AN INTRODUCTION TO
QUANTUM CHEMISTRY
Mark S. Gordon
Iowa State University
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OUTLINE
• Theoretical Background in Quantum
Chemistry
• Overview of GAMESS Program
• Applications
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QUANTUM CHEMISTRY
• In principle, solve Schrödinger Equation
• Not possible for many-electron atoms or
molecules due to many-body problem
• Requires two levels of approximation
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FIRST APPROXIMATION
• Born-Oppenheimer Approximation
– Assumes we can study behavior of
electrons in a field of frozen nuclei
– Correct H:
• Hexact = Tel + Vel-el + Tnuc + Vnuc-nuc + Vel-nuc
– Vel-nuc = electron-nucleus cross term: not
separable, so fix nuclear positions
– Happrox = Tel + Vel-el + Vel-nuc = Hel
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FIRST APPROXIMATION
• Born-Oppenheimer Approximation
– Assumes we can study behavior of
electrons in a field of frozen nuclei
– Usually OK in ground electronic state:
Assumes electronic and nuclear motions
are independent: not really true.
– More problematic in excited states, where
different surfaces may cross: gives rise to
non-adiabatic (vibronic) interactions.
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FIRST APPROXIMATION
• Born-Oppenheimer Approximation
– Solve electronic Schrödinger equation at
successive (frozen) nuclear configurations
– For a diatomic molecule (e.g, H2), Born-
Oppenhimer Approximation yields potential
energy (PE) curve: energy as a function of
inter-nuclear distance, R.
• Bound curve: minimum at finite R
• Repulsive curve:No stable molecular structure
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E E
R Re R
Repulsive Curve Bound Curve
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FIRST APPROXIMATION
• Born-Oppenheimer Approximation
– Diatomic Molecules: number of points on
PE curve determined by number of values
of R
– Polyatomic molecules more complicated:
• Usually many more coordinates (3N-6)
• generate Potential Energy Surface (PES)
• Required number of points increases
exponentially with number of atoms
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SECOND APPROXIMATION
• Electronic Hamiltonian:
• H = Tel + Vel-nuc + Vel-el
• Vel-el not separable:
• Requires orbital approximation
– Independent particle model: assumes each
electron moves in its own orbital: ignores
correlation of behavior of an electron with
other electrons
– Can lead to serious problems
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ORBITAL APPROXIMATION
Ψhp = ψ1(1)ψ2(2)…ψN(N)
• Hartree product (hp) expressed as a product
of spinorbitals ψι = φiσi
• φi = space orbital, σi = spin function (α,β)
• Ignoring repulsions and parametrizing leads to
– Hückel, extended Hückel Theory
– Tight Binding Approximation
– Can be very useful for extended systems
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ORBITAL APPROXIMATION
• Recover electron repulsion by using
– Orbital wave function (approximation)
– Correct Hamiltonian
• Leads to Variational Principle:
– <E> = <Ψ|Η|Ψ> ≥ Eexact
– Using exact Hamiltonian provides an upper bound
– Can systematically approach the exact energy
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ORBITAL APPROXIMATION
• Pauli Principle requires antisymmetry:
– Wavefunction must be antisymmetric to exchange
of any two electrons
– Accomplished by the antisymmetrizer Â
• For closed shell species (all electrons paired)
antisymmetric wavefunction can be
represented by a “Slater determinant” of
spinorbitals:
Ψ = ÂΨhp = |ψ1(1)ψ2(2)…ψN(N)|
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ORBITAL APPROXIMATION
• For more complex species (one or more open
shells) antisymmetric wavefunction must be
expressed as a linear combination of Slater
determinants
• Optimization of the orbitals (minimization of
the energy with respect to all orbitals), based
on the Variational Principle) leads to:
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HARTREE-FOCK METHOD
• Optimization of orbitals leads to
– Fφi = εiφi
– F = Fock operator = hi + ∑i(2Ji - Ki) for closed
shells
– φi = optimized orbital
– εi = orbital energy
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HARTREE-FOCK METHOD
• Closed Shells: Restricted Hartree-Fock (RHF)
• Open Shells:Two Approaches
– Restricted open-shell HF (ROHF)**
• Wavefunction is proper spin eigenfunction: S(S+1)
• Most orbitals are doubly occupied
• Ψ=|φ1αφ1βφ2αφ2β...φnαφnβφn+1αφn+2α ...|
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HARTREE-FOCK METHOD
• Second Approach for Open Shells
– Unrestricted HF (UHF)
• Different orbitals for different spins (α,β)
• Wavefunction is not a proper spin eigenfunction
• Can often get “spin contamination”: spin expectation
value that is significantly different from the correct value
• Indicator that wavefunction may not be reliable
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HARTREE-FOCK METHOD
• Closed Shells: Restricted Hartree-Fock (RHF)
• Open Shells
– Restricted open-shell HF (ROHF)**
– Unrestricted HF (UHF)
• HF assumes molecule can be described by a
simple Lewis structure
• Must be solved iteratively (SCF)
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LCAO APPROXIMATION
ψι = ∑µ χµCµi
• χµ are AO’s: “basis functions”
• Cµi are expansion coefficients
• Approximation to Hartree-Fock
– FC = Scε
– Still solve interatively for Cµi and εi
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LCAO APPROXIMATION
ψι = ∑µ χµCµi
• Increase # AO’s - approach exact HF
• Requires complete (infinite) basis χµ
• Computational effort increases ~ N4
– Double # AO’s, effort goes up by factor of 16!
– Need to balance accuracy with CPU time, memory
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COMMON BASIS SETS
• Minimal basis set
– One AO for each orbital occupied in atom
• 1s for H, 1s,2s,2p for C, 1s,2s,2p,3s,2p for Si
– Often reasonable geometries for simple systems
– Poor energy-related quantities, other properties
• Double zeta (DZ) basis set
– Two AO’s for each occupied orbital in atom
– Better geometries, properties, poor energetics
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COMMON BASIS SETS
• Double zeta plus polarization (DZP)
– Add polarization functions to each atom
• 1p for H, 2d for C, 3d for Si, 3f for Ti
– Smallest reasonable basis for correlated calcs
• Triple zeta plus polarization (TZV)
• Diffuse functions for:
– Anions
– Weakly bound species (H-bonding, VDW)
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TYPES OF BASIS FUNCTIONS
• Slater/exponential functions: e-ζr
– Closest to H-atom solutions
– Required integrals don’t have closed form
• Gaussian functions: exp(-αr2)
– Required integrals have closed form
– Less accurate than exponential functions
• Solution: systematic linear combinations of
gaussians
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POPLE BASIS SETS
• 6-31G
– Each inner shell AO is combination of 6 gaussians
– Valence region split into inner & outer regions
• Inner valence expanded in 3 gaussians
• Outer valence represented by single gaussian
• 6-31++G(d,p)adds
– d functions on each heavy atom
– p functions on each H
– Diffuse functions on all atoms (++)
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DUNNING BASIS SETS
• Correlation consistent basis sets
– Range from double zeta plus polarization to
hextuple zeta plus polarization plus diffuse
– Best choice for very accurate studies
– Best choice for weakly bound species
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LIMITATIONS OF HF METHOD
• Correlation error:motion of electrons not
correlated due to independent particle model
• Geometries often reliable
• Energies generally not reliable
• Improvements can come from:
– Perturbation Theory
– Variational Principle
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IMPROVEMENTS TO HF METHOD
• Perturbation theory:MP2, MP4,…
– Based on adding successive improvements to
both wavefunction and energy
– In principle, leads to exact result, but perturbation
must be small
– Hartree-Fock-based perturbation theory originally
due to Moller & Plesset (MP); popularized by
Pople and Bartlett (MBPT)
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PERTURBATION THEORY
• Computationally efficient
• Often does not converge
– MP2 often gives better results than MP3, MP4, …
• Not appropriate if compound is not well
described by a simple Lewis structure
• Computational effort~N5 (MP2), N6 (MP4)
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PERTURBATION THEORY
• Alternative is coupled cluster (CC) theory
• Wavefunction is written as
– Ψ = Ψ0eT = Ψ0 (1+T+T2+T3+…)
– Ψ0 may be HF
– T = cluster operator = T1(1e)+T2(2e)+T3(3e)+...
– Most popular is CCSD(T)
• Includes singles, doubles, perturbative triples
• Scales ~ N7
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WHAT DO WE DO IF OUR
SYSTEM CANNOT BE WELL
REPRESENTED BY A SINGLE
SIMPLE LEWIS STRUCTURE?
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σ∗
σ, σ∗ well separated
σ∗ σ∗
σ σ
significant diradical character
both wavefunctions important
σ∗ σ∗
σ σ
"pure" diradical: two wavefunctions 30
make equal contributions
IMPROVEMENTS TO HF METHOD
• Variational Principle
– Configuration Interaction (~N7)
– Ψ = ΨHF + ΨS + ΨD + ΨT +…
• S = all single excitations
• D = all double excitations, …
• Löwdin (1955): Complete CI gives exact
wavefunction for the given atomic basis
• Complete CI generally impossible for any but
smallest atoms and diatomic molecules, due to
the number of configurations involved
• Orbitals not re-optimized in CI
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IMPROVEMENTS TO HF METHOD
• For near-degeneracies, critical to re-
optimize the orbitals
• Called MC (Multi-configurational) SCF
– Configurations included in MCSCF defined
by “active space”:
• Those orbitals and electrons involved in process
• Include all configurations generated by
distributing active electrons among active orbitals
• Called complete active space (CAS)SCF
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MCSCF
• Usually scales ~N5-6, but can be worse
• Necessary for
– Diradicals
– Unsaturated transition metals
– Excited states
– Often transition states
• CASSCF accounts for near-degeneracies
• Still need to correct for rest of electron
correlation: “dynamic correlation”
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MULTI-REFERENCE METHODS
• Multi-reference CI: MRCI
– CI from set of MCSCF configurations
– Most commonly stops at singles and doubles
• MR(SD)CI
• Very demanding
• ~ impossible to go past 14 electrons in 14 orbitals
• Multi-reference perturbation theory
– More efficient than MRCI
– Not usually as accurate as MRCI
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SUMMARY OF METHODS
• Perturbation theory
– Efficient
– Size-consistent
– Often ill-behaved (e.g., non-convergent)
– Inappropriate for complex species
• Variation Theory
– Systematic and accurate
– Convergent to correct answer
– Very CPU-intensive
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FULL CI exact
answer
MCQDPT2
MP2
MCSCF
RHF/ROHF Hartree-Fock Limit
correlation
complete
basis
basis set size
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POTENTIAL ENERGY SURFACES
• Usually very complex - lots of atoms
• Most interesting are
– Stationary points (minima, transition states)
– Minimum energy paths (MEP=IRC)
connecting minima via transition state (TS)
– Trajectories starting from stationary points
• Requires
– Energy first derivatives (gradients)
– Energy second derivatives (hessians)
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LET’S TAKE A BREAK!
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FINANCIAL SUPPORT
• Air Force Office of Scientific Research
• National Science Foundation
• DoD CHSSI Software Development
• Ames Laboratory
• DoD HPC Grand Challenge Program
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