are especially noted:
1. Choropleth
Choropleth mapping shows statistical data aggregated over
predefined regions, such as counties or states, by coloring or
shading these regions.
Differences in hue are used to indicate qualitative differences,
such as land use, while differences in saturation or lightness are
used to indicate quantitative differences, such as population.

Choropleth map of water use

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 Choropleth map of population
2. Proportional symbol:
The proportional symbol technique uses symbols of different sizes
to represent data associated with different areas or locations within
the map.
For example, a disc may be shown at the location of each city in a
map, with the area of the disc being proportional to the population
of the city.

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 Births in the United States in 2006

3. Isarithmic or isopleth:
Isarithmic maps also known as contour maps or isopleth maps
depict smooth continuous phenomena such as precipitation or
elevation.

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Isarithmic or isopleth map for barometric pressure

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4. A dot Map
Is another type of thematic map and uses dots to show the
presence of a theme and display a spatial pattern.
On these maps a dot represent one unit or several, depending on
what is being depicted with the map.

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5. Dasymetric Mapping:
This map draws boundaries around different groups of people (for
example, urban residents and rural residents) similar to
choropleath map but this map does not show how many people are
in each group, just where each group is located.

Choroplet map (left) and dasymetric map (right) depicting

population density for the year 2011

"Population mapping generally has two purposes. To

cartographically portray the extent and density of population
across an area of interest and to derive quantitative estimates of
population density for use in subsequent spatial analytical
modeling tasks." (Langford 2003)

Dasymetric mapping is an area-based cartographic technique,

where the original administrative areas are divided into smaller
spatial units, onto which the socio-demographic variable of
interest (e.g., population) is averaged to calculate a rate, such as
population density.
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Maps elements
It can be divided into two types:
1. Common User Information
2. Specialist Information
Common user information sub-divided into many types as
follows:

a. Map Identification
The essential elements required to identify a particular map
sheet are:
1. Map Series Number
2. Sheet Number (or name, if there is no number)
3. Edition Designation
The elements appear together in a panel at the top right corner and
at the bottom left corner of the map.
Typical panels are shown below.

The map series number identifies both the area and the scale of
the map: the series number can be found from the map catalogue.
The edition number identifies the up to datedness of the
information shown on the map.
The edition number increases at each revision, i.e. Edition 4 are
later than Edition 3. The letters following the edition number
indicate the authority under whom the edition has been prepared,
e.g. GSGS = Geographical Section, General Staff (UK), AMS =
Army Map Service (USA), etc.

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 b. Sheet name
The sheet name is found in bold print at the center of the top and
lower left area of the map margin. A map is generally named for
the largest natural feature located within the area at the time the
map was draw.

c. Scales
The scale of the map, e.g. I:50,000, is shown prominently at the
top of the map, and also in the bottom margin, usually above the
graphic scales.

d. Unit of Elevation
Each map must carry in a conspicuous position, normally in the
bottom margin, a note "ELEVATIONS IN METRES" or
"ELEVATIONS IN FEET" as appropriate. In the present period
of change from feet to metres, it is vitally important to check from
this note the unit of elevation used on that particular map.

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 e. Contour Interval
A note stating "Contour Interval …metres/feet" is shown in the
bottom margin near the graphic scales.

f. Index to Adjoining Sheets

A diagram showing the position of the map sheet in relation to
adjoining sheets is shown near the bottom right corner. The
diagram shows the sheet numbers (or names) of the adjoining
sheets and accentuates the sheet in question. From this diagram it
is simple to determine the sheet number of any neighboring sheet
required.

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 g. Information on True, Grid and Magnetic North
Each map contains the information necessary to determine the
true, grid, and magnetic bearing of any line within the sheet. This
information is given in the form of a diagram with explanatory
notes. The diagram may be in the bottom or in a side margin.

h. Legend
It located in the lower left margin; it illustrate and identifies the
topographic that which is used to interpret feature on this map.

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Specialist Information subdivided into three types as
following:-
a. Technical Information on Grids, Projections, Geodetic
and Leveling Datum
Information is given on the grid or grids on the map to which
lines, figures, etc. refer. Projection, spheroid(s), datum, origin and
false co-ordinates of origin are stated for each grid, printed in the
colour of the figures of the grid to which they refer. The
information appears in the lower or right margins: it is required
only for specialist users.

b. Information on Map Revision and Reliability

A history note is given in the bottom margin to show by what unit
or establishment the map was produced, the date and the
information from which it has been compiled. When the map has
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subsequently been revised, the date of revision, the extent of the
revision, and the source of the information is also stated.
When a map has been compiled from several sources, a
compilation diagram may be provided in the bottom margin to
show the extent of coverage of the basic sources for each portion
of the sheet.
On some sheets a reliability diagram may be included to indicate
the degree of reliability of different parts of the sheet. Such a
diagram will be found only when the reliability is below the
standard which is normally expected at that scale and in that area.

c. Geographical Co-ordinates of Sheet Comers

These are shown in degrees, minutes and seconds to an
appropriate accuracy (not more accurate than the equivalent of 10
meters) in terms of the geodetic datum used for the military grid,
e.g. European datum.

Representation of natural and artificial feature on maps

(symbols)
Cartography symbols: Resultant of cartographic methods that
represent natural and artificial phenomenon on maps and all
features depends on scale and purpose of the map
Any symbol on maps must be contain one of the follows:
1. Point symbol
2. Line symbol
3. Area symbol
4. Texture symbol
These symbols combined together lead to known the shape,
relative position, distortion and construct of each phenomenon.
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Scaling Geographic system

Scaling
Geographic
System

Nominal Scale Ordinal Scale Interval Scale

Nominal scale: used for classification geographic phenomena

qualitative, for example a road distinguished from a river or a
forest distinguished from an open field.

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Ordinal scale classification phenomena about basis of some
quantitative measure : small, medium, and large cities or single-
lane, double-lane and four-lane roads.

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Interval scale:- is information that can be arranged using a
standard scale along which operations of addition and subtraction
have meaning. Temperature is an example of an interval
measure.

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Ratio
Ratio data is information that, like interval data, can be arranged
along a scale but, in addition, the scale begins at a non-arbitrary
zero point. At the zero point, no features are present. The
operations of multiplication and division can be employed with
ratio data to consider proportions and magnitudes. Some examples
of ratio data are elevation above sea level, kelvin temperature, and
mileage.

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Always move from a greater level of accuracy to a lesser level of
accuracy!

Measurement Error
Error exists in all data. In it inescapable for a number of reasons,
such as observer, instrument, environment, or observed material
errors. All of these potential sources of error work together and are
cumulative in nature.

a. Observer-error
Observer error is the poor performance of researcher, which
results in biased measurements. Many times this error is
unintentional, and probably can be corrected, if discovered. Some
examples of observer error are mis-types, poorly worded survey
questions, and poor eyesight/color blindness

b. Instrument-error
Instrument error refers to malfunctioning instruments. The
malfunction may be wide-ranging in nature from an incorrectly
calibrated instrument (reads consistently high/low), a poor reading
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due to low battery, etc. Some of these errors may be corrected for,
such as a consistent low reading might have a standard number
added to all values to correct for accuracy.

c. Environmental error
Another part of instrumental error refers to environment error.
Instruments and people will only operate accurately within a
certain temperature range. Occasionally the environment may
cause errors in reading, such as when cloud cover obscures part of
the ground for an aerial photo. These errors may be hard to
account for.

d. Observed material error

Observed material error is the change in data due to presence of
the observer. These errors may be impossible to detect and correct.

e. Symbology
Once you've identified the spatial dimensionality, spatial
character, and the level of measurement of the data, you need
to choose the visual variable to represent the data on the map.
Many times, the spatial dimension of the data will help to
determine that. On a map, there are 3 basic types of symbols:
points, lines, and areas.

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In general there are two basic symbol designs that may be used
to portray information on maps, physical and geometric.

1. Pictorial map symbols

2. Geometric map symbols

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Graphic variables
Symbols different from
1. Form
2. Size
3. Color
4. Direction

Symbol Design to Represent sub-classes

1. Form refers to symbols which differ only in shape. FORM is
applicable to point, line, and area symbols.

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 1.1. Form and point symbol
It can be
a. regular Form
b. Irregular Form
Choose the Form of point symbol depend on the following:
1. Differences in the phenomena form
2. Differences in the phenomena function
3. Differences in the profile for phenomena

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 1.2. Form and line symbol
Choose the Form of line symbol depend on the following:
1. Phenomena continuity
2. Phenomena uniformity
3. Accuracy

1.3. Form and area symbol

It represent the real phenomena for earth surface, the designer
dose not interfere into selection of the form symbol.

2. Size
Size refers to the dimensions of the symbols or in the case of area
symbols, to the dimensions of the individual elements.
Size is applicable to all three cartographic primitives however,
commonly used for line and point.

2.1. Size and point symbol

Choose size of point symbol depend on the following:
1. The minimum size that possible to see features clearly.
2. The minimum size that possible to distinguish Form symbol.

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 2.2. Size and line symbol
The size of the line symbol is gauge or width, in case used more
than line such as road, the size includes Lines and distances
between them. It can refers to design line on map as:
1. Single Line (0.1-0.5) it can be obtained to 5 designed
variables.
2. Double Line (0.1*0.1*0.1) it can be obtained to 25 designed
variables.
3. Triple Line (0.1*0.1*0.2*0.1) it can get a great design
variables.

2.3. Size and area symbol

Differences in size do not applied on the area symbol, therefore
used other methods to distinguish, use repetition of point and lines
symbols it called texture or used color.

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Some examples of the three classes of representation (point, line, area) and
how they might be used to portray nominal, ordinal and interval-ratio data.

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The primary graphic elements with some examples of their simple
application to the classes of symbols.

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Map scale
Map scale refers to the relationship (or ratio) between distance on
a map and the corresponding distance on the ground. For example,
on a 1:100000 scale map, 1cm on the map equals 1km on the
ground.
Map scale is often confused or interpreted incorrectly, perhaps
because the smaller the map scale, the larger the reference number
and vice versa. For example, a 1:100000 scale map is considered a
larger scale than a 1:250000 scale map.
Methods of expressing a scale
A scale can be expressed into three ways as follows:
1. Verbal or written statement: is a simplest form of a map
scale and is expressed as 1cm to 2.5km, 1inch to 4mile.
This kind of scale cannot be used directly with various systems
not yet converted to a fractional scale.
Fractional scale for verbal(inch for mile) is found as follows:
Mile = 1760 yards
Yards =3 feet
Feet = 12 inch
Thus, the fractional scale is equal to
1:1*1760*3*12 1:63360
2. Representative Fraction : this scale is usually written as a
fraction and is called the representative fraction.
The RF is representing the distance measured on the map and
corresponding distance on the ground.
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The RF is always written with map distance as 1 and independent
of any unit of measure(it could be yards, meters, inches, ….etc.)
never be 10:100000 , 0.5:5000
Ex : 1/50,000 or 1:50,000 means that one unit of measure on the
map is equal to 50,000 units of the same measure on the ground.
1/1000 1/10,000 1/100,000
The direction which is getting smaller scale

3. Linear or graphical or bar scale: is the ruler printed on the

map and it is used to convert distance on the map to actual
ground distance. It can be defined as ( is a straight line, which
is accurately divided into units that represented distances on
the ground.
This type of scale used to know the distances on the ground
directly from the maps without reference to the calculations.
The graphical or bar scale is divided into two parts:
a. Primary scale: located to the right of the zero, the scale is
marked in full units of measure
b. Extension scale : located to the left of the zero, the scale is
divided into tenths.

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The linear scale can be divided into many types as follows:
a. Single line scale
b. Double line scale
c. Triple line scale
d. Comparative line scale or ( double unit)
e. Diagonal scale

The transformation between scales

It is difficult to use verbal or written statement metric to measure
distance from map non-metric to metric, there are three methods
to transform map scale as following:
1. Convert or derive the RF scale from the verbal statement
scale.
2. Drive the written statement scale from RF scale.
3. Convert the verbal statement and RF scale to linear
(graphical)scale.

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 d. Comparative line scale (Double unit): are two graphical
scales on the same scale but one scale-line showing one unit
of measurement and other scale-line the other unit of
measurement, are placed side by side in such a way the
((zero)) of one scale line lies immediately above that of the
other scale, such as metric and non-metric, the between
distance and time.
PROBLEM NO.1/
Draw a comparative scale showing Kilometers and mile of a map
the RF is 1:80000
PROBLEM NO.2/
Walking travels use a map with scale 1:200,000 , speed distance
that separated is 4 Km per hour. Find out the comparative time
scale?

e. Diagonal scale: plain scale are used to read length into two
units such as meter and decimeter or to read the accuracy
correct to first decimal.
Or
Diagonal scale is used to represent either three unit of
measurement such as meter and decimeter or to read the accuracy
correct to two decimal.
The diagonal scales give us three successive dimensions that is a
unit, a subunit and a subdivision of a subunit.
The principle of construction of a diagonal scale is as follows.
Let the XY in figure be a subunit. Form Y draw a perpendicular
YZ to a suitable height join XZ . divide YZ into 10 equal parts.
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Draw parallel lines to XY from all these divisions and number
them as shown. From geometry we know that similar triangles
have their like sides proportional.
Consider two similar triangles XYZ and 7’ 7Z,
we have 7Z / YZ = 7’7 / XY (each part being one unit)
Means 7’ 7 = 7 / 10. x X Y = 0.7 XY
Similarly
1’ –1 = 0.1 XY
2’ –2 = 0.2 XY
Thus, it is very clear that, the sides of small triangles,
which are parallel to divided lines, become progressively
shorter in length by 0.1 XY.

PROBLEM NO. 3 :
The distance between two cities is 200 km. In a railway map it is
represented by a line 5 cm long. Find it’s R.F. Draw a diagonal
scale to show single km. And maximum 600 km.
Indicate on it following distances. 1) 222 km 2) 336 km 3) 459 km
4) 569 km

SOLUTION STEPS:
RF = 5 cm / 200 km = 1 / 40, 00, 000
Length of scale = 1 / 40, 00, 000 X 600 X 105 = 15 cm

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PROBLEM NO.4:.
Draw a diagonal scale of R.F. 1: 2.5, showing centimeters and
millimeters and long enough to measure up to 20 centimeters.

SOLUTION STEPS:
R.F.=1/2.5
Length of scale=1/2.5*20cm.
=8cm.
[Link] a line 8cm long and divide it into 4 equal parts.
(Each part will represent a length of 5cm.)
[Link] the first part into 5 equal divisions.
(Each will show 1cm.)
[Link] the left hand end of the line, draw a vertical line and on it
step-off 10 equal divisions of any length.
[Link] the scale as explained in previous problems.
Show the distance 13.4cm on it.

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Construction of pain scale
Choosing a suitable map scales
In order to determine a suitable scale for a map you must follow
these steps:
1. Determine the dimensions of paper (sheet) and ground area.
2. Measurement the width and high of paper (sheet) and ground
area.
3. Computed scale in X and Y of paper (sheet) and ground area.
4. Use larger dimensions of paper (sheet) with larger
dimensions of ground area and vice versa.
5. Then choose smaller scale and create map scales.

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Map scale
• Map scale refers to the relationship (or ratio) between distance on a map and
the corresponding distance on the ground.

• For example, on a 1:100,000 scale map, 1cm on the map equals 1km on the
ground.

Methods of expressing a scale

A scale can be expressed into three ways as follows:

1. Verbal or written statement:

is a simplest form of a map scale and is expressed as 1cm to 2.5km, 1inch to
4mile.

This kind of scale cannot be used directly with various systems not yet converted
to a fractional scale.

Fractional scale for verbal(inch for mile) is found as follows:

Mile = 1760 yards

Yards =3 feet

Feet = 12 inch

Thus, the fractional scale is equal to

1:1*1760*3*12

1:63360

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2. Representative Fraction : this scale is usually written as a fraction and is
called the representative fraction.

• The RF is representing the distance measured on the map and corresponding

distance on the ground.

• The RF is always written with map distance as 1 and independent of any unit
of measure(it could be yards, meters, inches, ….etc.) never be 10:100000 ,
0.5:5000

• Ex : 1/50,000 or 1:50,000 means that one unit of measure on the map is equal
to 50,000 units of the same measure on the ground.

1/1000

1/10,000

1/100,000

• The direction which is getting smaller scale

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3. Linear or graphical or bar scale:
• is the ruler printed on the map and it is used to convert distance on the map to
actual ground distance.

• It can be defined as ( is a straight line, which is accurately divided into units

that represented distances on the ground).

• This type of scale used to know the distances on the ground directly from the
maps without reference to the calculations.

The graphical or bar scale is divided into two parts:

• Primary scale: located to the right of the zero, the scale is marked in full units
of measure

• Extension scale : located to the left of the zero, the scale is divided into tenths.

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The linear scale can be divided into many types as follows:

a. Plain scale

b. Comparative line scale or ( double unit)

c. Diagonal scale

Plain SCALE:-

This type of scale represents two units or a unit and it’s sub-division

PROBLEM NO.1:- Draw a scale 1 cm = 1m to read decimeters, to measure

maximum distance of 6 m.

Show on it a distance of 4 m and 6 dm.

CONSTRUCTION:-

a) Calculate R.F.= DIMENSION OF DRAWING/ DIMENSION OF OBJECT

R.F.= 1cm/ 1m = 1/100

Length of scale = R.F. X max. distance

= 1/100 X 600 cm

= 6 cm.

b) Draw a line 6 cm long and divide it in 6 equal parts. Each part will represent
larger division unit.

c) Sub divide the first part which will represent second unit or fraction of first
unit.

d) Place ( 0 ) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and
subdivisions

on left-hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for getting a look of

scale.

e) After construction of scale mention it’s RF and name of scale as shown.

f) Show the distance 4 m 6 dcm. on it as shown.

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PROBLEM NO.2:- In a map a 36 km distance is shown by a line 45 cm. long.
Calculate the R.F. and construct a plain scale to read kilometers and hectometers, for
max. 12 km. Show a distance of 8.3 km on it.

CONSTRUCTION:-

a) Calculate R.F.

R.F.= 45 cm/ 36 km = 45/ 36 . 1000 . 100 = 1/ 80,000

Length of scale = R.F. max. distance

= 1/ 80000 * 12 km

= 15 cm

b) Draw a line 15 cm long and divide it in 12 equal parts. Each part will represent
larger division unit.

c) Sub divide the first part which will represent second unit or fraction of first unit.

d) Place ( 0 ) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and
subdivisions

on left-hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for getting a look of scale.

e) After construction of scale mention it’s RF and name of scale as shown.

f) Show the distance 8.3 km on it as shown.

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Diagonal scale: plain scale are used to read length into two units such as meter and
decimeter or to read the accuracy correct to first decimal.

Diagonal scale is used to represent either three unit of measurement such as meter
and decimeter or to read the accuracy correct to two decimal.

The diagonal scales give us three successive dimensions that is a unit, a subunit and
a subdivision of a subunit.

The principle of construction of a diagonal scale is as follows.

Let the XY in the figure be a subunit. Form Y draw a perpendicular YZ to a suitable

height join XZ . divide YZ into 10 equal parts. Draw parallel lines to XY from all
these divisions and number them as shown. From geometry we know that similar
triangles have their like sides proportional.

Consider two similar triangles XYZ and 7’ 7Z,

we have 7Z / YZ = 7’7 / XY (each part being one unit)

Means 7’ 7 = 7 / 10. x X Y = 0.7 XY

Similarly

1’ –1 = 0.1 XY

2’ –2 = 0.2 XY

Thus, it is very clear that, the sides of small triangles, which are parallel to divided
lines, become progressively shorter in length by 0.1 XY.

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Problem 3: Construct a diagonal scale of R.F. = 1/6250 to read up to 1 kilometer
and to read meters on it. Show a length of 653 meter on it.

Solution:-

R.F =1/6250 , Max. Length = 1 km

L.O.S.= R.F.* Max. Length in cm

= 1/6250 = 16 cm

Hint: As the maximum length is 1 km, the line should be divided in to 10 equal parts,
so as to represent a division of 100 m

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Problem 4: The distance between two cities is 200 km.
In a railway map it is represented by a line 5 cm long. Find it’s R.F. ,

Draw a diagonal scale to show single km. And maximum 600 km.

Indicate on it following distances.( 1) 222 km (2) 336 km (3) 459 km( 4) 569 km

SOLUTION STEPS:

RF = 5 cm / 200 km = 1 / 4,000, 000

Length of scale = 1 / 4000, 000 X 600 X 100,000 = 15 cm

Draw a line 15 cm long. It will represent 600 [Link] it in six equal parts.( each
will represent 100 km.)

52
PROBLEM NO.5:. Draw a diagonal scale of R.F. 1: 2.5, showing centimeters
and millimeters and long enough to measure up to 20 centimeters.

SOLUTION STEPS:

R.F. = 1 / 2.5

Length of scale = (1 / 2.5) X 20 cm.

= 8 cm.

[Link] a line 8 cm long and divide it in to 4 equal parts.

(Each part will represent a length of 5 cm.)

[Link] the first part into 5 equal divisions.

(Each will show 1 cm.)

[Link] the left hand end of the line, draw a vertical line and on it step-off 10 equal
divisions of any length.

[Link] the scale as explained in previous problems.

Show the distance 13.4 cm on it.

53
COMPARATIVE SCALES:
These are the Scales having same R.F.

but graduated to read different units.

These scales may be Plain scales or Diagonal scales and may be constructed
separately or one above the other.

EXAMPLE NO. 6 :

A distance of 40 miles is represented by a line 8 cm long. Construct a plain scale to

read 80 miles. Also construct a comparative scale to read kilometers up to 120 km

( 1 mile = 1.609 km )

SOLUTION STEPS:

Scale of Miles:

40 miles are represented = 8 cm

: 80 miles = 16 cm

R.F. = 8 / (40 X 1.609 X 1000 X 100)

= 1/804500

CONSTRUCTION:

Take a line 16 cm long and divide it into 8 parts. Each will represent 10 miles.

Subdivide the first part and each sub-division will measure single mile.

Scale of Km:

Length of scale
54
= (1 /804500) X 120 X 1000 X 100

= 14. 90 cm

CONSTRUCTION:

On the top line of the scale of miles cut off a distance of 14.90 cm and divide it into
12 equal parts.

Each part will represent 10 km.

Subdivide the first part into 10 equal parts. Each subdivision will show single km.

55
EXAMPLE NO. 7 :

A motor car is running at a speed of 60 km/h.

On a scale of R.F. = 1 / 400,000 show the distance traveled by car in 47 minutes.

SOLUTION STEPS:

Scale of km.

length of scale = R.F X 60 km

=( 1 / 400,000) X 60 X 1000 X 100

= 15 cm.

CONSTRUCTION:

Draw a line 15 cm long and divide it in 6 equal parts. ( each part will represent 10
km.)

Subdivide 1st. part in 10 equal subdivisions. ( each will represent 1 km.)

Time Scale:

Same 15 cm line will represent 60 minutes.

Construct the scale similar to distance scale. It will show minimum 1 minute & max.
60min.

56
EXAMPLE NO. 8 :
A car is traveling at a speed of 60 km per hour. A 4 cm long line represents the
distance traveled by the car in two hours.

Construct a suitable comparative scale up to 10 hours. The scale should be able to

read the distance traveled in one minute.

Show the time required to cover 476 km and also distance in 4 hours and 24 minutes.

SOLUTION:

4 cm line represents distance in two hours , means for 10 hours scale, 20 cm long line
is required, as length of scale. This length of scale will also represent 600 kms. ( as it
is a distance traveled in 10 hours)

CONSTRUCTION:

Distance Scale ( km)

Draw a line 20 cm long. Divide it in TEN equal parts.( Each will show 60 km)

Sub-divide 1st part in SIX subdivisions.( Each will represent 10 km)

At the left hand end of the line, draw a vertical line and on it step-off 10 equal
divisions of any length.

And complete the diagonal scale to read minimum ONE km.

Time scale:

Draw a line 20 cm long. Divide it in TEN equal parts.( Each will show 1 hour) Sub-
divide 1st part in SIX subdivisions.( Each will

represent 10 minutes) At the left hand end of the line, draw a vertical line and on it
step-off 10 equal divisions of any length.

And complete the diagonal scale to read minimum ONE minute.

57
58
Generalization

Is the process of producing maps of a large scale to a smaller scale after the selection
and simplification, and elimination the nature and the industrial objects to be the final
outcome is to retain the shape and characteristics of the original map.

generalization depends on the scale and purpose of the map. The aim of the
generalization is generally to produce a clear and well specific defined map.

59
Reasons for generalization
1. Less crowdedness, distracting detail on the map
2. Improve visibility of objects that would become too small
3. The ability to print

1. Less crowdedness, distracting detail on the map

In every map ,the feature and forms of the earth's surface represented in miniature
symbols and whenever a smaller scale were more intense object because of the
coverage of large areas by the scale and this becomes necessary to generalization the
high intensity of the features covered by map which are intertwined with each other.

2. Improve visibility of objects that would become too small

To minimize the objects and forms, the map cannot be sustained indefinitely, so It
must be extent to the end of eyesight and this almost (0.02mm) for a distance of
(30cm) from the eye.

3. The ability to print: It is impossible to continue minimizing size of features to

under limits printing, this will cause distortion in the map and cannot
distinction between the objects in the map.

61
 • Factors that affect the generalization

1. the scale :

is the ratio of a certain distance on the map to the same distance on the ground, so the
degree of generalization depend largely on the choice of scale.

2. Sources of information:

The sources of information for the map to be generalized must be analyzed and this
will either be generalized or not generalized . In particular ,it should care on degree of
generalization to scale map for the sources of the generalized maps derived from
decrease scale , to avoid differences as much as possible and the goal be integrated
generalization.

3. The purpose: The purpose of the map plays an important role in the
generalization process. If the purpose of a thematic map, the generalization
ratio will be high with maintaining representation of the objects that belong to
topic for which produced the map, but if the purpose of the map production of
topographic maps to a smaller scale it will depends on the ratio of
generalization to the proportion of scale.

4. Specifications for the symbols: put the specifications for the symbols at the
beginning of generalization , map will effect with generalization degree. The
symbol size and color must choose and represents accurately and every change
in scale , symbols must be generalize once at least.

5. Choice of colors: The number and intensity of colors have effect on

generalization process ,Light colors needs to bold lines and do not use in very
small areas and this affects the size of the objects and thus affect the
generalization process. It must focus special on choosing the colors of the
map.

61
 • Methods of generalization

1. Selection

– Selection and retention of more important area & eliminating less

important area.

Necessary to keep consistency (e.g.: cannot be eliminated all minor roads that leads
to city left in the map)

2. Simplification

Simplify the shape of feature retain on maps with changes in scale

This method eliminate unnecessary details of a given object, without distortion of its
original shape (e.g. elimination of curved lines).

• Shape change buildings

For example by edge-shifts to eliminate short edges

62
 • lines

3. Elimination

This method means eliminating various geographic objects because of their small size
or lesser importance with regards to the map’s theme(e.g. elimination of small islands
, elimination of short streets).

63
 • Factors affecting the Elimination process

1. scale

2. The purpose

3. The nature of the region

4. Displacement

This method is used to move objects in a map in order to maintain the limits of
separation between them.

Against coalescence: needed if objects are too close - buildings near buildings -
buildings near roads

De-clustering too crowded regions at the cost of empty regions

Apply moderately to keep map impression, i.e., relative crowdedness

Risk of disturbing regularity, patterns

• Displacement/Locational Shift

Road or rail road or river crowded in to each other, need shifting (not all features are
shown at their exact location)
64
• Objects with lower priority are shifted (lost exact location but readiness of the map
is improved)

5. Exaggeration

• This method increases the extension of the geometric representation of a given

object , in order to focus on its importance , and to improve its legibility.

• The representation leads to space inaccuracy

65
6. Typification

This method reduces the density of objects , as well as their levels of detail. Mean
while , it preserves the representative distribution pattern of these objects.

7. Aggregation

• This method merges nearby and adjacent objects into a new, single object (e.g.
the merging of nearby small lakes into a single lake).

• Small area are not eliminated but aggregated together

66
8. Refinement

• This method alters and adjusts the geometry and appearance of an object in
order to improve its aesthetic visual aspect and to ensure its compatibility with
reality (e.g. performing the smoothing of a given line , modification of the
orientation of some symbols).

9. Classification and symbolization

• This method combines items that share similar geographic characteristics into a
new object , which in turn has a higher level of abstraction, in addition to a
new symbol..

67
Methods of Representing Relief

Methods of Representing Relief of the Landscape on Topographic Maps:-

Relief of a landscape is basically the physical configuration or appearance of such a

landscape taking into account the elevations, slopes, and shape of natural features
found in it.

On maps, cartographers usually use several methods to portray the relief of the
terrain. These include;

1. contouring

2. layer tinting

3. relief shading

4. hachuring

5. ELEVATION POINTS

A. benchmarks

B. trigonometric points

C. spot heights
68
Which method is used on a certain map is usually the choice of the cartographer and
a single map can contain more than one of these methods.

1. CONTOURING:-

Contouring is an act of using contour lines when representing the relief of an area on
the map. Contour lines are the lines drawn on the map connecting all points on the
earth’s surface with equal elevations above a fixed datum line (usually the mean sea
level).
Contouring is the most common method of showing relief on topographic maps. This
is mainly because it has the ability to show all five (5) aspects of relief (shape,
orientation, size, elevation, and slope) on the map.

Generally, the contour lines have the following characteristics;

1. They connect points of equal elevations above mean sea level.

2. They are numbered in either feet or meters, above sea level. Usually, these
numbers represent the exact elevation of land above sea level for all points
along that line.

3. Contour lines never cross or intersect each other. This is because it is

impossible to have a point on the earth’s surface that can have two or more
different elevations above sea level at the same time. However, the only
exception for this is ‘overhanging cliffs’ where many contour lines merge to
form one contour line.

4. The spacing or gap between the contour lines represents the degree of slope.
Usually, closely spaced contour lines indicate a steep slope while contour lines
far apart indicate gentle slope.

5. Contour lines lie perpendicular to streams and rivers.

Contouring as a way of representing relief on the map has the following merits;

1. Contouring is the most suitable method of representing relief on large scale

topographic maps.

2. Contours provide the basis for other methods of representing relief such as
layer tinting, hachuring, and relief shading.

69
 3. Contours can indicate the exact elevation of a point on the map.

4. The distance between the contours may help to determine the slope of the land.

5. The shape and patterns that the contour lines make on the map can portray
distinctive landforms such as hills, valleys, spurs, and cliffs.

The limitations of contouring include;

1. They are not suitable for representing relief on small-scale maps.

2. Not all physical features and landforms can be portrayed by the contour lines.
E.g. Coral reefs and outcrop rocks.

3. The contour lines may fail to indicate some of the highest and important
elevations on the map due to limitations of the vertical interval used.

This figure shows how contours are shown on maps. Notice how some of the
contour lines are labeled with their elevations above mean sea level.

71
2. LAYER TINTING:-

Layer tinting, also known as layer coloring or hypsometric coloring is a method

used to represent relief by using various shades of colors.

• In this method, the different elevations above sea level (and sometimes-below
sea level) are represented on a map by a variety of colors.

• Usually, all areas on the map with relatively similar elevations will be
represented by the same shade of color. A small range of colors is used but a
wide range of different shades of these colors is used, to reinforce a better
impression of the relief of the mapped area.

71
 Contour map of the Netherlands (legend: elevation in m below or above sea
level)

Maps that involve the system of colors to represent relief are known as ‘hypsometric
maps’. Layer tinting is the most suitable method of representing the elevation and
shape of the relief on small-scale maps and it makes maps visually attractive and
impressive to users

This method is characterized by many limitations, including;

1. It is not a complete method by itself since it relies on the contours to provide

the basis for coloring

2. It does not allow the map user to determine the exact elevation of a point,
rather only gives the elevation range where the point might lie.

3. This method is not applicable in the black and white maps.

4. It is very expensive to produce a layer-colored map.

Colors carry certain ideas on people’s minds, hence one may easily misinterpret the
map if not careful. For example; the green color may have been used to represent
lowland relief on the map but a map user can misinterpret it thinking it represents
vegetation cover

3. HACHURING:- Hachuring is one of the earliest methods used by cartographers to

represent relief on the map. This method represents the relief of an area by using
hachures. Hachures are short broken lines used on a map to indicate the direction
and steepness of the slope. They do not represent exact elevations but are mainly used
to give a good impression of the shape and slope of the ground. Hachures usually
72
vary in thickness and length. Thick and short hachures represent steeper slopes while
thin and long hachures represent gentle slopes.

The direction that these hachures point is the direction towards which the land is
sloping. Usually, hachures are applicable only in large-scale maps. They are not
suitable for representing relief in small-scale maps. Despite the fact that the
hachuring method is now used a little in cartography after being replaced by the
contours, these two methods can sometimes be used together to make more emphasis
on the relief of the mapped area.

The weaknesses of using this method include;

1. Hachures do not show the exact elevation of points on the surface.

2. They are not applicable on flat or leveled land surfaces.

3. For cartographers, the preparation of hachures is exhaustive and time-

consuming since they are hand-made.

4. Too many hachures on the map can obscure other map detail.

This figure shows how hachures are depicted on topographic maps. Notice how
the hachure lines in both (a) and (b) differ in thickness, length and direction

73
4. RELIEF SHADING:-

This method uses ‘light and shadows’ to highlight the three-dimensional appearance
of terrain on maps. Cartographers normally follow the principle of ‘top-left lighting’
when employing the technique of relief shading to show relief on the map. The relief
would appear as if there is a light source illuminated at the top-left corner of the
map, giving the map a light-shadow effect.
In this method, the illuminated parts of the relief are shown by lighter shades and the
obscured parts of the relief are shown by darker shades

On the obscured parts of the relief, the slope is darkened according to its steepness
(i.e. The steeper the slope, the darker the shade), whereas, on the illuminated parts of
the relief, the slope is shown by progressively lightening the shades. The variation in
shadowing gives the map a 3D effect and helps put into context how hilly or flat the
area mapped is.
The main downside of using this method is that it does not show the exact elevation
of the relief features on the map.

74
 • This figure shows two topographic maps. The map on the top shows the area
around Lake Mead in the U.S. The map on the bottom shows the same map
with shaded relief. Notice how contour lines are used to represent relief on the
map on top, but on the bottom map, both relief shading and contour lines are
used in order to make more emphasis on the relief of the mapped area.

• 5. ELEVATION POINTS:- Elevation points are miscellaneous dots and

marks used to show the elevation of a certain point on the map. The three
main types of elevation points used on the map are

A. trigonometric points,

B. spot heights,

C. benchmarks.

A. TRIGONOMETRIC POINTS

Trigonometric points are conventional small triangles used on maps to show the exact
elevation of the highest point in a given area. Trigonometric points are depicted on
75
the map by small triangles together with a number which indicates the exact elevation
of the given point on the map.

• Surveyors carefully choose trigonometric stations because they help to provide

the basis of surveying in an area by forming corners of intersection of carefully
measured triangles in a given field. The surveyors usually erect a concrete
pillar on the highest point in a field, which acts as the corner of the main
triangle of the survey. The areas where these pillars are erected are known as
trigonometric stations.

• Thus, a trigonometric point on a map indicates the presence of a trigonometric

station on the ground.

• On maps, trigonometric points can either be primary, secondary or tertiary.

Primary trigonometric stations show the highest points in the area mapped,
secondary trigonometric stations show high points in the area mapped but they
are usually at a lower elevation than the primary stations and tertiary
trigonometric stations show other stations in the area mapped.

This figure shows the three kinds of trigonometric points used on maps; (a) primary trigonometric
point at the elevation of 4282m above mean sea level, (b) secondary trigonometric point at the
elevation of 1447m above mean sea level, and (c) tertiary trigonometric point at the elevation of
766 m above mean sea level.

The use of trigonometric points on maps to represent relief has the following merits;

A. They enable the map user to easily recognize the highest elevation in a
given area.

B. They show the highest elevation in an area which cannot be shown by

contours due to the limitation of vertical interval.
76
 C. They can be used without obscuring other features.

D. They have physical evidence on the grounds they appear in. A

trigonometric point on a map indicates the presence of a trigonometric
station on the ground.

B. SPOT HEIGHTS

– Spot heights (also called spot elevations) are conventional dots used to
show the exact elevation of points on the map. They are used to indicate
the elevation of the ground at ruling points on the surface such as the top
of hills.

– Spot heights are depicted by using a dot together with a number which
indicates the exact elevation of the given point on the map.

– However, unlike trigonometric points, spot heights do not have

physical evidence in the fields they appear.

This figure shows how spot elevations are shown on maps. It means that the given spot height is at
the elevation of 2802 meters above mean sea level

The use of spot heights has the following advantages;

A. They provide accurate elevation of given points on the map.

B. They may be used to show a point of higher elevation which cannot be shown
by contours due to the limitation in the vertical interval.

C. The methods can be easily used without obscuring other features.

The limitations of using spot heights include;

77
 • They do not provide much information about the relief of the land.

C. BENCHMARK:-

A benchmark is a surveyor’s mark, which is made on a stationary object on the

ground like a wall, a pillar, a rock or a building whose position and elevation have
been (previously) determined/ are known.
Benchmarks are also useful in map analysis since they show the exact elevation of a
given point on the map. In surveying, they are used as reference points from which
the elevations of other objects on the ground are determined.

• On maps, it is usually indicated by a dot followed by the elevation value of the

given point on the map together with letters BM.

This figure shows how benchmarks are shown on maps. It means that the given benchmark is at the
elevation of 1250 meters above mean sea level.

78
Types of Contour lines:-
The three types of contour lines used on a standard topographic map are as
follows:
1. Index. Starting at zero elevation or mean sea level, every fifth contour
line is a heavier line. These are known as index contour lines. Normally,
each index contour line is numbered at some point. This number is the
elevation of that line.
2. Intermediate. The contour lines falling between the index contour lines
are called intermediate contour lines. These lines are finer and do not have
their elevations given. There are normally four intermediate contour lines
between index contour lines.
3. Supplementary. These contour lines resemble dashes. They show
changes in elevation of at least one-half the contour interval. These lines
are normally found where there is very little change in elevation, such as
on fairly level terrain.

79
CONTOUR INTERVALS
A contour interval is the vertical distance or the difference in the elevation
between the two adjacent contour lines in a topographical map.

S :The denominator of the fraction

: slope angle
h : difference in elevation
Example 1: find the contour interval of topographic map have larger
elevation 2500m, smaller elevation 500m above sea level. The angle of the
slope 45°, scale 1:100000

S= 100,000
=45°
=2500 -500= 2000m

=25m.

81
Example 2 - In the graphic below, what is the vertical distance between the
contour lines?

Pick two contour lines that are next to each other and find the difference
in associated numbers.
40 feet - 20 feet = 20 feet
The contour lines in this figure are equally spaced. The even spacing
indicates the hill has a uniform slope. From the contour map, a profile can
be drawn of the terrain.

Example 2 - Draw a profile showing the elevations of the contours.

Note: The intervals are increasing; therefore, the contours indicate a hill.
The peak is normally considered to be located at half the interval distance.

Relief is the representation (as depicted by the mapmaker) of the shapes of

the hills, valleys, streams, or terrain features on the earth’s surface.
81
The relief is composed of two type elements:-
1. Elevation
2. slope
Elevation of a point on the earth’s surface is the vertical distance it is
above or below mean sea level.
A slope is the rise or fall of the land surface. It is important for the farmer
or irrigator to identify the slopes on the land.
A slope is easy to recognize in a hilly area. Start climbing from the foot of
a hill toward the top, this is called a rising slope (see Fig. 1, black arrow).
Go downhill, this is a falling slope (see Fig. 1, white arrow).

Fig. 1. A rising and a falling slope

82
Method of expressing slopes
The slope of a field is expressed as a ratio. It is the vertical distance, or
difference in height, between two points in a field, divided by the
horizontal distance between these two points. The formula is:

x 100

QUESTION
What is the slope in percent of a field with a horizontal length of 200 m
and a height difference of 1.5 m between the top and the bottom?

=0.75 %

83
 Slope Slope Slope%

Horizontal 0 - 0.2 0-2

Very flat 0.2 - 0.5 2-5

Flat 0.5 - 1 5 - 10

Moderate 1 - 2.5 10 - 25

Steep more than 2.5 more than 25

QUESTION
What is the difference in height between the top and the bottom of a field
when the horizontal length of the field is 300 m and the slope is 2%.

* 100

* 100 = 0.06m.

84
TYPES OF SLOPES
1. Gentle. Contour lines showing a uniform, gentle slope will be evenly
spaced and wide apart.

2. Steep.
Contour lines showing a uniform, steep slope on a map will be evenly
spaced, but close together.(the closer the contour lines, the steeper the
slope)

85
3. Concave. Contour lines showing a concave slope on a map will be
closely spaced at the top of the terrain feature and widely spaced at the
bottom

4. Convex. Contour lines showing a convex slope on a map will be

widely spaced at the top and closely spaced at the bottom.

86
TERRAIN FEATURES
All terrain features are derived from a complex landmass known as a
mountain or ridgeline.
The term ridgeline is not interchangeable with the term ridge. A ridgeline
is a line of high ground, usually with changes in elevation along its top
and low ground on all sides from which natural or man-made terrain
features are classified.

Ridgeline
Types of Terrain Features
a. Major Terrain Features.
(1) Hill.
A hill is an area of high ground. From a hilltop, the ground slopes down in
all directions. A hill is shown on a map by contour lines forming
concentric circles. The inside of the smallest closed circle is the hilltop.

Hill

87
Widely separated contour lines indicate a gentle slope. Contour lines that
are very close together indicate a steep slope.

(2) Saddle.
A saddle is a dip or low point between two areas of higher ground. A
saddle is not necessarily the lower ground between two hilltops; it may be
simply a dip or break along a level ridge crest. If you are in a saddle, there
is high ground in two opposite directions and lower ground in the other
two directions. A saddle is normally represented as an hourglass.

Saddle

88
(3) Valley.
A valley begins with high ground on three sides, and usually has a course
of running water through it. Contour lines forming a valley are either U-
shaped or V-shaped. To determine the direction water is flowing , look at
the contour lines. The closed end of the contour line (U or V) always
points upstream or toward high ground.

Valley

89
(4) Ridge.
A ridge is a sloping line of high ground. If you are standing on the
centerline of a ridge, you will normally have low ground in three
directions and high ground in one direction with varying degrees of slope.
Contour lines forming a ridge tend to be U-shaped or V-shaped. The
closed end of the contour line points away from high ground.

Ridge

91
(5) Depression.
A depression is a low point in the ground or a sinkhole. It could be
described as an area of low ground surrounded by higher ground in all
directions, or simply a hole in the ground. Depressions are represented by
closed contour lines that have tick marks pointing toward low ground .

Depression

91
b. Minor Terrain Features.
(1) Draw.
A draw is a less developed stream course than a valley. In a draw, there is
essentially no level ground.
The contour lines depicting a draw are U-shaped or V-shaped, pointing
toward high ground .

Draw

(2) Spur.
A spur is a short, continuous sloping line of higher ground, normally
jutting out from the side of a ridge.
Contour lines on a map depict a spur with the U or V pointing away from
high ground.

Spur
92
(3) Cliff.
A cliff is a vertical or near vertical feature; it is an abrupt change of the
land. When a slope is so steep that the contour lines converge into one
"carrying" contour of contours, this last contour line has tick marks
pointing toward low ground .
Cliffs are also shown by contour lines very close together and, in some
instances, touching each other.

Cliff

93
c. Supplementary Terrain Features.
(1) Cut. A cut is a man-made feature resulting from cutting through
raised ground, usually to form a level bed for a road or railroad track. Cuts
are shown on a map when they are at least 10 feet high, and they are drawn
with a contour line along the cut line. This contour line extends the length
of the cut and has tick marks that extend from the cut line to the roadbed,
if the map scale permits this level of detail .

(2) Fill. A fill is a man-made feature resulting from filling a low area,
usually to form a level bed for a road or railroad track. Fills are shown
on a map when they are at least 10 feet high, and they are drawn with a
contour line along the fill line. This contour line extends the length of
the filled area and has tick marks that point toward lower ground. If the
map scale permits, the length of the fill tick marks are drawn to scale
and extend from the base line of the fill symbol.

94
 Set or Appointment of Mapping Scale of Unknown
Scale
SCALE AND DISTANCE

A map is a scaled graphic representation of a portion of the earth's surface. The

scale of the map permits the user to convert distance on the map to distance on the
ground or vice versa. The ability to determine distance on a map, as well as on the
earth's surface, is an important factor in planning and executing military missions.

REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION
The numerical scale of a map indicates the relationship of distance measured on
a map and the corresponding distance on the ground. This scale is usually written
as a fraction and is called the representative fraction. The RF is always written
with the map distance as 1 and is independent of any unit of measure. (It could be
yards, meters, inches, and so forth. ) An RF of 1/50,000 or 1:50,000 means that
one unit of measure on the map is equal to 50,000 units of the same measure on
the ground.

Example
A map has a scale of 1:25000
This means that 1 cm on the map is 25000 cm in real life, which is 250
m or 0.25km.
It is also useful to note that if 1 cm is 0.25 km, then 4 cm will represent 1 km in real
life.

a) The ground distance between two points is determined by measuring

between the same two points on the map and then multiplying the map
measurement by the denominator of the RF or scale

Converting map distance to ground distance.

95
EXAMPLE:

The map scale is 1:50,000

RF = 1/50,000

The map distance from point A to point B is 5 units

5 x 50,000 = 250,000 units of ground distance

b. The situation may arise when a map or sketch has no R.F or scale. To be
able to determine ground distance on such a map, the R.F must be determined.
There are two ways to do this:

(1) Comparison with Ground Distance.

(a) Measure the distance between two points on the map—map

distance (MD).

(b) Determine the horizontal distance between these same two

points on the ground—ground distance (GD).

(c) Use the RF formula and remember that RF must be in the

general form:

RF = =

(d) Both the MD and the GD must be in the same unit of measure
and the MD must be reduced to 1.

EXAMPLE:

MD = 4. 32 centimeters

GD = 2. 16 kilometers
(216,000 centimeters)

RF = = =

or

RF = OR 1:50,000

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(2) Comparison With Another Map of the Same Area that Has an RF.

(a) Select two points on the map with the unknown RF. Measure the
distance (MD) between them.

(b) Locate those same two points on the map that have the known RF.
Measure the distance (MD) between them. Using the RF for this map,
determine GD, which is the same for both maps.

(c) Using the GD and the MD from the first map, determine the RF using
the formula:

RF = =

d. Occasionally it may be necessary to determine map distance from a

known ground distance and the RF

MD = GD
————————
Denominator or RF

Ground Distance = 2,200 meters

RF = 1:50,000

MD = 2,200 meters
————————
50,000

MD = 0. 044 meters x 100 (centimeters per meter)

MD = 4. 4 centimeters

e. When determining ground distance from a map, the scale of the map affects
the accuracy. As the scale becomes smaller, the accuracy of measurement
decreases because some of the features on the map must be exaggerated so
that they may be readily identified

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 Problem no. 1
Measurement distance between two points A&B on unknown mapping
scale found 4cm and measurement the same distance on the ground
equal to 2KM, find out the map scale.

Map scale =

Problem no.2
Measurement distance between two points A&B on unknown mapping
scale found 10cm, and measurement the same distance at map scale
1:50000 found equal to 20 cm. Find out the map scale.
Map scale = D. on map unknown scale/ D. on map known scale *S.N

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Measuring distance from maps
It can be measured distance from maps into many methods as follows :-
1. Ruler :- used to measure distance between two dimensions, then
convert the ruler measure to the distance on the ground by
multiplying it with RF . (used to measure a straight line between
points)
2. String :- used to measure winding road (to measure irregular line
such as road on the map, whereas matching about linear scale ) and
multiply by RF to compute the ground distance.
3. Strip paper :- used to measure distance on the map if the line was
regular or irregular line.

Transferring map distance to paper strip

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To convert the map distance to ground distance, move the paper down to the
graphic bar scale, and align the right tick mark (b) with a printed number in the
primary scale so that the left tick mark (a) is in the extension scale

Measuring straight-line map distance

4. Divider :- used to measure distance on the map if the line was

regular or irregular line such as road , stream …etc.
( Divide the river, road, railway, etc. into many, short straight distances,

then open your dividers and measure all distances).

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5. Rectangular coordinate system

6. Geographic coordinate system:- which use degrees of latitude and

longitude to describe a location on the earth's surface.

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Measuring Area from Maps
1-Grid method

Where:

A=Area

S=Fall square

C=Partial square

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Example 1:

scale map 1:750,000

Dimension of square =1cm. x 1cm.

Number of Fall square =43

Number of Partial square=42

Solution:
Applying the equation:

) ) A=64 cm2

Due to scale 1cm = 7.5km

So the length of each side of the Grid equal 1cm. on the map which represent 7.5 Km.
on the ground

Then the area of each square =7.5 x 7.5 = 56.25 km2

Area on the ground = 64 x 56.25

= 3,600 km2

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2-Section or Strip method

A=dh1+dh2+dh3+dh4+………..dh n

A=d (h1+h2+h3+h4+…………..hn)

Where;
A=Area

d=width of strip

h=Length of strip

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Example 2:

• Map scale 1:80,000,000

• Width of strips = 1 cm

• Length of strip =(2.2, 6.2, 7.1, 8, 8, 4.3, 3.6, 3.7, 2.8, 1.6) cm

Solution :

Apply rule:

A=d (h1+h2+h3+h4+…………..hn)

A= 1 x (2.2+6.2+7.1+8+8+4.3+3.6+3.7+2.8+1.6) =47.5 cm2

Due to scale 1cm=800 km

area of 1cm2 =800 x 800 =640,000 km2

Area of map =47.5 x 640,000 = 30,400,000 km2

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3-Simpson’s Rule

Where;

A=Area
d=Distance between two perpendicular line

P1=first perpendicular line

Pn=last perpendicular line

T.L.e=The sum of the lengths of Even columns

T.L.o=The sum of the lengths of Odd columns

NOTICE:

• We divide the map with parallel and equal dimensions, so that the
sections are even, while the number of lines are odd.

• When applying the law, the first and last column should be considered
zero, In the absence of a column in the beginning or at the end of the
shape.

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Example 3:

• Map scale 1:400,000

• Length of strip =(4.4, 5.8, 7.3, 4.9, 5.5, 5.7, 3) cm

• Distance between two perpendicular line =1 cm

Solution

Apply rule:

A=1/3 x [ (4.4+3)+4*(5.8+4.9+5.7)+2*(7.3+5.5)]

A=1/3 x (98.6)

A=32.866 cm2
Due to scale 1cm =4 km

Area of 1 cm2 on the map = 4 x 4 =16 km2

Area of map in ground =16 x 32.866 =525.856 km2

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4-Geometric shapes

Figure 4

In the case that the map is divided into geometric shapes and its area
extracted by mathematical methods figure (4), areas will remain on the
edge of the map.

The base of this area which is a straight line and the rest in the form of
curved lines (figure 5), in this case the straight line is divided into equal
sections and then we establish columns of dividing points ending in the
curved line, and then applying the following equation:

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Where;
B = The length of based (AB)
T.L.p. =Total length of columns n=number of columns

Example 4:
• Scale map 1:1,000,000
• The length of base =6 cm
• Length of columns =(1, 1.1,2,1.4,1)
• Find marginal area on ground?

(figure 5)

Solution
• B=6 cm

• n =5

• TLP= (1+1.1+2+1.4+1)= 6.5 cm

• Due to scale 1 cm =10 km

• Length of base =6 x 10 =60 km

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 • Applying equation :

• Marginal area = = 780 km2

5- using coordinates
2A=X1(Y5-Y2)+X2(Y1-Y3)+X3(Y2-Y4)+X4(Y3-Y5)+X5(Y4-Y1).
Example: Find out the area of the filed by using coordinates

points X(m) Y(m)

1 11 19

2 15 32

3 24 27

4 20 10
(figure 6)
5 17 22

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6- using the planimeter

Figure 7: planimeter

A=C* n

C= Constant of device (Cm2 /revol.)

n=Total number of cycles

n=nf-ni

nf=final reading of device

ni=initial reading of device

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