CHAPTER 5 STREAMFLOW

5.1 Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to:

Introduce the concept of streamflow.

Describe the characteristics of a hydrograph.
Present approaches to measuring streamflow.

The amount of water flowing in surface water courses at any instant of time is small in
terms of the earth's total water budget, but it is of considerable importance to those
concerned with water resources development, supply, and management. A knowledge
of the quantity and quality of streamflows is a requisite for: municipal, industrial,
agricultural, and other water supply endeavors; flood control; reservoir design and
operation; hydroelectric power generation; water-based recreation; navigation; fish
and wildlife management; drainage; the management of natural systems such as
wetlands; and water and wastewater treatment.

Streamflow is generated by precipitation during storm events and by groundwater

entering surface channels. During dry periods, streamflows are sustained by
groundwater discharges. Where groundwater reservoirs are below stream channels
often the case in arid regions streams cease to flow during protracted precipitation-
free periods. Relations between precipitation and streamflow are complex, being
influenced by the factors discussed in the foregoing chapters. As a result, many
approaches to relating these important hydrologic variables have been developed.

Field measurements of streamflow are based on the use of flow-measuring devices

such as weirs and flumes and on the measurement of channel cross-sections along with
streamflow velocities using flumes.

5.2 DRAINAGE BASIN EFFECTS

The quality and quantity of streamflow generated in a drainage basin are affected by
the basin's physical, vegetative, and climatic features.4"9 Accordingly, it is important
that the hydrologist have a good understanding of the soils, rocks, plants, topography,
land-use patterns, and other basin characteristics that influence the sequence of events
separating precipitation and runoff.

It should be pointed out, however, that while natural basin features are very important
elements in the runoff process, land-use features created by humans (e.g., housing
developments, parking lots, agricultural patterns) may, in some cases, be the dominant
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ones. Land management practices can be beneficial, such as in retarding erosion, and
they can also be detrimental when they function to accelerate natural hydrologic
processes.

5.3 THE HYDROGRAPH

Streamflow, at a given location on a water course, is represented by a hydrograph. The

continuous graph displays the properties of streamflow with respect to time, normally
obtained by means of a continuous recorder that shows stage (depth) versus time
(stage hydrograph), and is then transformed into a discharge hydrograph by
application of a rating curve. A rating curve is a curve of a river location showing the
relationship between the cross-section depth and the flow across the stream at the
same location usually taking the following form

Q = a (H-c)b (5.1)

while a, b and c are coefficients peculiar to a section determined usually by regression.

In general, the term hydrograph as used herein means discharge hydrograph.

As was shown in Fig. 1.3, the hydrograph produced in a stream is the result of various
hydrologic processes that occur during and after any precipitation event. A hydrograph
has four component elements:
(1) direct surface runoff,
(2) interflow,
(3) groundwater or base flow, and
(4) channel precipitation.

Figure 5.1 Hydrograph Definition

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The rising portion of a hydrograph is known as the concentration curve; the region in
the vicinity of the peak is called the crest segment; and the falling portion is the
recession. The shape of a hydrograph depends on precipitation pattern characteristics
and basin properties. Figure 6.1 illustrates the definitions presented.

5.4 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT FOR STREAMFLOW

Two types of units are used in measuring water flowing in streams. They are units of
discharge and units of volume. Discharge, or rate of flow, is the volume of water that
passes a particular reference point in a unit of time. Commonly used unit of discharge
measurement is cubic meters per second (m3/sec). However, other units of volume like
km3, litres and duration or time like day or hour can also be used to express discharge.
Water demand in water supply can be expressed as litres per capta per day (l/c/d) and
in irrigation water demand analysis l/s per ha of land can be used to describe rates.

5.5 MEASURING AND RECORDING STREAMFLOW

Streamflow rates may be determined using gauging devices such as flumes, weirs, and
control sections, or they may be calculated from measurements of head (depth),
velocity, and cross-sectional area. Usually, specific devices such as flumes are limited
to small streams because of problems of scale. For large stream discharge is normally
estimated by measuring velocity and using the cross-sectional area to translate this
measurement into discharge. Where flow-measuring devices are used, it is customary
to observe the head and use a rating curve to translate this into discharge. When direct
flow measurements cannot be made, discharge calculation are often facilitated by use
of velocity-area relations, chemical tracers, electrical methods, and empirical equations
such as the Manning formula.

5.5.1 VELOCITY-AREA METHOD ESTIMATION

Velocity measurements, combined with those of cross-sectional area, permit calculation

of discharge at a given stream or river location. Point flow velocities determined using
velocity-measuring devices such as the Pitot tube, dynamo- and current meter.

While point velocity measurements are important, what is desired is a method to

translate them into the average cross-sectional flow velocity. This average velocity,
when multiplied by the cross-sectional area, yields the discharge at a given stream
section. One procedure is to take point velocity measurements at numerous vertical
and horizontal positions in a cross section, plot them, and then determine velocity
contours. By calculating the areas between the contours and assigning the average of
the flow velocities of the two confining contours to these areas, a determination of
mean velocity can be made. Once this is accomplished, discharge is easily calculated.
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 Figure 5.2 Velocity area method

The river cross-section can be approximated in to series of geometric shapes (see

Fig.5.2). At each vertical location along the section, the mean velocity is estimated
from measurements. The average velocity of flow for the area between two verticals is
considered to be equal to the average mean velocities for each of the bordering
verticals. The discharge between two verticals is thus the average velocity for the
section multiplied by the area of the area. The individual discharges are then summed
to provide an estimated total flow across the channel at that location. Note that it is
important to have enough measurement to characterize the cross-section. The
procedure is illustrated in Example 5.1.

EXAMPLE 5.1

Calculate the discharge at the section given in Fig. 5.2. Data from field observations are
shown in Tables 6.1 and 6,2.

TABLE 5.3a DATA FOR EXAMPLE 5.1

VERTICAL SECTION DEPTH(M) AVG. VEL. (M/S)

0 0 0
1 4 2.1
2 5 2.3
3 7.2 2.7
4 7.4 2.8
5 7.1 2.5
6 4.7 2.2
7 0 0

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Table 5.3.b Data for example 5.1
Horizontal segment Segment width (m)
0-1 4.2
1-2 3.3
2-3 4.8
3-4 5.2
4-5 3.7
5-6 5.1
6-7 5.9

TABLE 5.3c CALCULATIONS FOR EXAMPLE 5.1

Area Horizontal Segment Area Vel. Flow

segment width (m) (sq. m.) (m/s) (m3/s)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)=(4)x(5)
Al 0-1 4.2 8.40 1.05 8.82
A2 1-2 3.3 14.85 2.20 32.67
A3 2-3 4.8 29.28 2.50 73.20
A4 3-4 5.2 37.96 2.75 104.39
A5 4-5 3.7 26.83 2.65 71.09
A6 5-6 5.1 30.09 2.35 70.71
A7 6-7 5.9 13.87 1.10 15.25
161.27 376.13

Total estimated discharge is 376.13 m3/s.

Solution. The first step is to calculate the individual section areas (Al, A2, etc.). The calculated
areas are based on the triangular or trapezoidal formulas for each sectional area. Next, the
estimated mean velocities at the verticals are multiplied by the section areas to obtain the
individual area discharges. These discharges are summed to yield an estimated 376.13 m3/s of
flow being delivered by the full channel width.

5.5.2 THE SLOPE-AREA METHOD FOR DETERMINING DISCHARGE

In some cases it is difficult to make velocity or other measurements needed to

determine discharge. This is often the case during large flood events. Under such
circumstances, it is sometimes possible to estimate the flow by taking measurements of
high water lines (after the flood event), cross-sectional areas, and channel slopes and
then using these data in an equation such as Manning's to estimate the flow. The
applicable Manning equation is

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Q AR 2 / 3 S 1 / 2 (5.2)
n
where Q = discharge (m3/s)
n = Manning's roughness coefficient [-]
A = cross-sectional area (m2)
S = the head loss per unit length of channel [-]
R = the hydraulic radius [m]
R=A/P, where P is the perimeter of the river cross- section

For streamflows, Manning's n values may range between about 0.03 and 0.15. When
reasonable determinations can be made of n, A, R, and S, the above equation can be
used to estimate the streamflow.

Example 5.2 A river of trapezoidal cross-section shown below carries a flow at a depth
of 3m, and bottom width, B=5m. If the river has an average bed slope of 0.25%,
calculate the discharge through the river. Assume Manning s coefficient n = 0.13.

River Cross-section

ground level

3
m

side slopes 1 on 1

Solution:
Flow x-sectional area, A=B*3+[½ (3*3)]*2=5*3+3*3=15+9=24 m2
Flow Perimeter, P=B+length of the two sloping banks/sides of the river
=5+[3 2]*2 =5+6*1.414=12.484m
The Hydraulic radius, R=A/p=24/12.484=1.780

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There fore applying eq. 5.2, Q AR 2 / 3 S 1 / 2
n

Q = 1/0.13 x 24 x 1.78^2/3 x 0.0025^1/2

= 13.558 m3 /sec

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5.5.3 TRACER METHOD OF ESTIMATING STREAMFLOW

If a tracer solution such as salt is injected into a stream at a constant rate and samples
are taken downstream at a point where turbulence has achieved complete mixing, with
constant concentration, Ce , the steady flow rate Q in the stream is given by
Ct
Q Qt 1 (5.3)
Ce
Where Ct is the concentration of the tracer in the dose injected into the stream at a
rate of Qt. The tracer may be a salt evaluated by titration, a dye evaluated
colorimetrically, or a radioactive element evaluated with a suitable counting device. The
procedure is well adapted to boulder-strewn streams where use of a conventional
meter is difficult.

Example 5.3. A tracer, salt of concentration 200mg/litre has been added at a rate of
10 litres/minute into a river. At downstream of the river a steady concentration of
20mg/litre has been observed in the streamflow. Estimate the discharge of the river.

Given:
Dosing rate of tracer, Qt=10 lit/min
Initial tracer concentration, Ct=200mg/l,
Steady state dose concentration Ce=20mg/l,
Required:
stream flow Q?
Ct
Solution: Applying eq. 5.3, Q Qt 1
Ce
Q = 10lit/min(200/20mg/l/mg/l 1)
= 10 lit/min*(200/20-1)
= 10 lit/min(10-1)
= 90 lit/min
Q = 90 litre per minute, or 1.5 lit/sec or 1.5x10- 3 m3 /s

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