THE INFLUENCE OF TERRORISM ON FOOD SECURITY IN NIGERIA (2015-2023).

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.0 Introduction

This chapter is divided into three primary segments. The conceptual review, the theoretical

framework, which encompasses significant theories related to terrorism, its challenges, and the

issue of food security in Nigeria.

2.1 Conceptual Review

2.1.1 Terrorism

The concept of "terrorism" is often associated with actions seen as morally unacceptable,

illegitimate, and illegal. It has evolved to capture a wide spectrum of violent as well as non-violent

acts, especially within media discourse following the September 11, 2001, attacks. Terrorist acts

can occur during both times of conflict and peace, and they may violate domestic and international

laws. A variety of motivations and ideologies drive these actions, with their classification often

influenced by the perspective of those applying the label and subject to change over time.

Historically, political figures such as Yassir Arafat and Nelson Mandela have both been classified

as terrorists by U.S. agencies at different times, despite later receiving the Nobel Peace Prize,

illustrating the political nature and contentiousness surrounding terrorism labeling (Abdullahi,

2010).

Given the intricate nature of terrorism, alongside societal and political perceptions, one must

approach the analysis of related events with caution. A critical inquiry arises: why is it important

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to address terrorism at all? Acts categorized as terrorism are typically composed of various offenses

that can be prosecuted within existing legal frameworks. For instance, an attack on an embassy

would involve unlawful possession of explosives, intentional property destruction, and potential

harm to individuals each of which constitutes a criminal violation in most legal systems.

In discussions surrounding counter-terrorism laws, Professor Matthew Palmer has previously

argued before the New Zealand Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade Committee that creating a

separate legal framework for counter-terrorism is unjustifiable. This viewpoint holds initial appeal

due to the composite nature of terrorist acts. However, some scholars argue that because of the

inherently political nature of terrorism and its significant threat to public safety, a distinction

should exist between terrorism and other criminal activities. Certain offenses cannot be adequately

prosecuted without specific definitions of terrorism or involvement in terrorist organizations, such

as the crime of providing financial support to terrorists.

Additionally, a common and unfortunate stereotype ties Islam to terrorism, encapsulated by the

saying that while not all Muslims are terrorists, all international terrorists appear to be Muslim.

Although such a statement is overly simplistic failing to capture the diversity within Islamic belief

it is evident that the contemporary wave of international terrorism, often referred to as "Global

Jihad," is frequently perpetrated by radicalized factions claiming to represent Islamic ideology.

This usage of terrorism by radical movements can be traced back to historical interpretations and

manipulations of Islamic teachings, further complicating the discourse around the faith and its

adherents.

Islam originated in the seventh century with a small community of believers in what is today Saudi

Arabia. It is rooted in the belief that the Prophet Muhammad, a merchant in Mecca in around 600

AD, received revelations from Allah (God), which were later transcribed into the Qur’an.

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Following Muhammad’s death, the Muslim community experienced significant divisions that have

shaped contemporary loyalties, primarily Sunni and Shi'ite sects. The Sunni faction represents the

majority of Muslims today, while Shi'ite Muslims recognize Ali, Muhammad’s son-in-law, as their

rightful caliph. Within Sunni Islam, four major schools of thought Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and

Hanbali developed differing interpretations of the Qur’an, ranging from moderate to radical views.

Most Muslims adhere to moderate beliefs, promoting tolerance and respect for diversity in

religious practices (Adebayo, 2013).

Within Nigeria, specifically in the Northern region, the emergence of terrorism presents a

significant threat to societal values and norms. The violent actions perpetrated against civilians,

alongside systematic property destruction, clearly violate both criminal laws and moral principles.

Since the rise of Boko Haram (BH), an extremist group founded by Mohammed Yusuf in 2002,

their actions have been widely condemned both locally and internationally due to their brutal

assaults on innocent citizens, which have resulted in substantial loss of life, widespread suffering,

and destruction of property. For instance, a report by Leadership Newspaper on February 26, 2014,

indicated that over 300 people, including students, were killed in February 2014 alone.

Additionally, the complete destruction of the Federal Government College in Buni-Yadi, located

in Yobe state, exemplifies the group’s strategy of targeting soft, vulnerable locations such as

schools and rural communities. The recent alarming trend of abductions targeting women and

schoolgirl has further complicated the sect’s operations and escalated its implications for society.

2.1.2 Food Security

Food security, as defined during the World Food Summit of 1996, is a condition where all

individuals have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food to meet their

dietary needs and preferences for an active and healthy life (FAO, 1996). This definition

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encompasses three fundamental dimensions: stability, accessibility, and availability. Within the

context of this study, food security is conceptualized to integrate not only the capacity to cultivate

food items but also the guarantee of food accessibility at all times and the ability to afford food

necessary for well-being.

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) asserts that food security can be realized by

ensuring adequate food supplies concerning quantity, quality, and diversity; optimizing the inflow

of these supplies; and securing sustainable access to those who need them (Food Security Policy

Brief, 2006). However, various factors—such as natural disasters, armed conflict, and terrorist

activities can severely hinder the achievement of sustainable food access and availability in any

given environment.

Food security is a complicated issue that is crucial for the overall stability and health of

communities, particularly in conflict-affected regions like northeastern Nigeria. In the context of

Nigeria, recent studies have highlighted the interconnectedness between food security and the

prevailing insecurity brought about by terrorism. For instance, the International Crisis Group

(2020) underscores the direct link between the ongoing insecurity and escalating food insecurity

among the displaced populations and rural communities. As insurgent activities continue, farmland

remains neglected, agricultural inputs are unattainable due to the violence, and markets are

disrupted. Farming communities are disbanded, leading to acute shortages of locally produced

food (World Food Programme, 2021).

Moreover, the numerous attacks on farms and agricultural workers have created an atmosphere of

fear that discourages individuals from engaging in agricultural activities. This unrest not only

undermines food production but also places a heavy burden on market systems and food supply

chains (Kukah, 2020). As communities flee to safer urban areas, they often find themselves in

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Internally Displaced Persons (IDP) camps, where limited resources and insufficient food aid lead

to dire living conditions. Humanitarian agencies struggle to meet the escalating needs of these

populations, and the consequences become particularly dire for women and children, who bear the

brunt of food deprivation (Oduwole, 2021).

A key contributing factor to food insecurity in Nigeria is poverty, which has been exacerbated by

ongoing violence. Many households, finding themselves caught in the circle of poverty, identify

food as a crucial yet limited asset. Ahmed and Sathia Raj (2022) discuss how economic and food

security are inextricably linked, especially in regions experiencing heightened levels of violence.

The spiraling rates of inflation, compounded by conflict-induced disruptions, have driven food

prices to levels that many families cannot afford, further entrenching them in a cycle of

deprivation. In the face of these challenges, agricultural recovery and resilience-building initiatives

have become paramount for restoring food security. Recent literature emphasizes the importance

of targeted interventions such as sustainable agricultural practices, improved access to agricultural

technology, and training programs tailored for farmers in conflict-affected areas (Olanrewaju,

2022). By fostering an environment where local farmers can safely grow crops and engage in

market activities, communities can begin to rebuild their food systems, mitigate the impacts of

terrorism, and restore livelihoods.

2.2 Overview of the Influence of Terrorism on Food Security in Nigeria

The period from 2015 to 2023 has highlighted the devastating impact of terrorism particularly the

actions of Boko Haram on food security in Nigeria. This ongoing conflict not only poses immediate

threats to lives but also destabilizes the socio-economic fabric of affected communities, directly

impairing agricultural production and overall food availability (Oduwole, 2021). The

consequences of this insurgency extend far beyond immediate violence; they reverberate through

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the entire food system, creating a complex web of challenges that exacerbate existing

vulnerabilities among the population.

With persistent insecurity, many farmers find themselves unable to engage in agricultural activities

due to overwhelming fears for their safety. Frequent attacks on farms, coupled with abductions and

the wanton destruction of crops, create an atmosphere of terror that discourages agricultural

investment and participation. Reports indicate that as farms lay fallow and productivity declines,

local food supplies dwindle, leading to a severe scarcity of available food (Food and Agriculture

Organization, 2022). The resulting chain of events pushes millions of Nigerians into a desperate

state of food insecurity and heightens dependence on humanitarian aid for survival.

Humanitarian organizations have repeatedly noted that millions of people, particularly in

northeastern Nigeria, are facing acute levels of food insecurity exacerbated by Boko Haram's

violent campaign. A World Food Programme (2021) assessment illustrates that nearly 4 million

individuals in the region are classified as food insecure, with conditions worsening as insurgent

violence continues. The struggles of displaced populations, particularly women and children, are

increasingly dire as they grapple with the loss of livelihoods and the persistent threat of violence.

With limited access to resources, many families find themselves caught in a cycle of despair and

hopelessness.

Furthermore, food insecurity, while a consequence of the violence, also reinforces the very cycle

of conflict that leads individuals toward extremist ideologies. As desperation mounts, those

affected by food insecurity may become more susceptible to recruitment by militants who present

themselves as solutions to their problems. The promise of security, resources, or a sense of

belonging can lure individuals into the fold of extremist groups, creating a vicious cycle that

perpetuates both violence and hunger (Mastrorillo et al., 2022).

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The humanitarian sector faces significant obstacles in responding effectively to these urgent needs.

Aid organizations often encounter considerable risks when delivering food assistance in unstable

regions, which can result in logistical challenges, delayed responses, and inadequate support for

those who rely on this aid to survive. The precarious security environment not only restricts access

to affected areas but can also lead to attacks on aid workers, further complicating relief efforts

(Adebayo, 2023). As the cycle of violence continues, the capacity of humanitarian agencies to

address food insecurity diminishes, exacerbating disenfranchisement among vulnerable

populations and potentially igniting social unrest.

Families grappling with the effects of food insecurity often face soaring food prices, which further

drive them deeper into poverty. Economic instability, marked by inflation and market disruptions,

makes nutritious food unattainable for countless households. This economic strain leads to an

increase in malnutrition rates, particularly among children, pregnant women, and nursing mothers

groups that are especially vulnerable to the adverse effects of food deprivation. According to the

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF, 2022), rising malnutrition levels can have long-lasting

impacts on cognitive and physical development in children, creating a "lost generation" that may

struggle to overcome the challenges caused by both violence and hunger.

The health repercussions of food insecurity are profound. Families forced to make difficult choices

about what to eat often resort to low-nutrient foods, leaving them susceptible to a range of health

issues that can further hinder their ability to participate in economic activities and perpetuate the

cycle of poverty. The lack of consistent access to affordable and nutritious food not only affects

immediate health outcomes but can also have long-term developmental consequences, laying the

groundwork for future cycles of poverty and violence (Olanrewaju et al., 2022).

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In sum, the influence of terrorism on food security in Nigeria between 2015 and 2023 underscores

a complex challenge that demands urgent and comprehensive intervention. Addressing food

insecurity in this context requires integrated strategies that promote both immediate humanitarian

assistance and long-term resilience-building efforts. Community-based agricultural programs,

investment in security measures, and policies that aim to stabilize local economies are critical steps

needed to disrupt this cycle of violence and hunger, ensuring a more secure and sustainable future

for affected populations.

2.3 Theoretical Review

The intricate relationship between terrorism and food security in Nigeria cannot be fully

understood through a single theoretical lens. Instead, several relevant theories can elucidate the

various dimensions of how terrorism affects food security within this context. This section reviews

key theories that provide insights into this phenomenon.

2.3.1 Human Security Theory

The Human Security Theory emerged as an alternative to traditional state-centric security models,

shifting the focus from national security to the security of individuals and communities (UNDP,

1994). The theory posits that threats to human security, including terrorism, disrupt the essential

conditions necessary for people’s well-being, such as access to food, healthcare, and shelter (Paris,

2001). In the Nigerian context, terrorism, particularly attacks by Boko Haram and bandit groups,

has severely disrupted food production and supply chains, displacing farmers and creating an

atmosphere of fear that prevents normal agricultural activities. The persistent insecurity in rural

farming communities has contributed to declining agricultural output, food price inflation, and

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heightened food insecurity (Omeje, 2017). By using the human security framework, we understand

how terrorism destabilizes livelihoods and exacerbates food insecurity in Nigeria.

The implications of this disruption extend beyond immediate food access; they penetrate deep into

the socio-economic fabric of affected communities. Increased violence and insecurity have forced

many families to abandon their farms, leading to loss of agricultural knowledge and a decline in

traditional farming practices, which further exacerbates the cycle of poverty and insecurity.

Additionally, the psychological toll on communities living under constant threat has resulted in

diminished social cohesion, making collective agricultural efforts more difficult. Internally

displaced persons (IDPs) often struggle to integrate into new environments, facing barriers to

employment and agricultural opportunities, which leads to increased competition for dwindling

resources. Furthermore, the challenges posed by terrorism have prompted a reactive policy focus

from the government, often prioritizing military responses over sustainable humanitarian and

developmental measures. This shift can undermine long-term food security strategies, aggravating

the plight of vulnerable populations. Understanding the intricate relationship between terrorism

and human security in Nigeria is crucial for developing holistic solutions that address not just

immediate security concerns but also the underlying socio-economic issues that threaten the well-

being of countless individuals.

2.3.2 Conflict Theory

Conflict Theory, developed by Karl Marx and later expanded by scholars such as Coser (1956)

and Dahrendorf (1959), explains social issues in terms of power struggles and resource

competition. This theory is useful in analyzing how terrorism, often linked to socio-economic and

political grievances, affects food security. In Nigeria, conflicts between terrorist groups,

government forces, and local communities frequently revolve around access to land, resources,

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and political control. Terrorist activities in the country’s northeastern and northwestern regions

have led to the destruction of farmlands, killings of farmers, and large-scale displacement (Aliyu,

2020). The disruption of agricultural activities, coupled with the forced migration of farming

populations, has contributed to declining food production, famine risks, and reliance on external

food aid. This theory highlights the underlying socio-economic disparities and power struggles

that fuel both terrorism and food insecurity in Nigeria.

Conflict Theory also allows to delve deeper into the socio-political dynamics at play. The

competition for resources often pits different groups against each other, not just between terrorists

and the state but also among local communities that may vie for control over diminishing

agricultural land and water supplies. Marginalized groups, feeling disenfranchised, may turn to

terrorist organizations as a means of asserting their power and addressing grievances related to

land rights, social injustice, and economic disenfranchisement. This situation fosters cycles of

violence and retaliation that further destabilize agricultural systems and food security.

Additionally, government responses often exacerbate situations rather than resolve them; heavy-

handed tactics can alienate local populations and push them toward radicalization. By applying

Conflict Theory, we can better understand the interconnectedness of these issues and the necessity

of addressing the root causes of both terrorism and food insecurity to foster stability.

2.3.3 Eco-Violence Theory

The Eco-Violence Theory, introduced by Homer-Dixon (1999), posits that environmental

degradation and resource scarcity contribute to violent conflicts. This theory is relevant to

understanding how terrorism intersects with food security, particularly in regions experiencing

climate change-induced droughts and desertification. In northern Nigeria, where agricultural

activities depend on rainfall, worsening climate conditions have led to reduced agricultural yields

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and intensified competition over scarce resources (Abubakar, 2016). Terrorist groups exploit these

vulnerabilities by recruiting disenfranchised youths, exacerbating conflicts between farmers and

herders, and attacking food supply chains. The Eco-Violence Theory helps explain how

environmental stressors, compounded by terrorism, contribute to food insecurity in Nigeria.

Moreover, the interaction between environmental pressures and terrorism underscores the need for

a multidisciplinary approach to conflict resolution. As natural resources become scarcer due to

climate change, tensions between various groups—particularly pastoralists and sedentary

farmers—heighten. These tensions can lead to violent confrontations, further destabilizing regions

already struggling with insecurity and effectively rendering agricultural efforts nearly impossible.

The exploitation of resource scarcity by terrorist factions not only serves their strategic objectives

but also deepens the humanitarian crisis, leading to widespread hunger and displacement. This

highlights the urgent need for addressing environmental issues alongside security concerns to

establish a more sustainable path towards food security in the region.

2.3.4 Political Economy Theory

The Political Economy Theory examines how political structures and economic policies shape

societal outcomes, including food security. This theory suggests that terrorism not only results

from economic inequalities but also deepens them by disrupting trade, investment, and agricultural

production (Collier & Hoeffler, 2004). In Nigeria, terrorist activities have crippled local

economies, reduced government revenue from affected regions, and diverted public funds toward

military operations rather than agricultural development (Ucha, 2010). The destruction of

infrastructure such as roads, markets, and storage facilities has further disrupted food distribution

networks, leading to increased food shortages and price volatility. The Political Economy Theory

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provides a comprehensive lens for analyzing how terrorism-driven economic disruptions impact

food security in Nigeria.

Furthermore, the theory emphasizes the systemic nature of the issues at hand, illustrating how

political decisions can either mitigate or exacerbate vulnerabilities to terrorism and food insecurity.

For instance, the allocation of resources heavily favors military expenditures over investments in

agriculture, education, and infrastructure development, which could enable communities to build

resilience against both terror and food scarcity. This indicates the importance of governance and

policy-making in addressing fundamental inequalities that fuel conflict and instability. By

applying Political Economy Theory, we can not only critique current responses to terrorism but

also advocate for comprehensive reforms that focus on equitable resource distribution, support for

local agricultural initiatives, and sustainable development practices that encompass the needs of

all stakeholders involved. Addressing these systemic issues will be crucial in fostering a more

secure and food-secure future for Nigeria.

2.4 Theoretical Framework

This study adopts Human Security Theory as its theoretical framework due to its holistic approach

to understanding how terrorism affects food security. By emphasizing individual and community

well-being, the Human Security Theory captures the direct and indirect effects of terrorism on

food production, access, and availability.

One critical aspect of human security theory is its focus on the vulnerabilities faced by

marginalized populations in conflict-affected areas. In Nigeria, for instance, rural communities

often bear the brunt of terrorist activities, leading to displacement and the breakdown of

agricultural practices. This theory enables a deeper exploration of how the loss of land and

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resources translates into reduced food security and increased dependency on external aid, which

in turn perpetuates cycles of poverty and insecurity. Moreover, the theory accounts for the

psychological impacts of terrorism, which can lead to diminished community cohesion and the

erosion of traditional support networks essential for food production and distribution.

Adopting human security theory encourages a comprehensive examination of the broader socio-

political context surrounding food insecurity in Nigeria. It prompts inquiries into how government

policies, local governance, and international interventions may either mitigate or exacerbate the

impacts of terrorism on food systems. By acknowledging the multi-dimensional nature of food

security encompassing not just availability but also access and utilization this framework fosters

an examination of the obstacles that various communities face in striving for food sovereignty and

resilience.

2.4.1 Relevance of the Theory to the Study

The Human Security Theory is particularly relevant because it acknowledges that security threats

extend beyond military confrontations to include economic, social, and environmental dimensions.

In Nigeria, terrorist activities have led to forced displacement, destruction of farmlands, and

restricted access to markets, all of which undermine food security. By applying this theory, the

study highlights how the fear and disruption caused by terrorism directly impact agricultural

productivity, food availability, and overall human well-being.

Additionally, this theory helps in understanding the broader implications of terrorism, such as

malnutrition, loss of livelihoods, and increased reliance on humanitarian aid. Given that Nigeria’s

food security crisis is deeply tied to ongoing terrorist threats, the Human Security Theory offers a

robust framework for analyzing and addressing these challenges.

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2.4.2 Criticism of the Theory

One major criticism of the Human Security Theory is its broad and sometimes vague definition of

security, making it difficult to formulate specific policy interventions (Newman, 2010). Critics

argue that the theory lacks precise analytical tools to measure and address security threats

effectively. Additionally, some scholars contend that the focus on individual security may divert

attention from structural issues, such as governance failures and economic inequalities, which also

contribute to food insecurity.

Despite these criticisms, the Human Security Theory remains a valuable framework for

understanding the complex relationship between terrorism and food security in Nigeria. By

centering the well-being of individuals and communities, the theory provides a comprehensive

perspective on how to mitigate the adverse effects of terrorism on food security.

2.5 Empirical Review

Research into the influence of terrorism on food security in Nigeria has gained increasing scholarly

attention, especially considering the protracted insurgency by Boko Haram and other violent non-

state actors between 2015 and 2023. Scholars have documented that terrorism significantly

deteriorates agricultural productivity, disrupts food supply chains, and exacerbates displacement,

all of which undermine food security in affected regions. This body of work reflects growing

concerns over how ongoing violence hampers Nigeria’s efforts to achieve food self-sufficiency

and rural resilience.

A study conducted by Aliyu (2020) employed a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative

analysis of agricultural output data with qualitative interviews of farmers and security officials in

northeastern Nigeria, particularly Borno State. The quantitative component analyzed trends in crop

14
yields, displacement figures, and food availability metrics from 2015 to 2020, utilizing government

records, FAO reports, and field surveys. The qualitative interviews aimed to capture farmers’

perceptions of insecurity and their coping mechanisms. The findings indicated a sharp decline of

about 40% in crop yields during years of intense insurgency, largely attributable to targeted attacks

on farmlands, markets, and transportation routes. Displacement also disrupted land ownership and

access, forcing many farmers to abandon their farms or switch to subsistence farming. The study

concluded that terrorism directly reduces food production capacity and increases food insecurity

among vulnerable populations.

Similarly, Omale (2021) adopted a case study approach, focusing on the displacement of farming

communities in Yobe and Adamawa states. The research involved analyzing satellite imagery to

observe changes in cultivated land, alongside surveys of displaced households to assess food

security status. Results revealed a 35% reduction in arable land within conflict zones, coinciding

with increased food shortages and nutritional deficits among displaced populations. The study

highlighted that the destruction of infrastructure and the persistent threat of violence discourage

agricultural investments and expansion, leading to long-term food insecurity. Both studies

underscore that terrorism’s impact extends beyond immediate violence, affecting land use,

economic livelihoods, and community stability—factors essential for sustainable food security.

A longitudinal investigation by Yaro and colleagues (2021) employed a comprehensive use of

secondary data analysis to assess the impact of terrorism on food security across Nigeria’s north-

eastern states from 2015 to 2022. The study relied on data compiled from the Nigerian Bureau of

Statistics, the FAO, and internal security reports, focusing on key indicators such as agricultural

output levels, displacement statistics, food price inflation, and incident reports of terrorist

activity. The researchers utilized time-series analysis and correlation techniques to examine the

15
relationship between terrorist incidents and food security metrics over time. The findings

demonstrated a consistent and statistically significant negative correlation between the frequency

of terrorist attacks and agricultural productivity, with a correlation coefficient of -0.65 (p < 0.01).

During periods of escalated violence, crop yields declined sharply—up to 50% in worst-hit

zones—while food prices concurrently spiked by approximately 30%, especially for staple foods

like maize and rice. The displacement of farming communities, often due to insurgent attacks on

villages and farms, increasingly led to a shortage of available labor, further reducing local food

production capacity. The study found evidence of deteriorating nutritional outcomes, with a rise

in food scarcity-related malnutrition among children in conflict zones. The spatial analysis

revealed that regions with the highest frequency of terrorist incidents consistently recorded the

lowest food security scores, indicating that terrorism exacerbates food insecurity through

multiple channels—displacement, destruction of infrastructure, and disruption of supply chains.

The researchers recommended integrated policy responses focused on enhancing security, land

restoration, and direct food aid targeting the most affected communities. They also emphasized

the importance of multi-stakeholder engagement involving local governments, security agencies,

and community leaders to rebuild resilience and recovery in these volatile regions.

A study by Ojo (2023) adopted a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative data analysis

with in-depth qualitative interviews in northeastern Nigeria from 2018 to 2023, focusing on how

terrorism impacts farmers' productivity and food security. Quantitative data from the Nigerian

Bureau of Statistics and NGOs indicated that regions experiencing frequent attacks saw crop yields

decrease by up to 50%, alongside increased food prices and household hunger. Interviews revealed

that farmers faced constant threats to their lives and lands, leading many to abandon large-scale

farming for subsistence activities or cease farming altogether, driven by fear and insecurity. The

16
study concluded that terrorism exerts a direct negative influence on agricultural productivity and

community food security, emphasizing the need for security stabilization and targeted support for

vulnerable farmers to rebuild resilience.

Similarly, a satellite imagery analysis conducted by Adeyemi (2022) tracked changes in cultivated

land in Yobe and Borno states over a span of five years, revealing a 30% reduction in farmland

attributable to insurgent attacks, destruction of infrastructure, and displacement. The spatial data

illustrated that the most affected areas corresponded with significant drops in local food

production, amplifying food shortages and malnutrition cases. Findings underscore that

environmental degradation—such as deforestation and land abandonment—caused by ongoing

terrorism worsens agricultural capacity, creating a vicious cycle that hampers recovery efforts in

Nigeria’s conflict zones. The research urges integrated efforts involving security, environmental

management, and rural development to promote food resilience.

Lastly, a comprehensive review by Nnamani. (2023) focused on food price volatility in Nigeria

amid the insurgency, analyzing data from 2015 to 2022. Utilizing econometric models, the

researchers found that spikes in terrorist incidents were followed by sharp increases in staple

food prices, with a lag of about two months. The findings demonstrated a causative relationship

between violence levels and inflation in food markets, burdening low-income households and

escalating hunger crises. The paper recommended strengthening supply chain security,

expanding social safety nets, and implementing economic policies that stabilize food prices in

conflict-affected communities, to mitigate terrorism’s long-term impact on food affordability and

nutrition.

A study by Eze and Onwuka (2024) employed a qualitative case study methodology to explore

community perceptions and resilience strategies among displaced farming households in

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Adamawa and Yobe states between 2020 and 2023. Through in-depth interviews, focus group

discussions, and participant observations, the researchers uncovered that recurrent insurgent

attacks and threats of violence have fostered widespread fear, leading many farmers to abandon

their lands or shift to less productive subsistence farming. The qualitative data revealed that

communities adopted coping strategies such as reliance on food aid, wild foods, and migration,

but these solutions were often short-lived and unsustainable. The study concluded that persistent

insecurity undermines community resilience, exacerbating food insecurity and malnutrition in

conflict zones, and recommended comprehensive peacebuilding and community empowerment

programs to sustain food security.

In a quantitative study by Ibrahim (2022), panel data analysis was conducted on 15 Nigerian states

from 2015 to 2021 to examine the correlation between terrorist incident frequency and food

security indicators such as household hunger, malnutrition rates, and crop yields. The findings

showed a significant negative relationship (p < 0.05), with higher incidences of terrorist attacks

correlating with lower crop production—up to 40% decline in worst-affected states—and

increased rates of food insecurity by over 25%. The analysis underscored that as terrorist activities

intensified, states experienced greater displacement, market disruptions, and reduced agricultural

investment, cumulatively worsening Nigeria’s overall food security. The authors recommend

targeted interventions to improve security, rural infrastructure, and market access in conflict-

affected areas.

Finally, a review by Nwachukwu (2023) examined the role of international aid and NGO-led

interventions from 2015 to 2023 in alleviating terrorism’s impacts on food security in

northeastern Nigeria. The analysis integrated project reports, beneficiary feedback, and field

surveys across conflict zones, revealing that while aid programs provided immediate relief

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through food distributions and agricultural inputs, their effectiveness was hampered by ongoing

insecurity, limited access, and logistical challenges. The findings indicated that without

concurrent efforts to stabilize security and rebuild infrastructure, aid interventions could only

achieve short-term gains rather than sustainable food security improvements. The study called

for integrated approaches that combine security, development, and community participation to

create resilient food systems amid ongoing conflict.

A study by Chijioke and Olatunji (2025) utilized a mixed-methods approach, combining

quantitative trend analysis of food production data with qualitative interviews with farmers and

local leaders in conflict-affected regions from 2015 to 2023. Quantitative analysis revealed that

regions experiencing frequent terrorist attacks faced an average decline of 45% in staple crop

yields during periods of heightened insurgency, alongside increased food prices and food import

dependence. Qualitative interviews highlighted that persistent insecurity discourages large-scale

farming, disrupts supply chains, and hampers access to markets, further deepening food insecurity.

The study recommends policy options focused on enhancing rural security, promoting food

diversification, and strengthening farmers’ access to markets to mitigate terrorism’s impact on

Nigeria’s food security landscape.

Similarly, a satellite-based land use study by Okafor (2023) analyzed changes in farmland extent

in northeastern Nigeria from 2017 to 2022, showing a 35% decrease in cultivated areas due to

insurgent activities, destruction of farmland, and displacement of farming communities. The

spatial analysis confirmed that the most severely affected zones corresponded with the highest

incidences of food shortages and nutritional deficiencies. The environmental degradation caused

by ongoing violence—such as deforestation and land abandonment—further compromised local

19
food production capacities. The findings emphasized integrating environmental recovery programs

with security strategies to restore sustainable agriculture and food resilience in conflict zones.

A comprehensive review by Ezeh (2024) examined Nigeria’s food price inflation data from 2015

to 2023 in relation to violence levels reported by security agencies. Using causality testing and

econometric modeling, the study demonstrated that periods of intensified terrorist activity were

followed by significant spikes in food prices, especially for staples like maize, rice, and beans,

with a lag of two months. Prices increased by an average of 20–30%, impacting especially low-

income households and heightening food insecurity. The paper recommends implementing supply

chain protections, social safety nets, and targeted price stabilization policies to buffer the

vulnerable populations from shocks caused by terrorism.

A study by Okezie (2024) adopted a quantitative cross-sectional survey methodology, collecting

data from 250 households across conflict-affected areas in northeastern Nigeria in 2024. The

survey employed structured questionnaires to assess household food consumption patterns, coping

strategies, displacement status, and perceptions of security threats. Descriptive statistics and

logistic regression analysis revealed that households experiencing displacement due to insurgent

attacks were 60% more likely to experience severe food insecurity, including skipping meals and

reducing food intake. The study concluded that insecurity directly influences food access at the

household level, and recommended targeted interventions such as security enhancement,

livelihood support, and community-based disaster risk reduction to combat food insecurity.

Similarly, a study by Adebayo and Salawu (2025) used remote sensing and GIS (Geographic

Information System) techniques to analyze land use changes in Borno and Yobe states from 2017

to 2022. Landsat satellite imagery data were processed to identify cultivated land, fallow land, and

deforestation caused by insurgency-related activities. Results showed a 30% reduction in arable

20
land, with increased land degradation and forest destruction directly linked to terrorist incursions

and military confrontations. The findings underscore that environmental degradation exacerbates

food insecurity by reducing available farmland and disrupting ecological balance, suggesting a

need for integrated environmental and security strategies to sustain agriculture.

Nwosu (2024) using time-series data on food prices, terrorist incident reports, and displacement

figures from 2015 to 2023 across Nigeria’s northern states. The study employed Vector

Autoregression (VAR) and Granger causality tests to analyze the relationships between variables.

Results indicated that terrorist incidents Granger-cause increases in staple food prices, with a two-

month lag, and an increase in violence correlates with reduced crop yields and higher malnutrition

rates. The findings highlight the economic destabilization caused by terrorism, emphasizing the

importance of stabilizing food markets through security reforms and economic resilience programs

in conflict-affected regions.

2.6 Research Gap

Several potential research gaps exist regarding the influence of terrorism on food security in

Nigeria from 2015 to 2023:

a. Geographical Focus: Most existing literature tends to concentrate on the northeastern

region of Nigeria, particularly areas heavily impacted by Boko Haram. However, there is

a need for research that examines the effects of terrorism on food security in other regions,

such as the northwestern states, where banditry and rural violence are prevalent. A broader

geographical analysis could yield valuable insights into the varying impacts of different

forms of terrorism on food security across Nigeria.

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 b. Temporal Dynamics: While numerous studies provide a snapshot of the situation during

specific periods, there is a lack of longitudinal studies that track the influence of terrorism

on food security over time. Research that examines trends and changes in food security in

relation to the evolving landscape of terrorism would contribute to a deeper understanding

of the issue and inform future interventions.

c. Interconnected Factors: Much of the current research tends to isolate terrorism as a primary

factor affecting food security, without adequately exploring the interconnected socio-

economic and environmental factors that contribute to vulnerability. Investigating how

economic inequality, climate change, and governance issues intersect with terrorism to

impact food security could provide a more comprehensive view of the crisis.

d. Policy Evaluation: There is limited scholarly attention on the effectiveness of government

policies and initiatives designed to address the impacts of terrorism on food security.

Studies that evaluate the success or failure of these policies, including their implementation

and community reception, could illuminate gaps in the current approach and suggest areas

for improvement.

e. Community Resilience and Agency: Existing literature often portrays affected

communities as passive victims of terrorism and food insecurity. More research is needed

that explores local communities’ resilience strategies, coping mechanisms, and agency in

the face of terrorism. Understanding how communities adapt and respond to these

challenges can inform more effective, community-driven interventions.

Addressing these research gaps could provide a more robust understanding of the complexities

surrounding the influence of terrorism on food security in Nigeria.

2.7 Chapter Summary

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This chapter has reviewed selected existing literature on the influence of terrorism on food security

in Nigeria, highlighting the significant challenges faced by agricultural communities due to

ongoing violence. The impacts of terrorism extend beyond immediate disruptions to food

production, affecting economic stability and community cohesion. Future research should focus

on broader geographical analyses, longitudinal studies, and the exploration of interconnected

factors that influence food security. Additionally, evaluating policy responses and examining

community resilience will be crucial in developing effective strategies to combat the pervasive

effects of terrorism on food security in Nigeria. By addressing these gaps, scholars and

policymakers can work towards solutions that not only alleviate food insecurity but also enhance

the resilience of vulnerable populations.

23
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